Sexuality in India: Difference between revisions

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{{More citations needed|date=September 2019}}
{{Original research|date=September 2020}}
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{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
[[India]] has developed its discourse on sexuality differently based on its distinct regions with their own unique cultures.
 
[[India]] has developed its discourse on sexuality differently based on its distinct regions with their own unique cultures. According to R.P. Bhatia, a [[New Delhi]] psychoanalyst and psychotherapist, middle-class India's "very strong repressive attitude" has made it impossible for many married couples to function well sexually, or even to function at all.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/04/22/world/sexual-repression-in-the-land-of-the-kama-sutra.html|title=Sexual Repression in the Land of the Kama Sutra|last1=Stevens|first1=William K.|date=1983-04-22|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-21|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>


== Background ==
== Background ==
The seeming contradictions of Indian attitudes towards sex (more broadly - sexuality) can be best explained through the context of history. India played a role in shaping understandings of sexuality, and it could be argued that one of the first pieces of literature that treated "[[Kama]]" as science came from the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Vātsyāyana, Richard F Burton, and ibn M. 'Umar. The Kama Sutra. New York: Diadem Books, 1984. Print.</ref> It may be argued that historically, India pioneered the use of [[sexual education]] through various art forms like sculptures,<ref>Sahai, Surendra.1999. Khajuraho: The Art of Love, Prakash Book Depot</ref> paintings, and pieces of literature. As in all societies, there was a difference in sexual practices in India between common people and powerful rulers, with people in power often indulging in "self-gratification" lifestyles that were not representative of common moral attitudes. Moreover, there are distinct cultural differences seen through the course of history across India.
The seeming contradictions of Indian attitudes towards sex (more broadly – sexuality) can be best explained through the context of history. India played a role in shaping understandings of sexuality, and it could be argued that one of the first pieces of literature that treated ''"[[Kama]]"'' as science came from the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Vātsyāyana, Richard F Burton, and ibn M. 'Umar. The Kama Sutra. New York: Diadem Books, 1984. Print.</ref> It may be argued that historically, India pioneered the use of [[sexual education]] through various art forms like sculptures,<ref>Sahai, Surendra.1999. Khajuraho: The Art of Love, Prakash Book Depot</ref> paintings, pieces of literature. As in all societies, there was a difference in sexual practices in India between common people and powerful rulers, with people in power often indulging in "self-gratification" lifestyles that were not representative of common moral attitudes. Moreover, there are distinct cultural differences seen through the course of history across India.


== Ancient times ==
== Ancient times ==
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  | footer = [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho Hindu and Jain temple complex]] is famous for erotic arts.  
  | footer = [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho Hindu and Jain temple complex]] is famous for erotic arts.
  | image1 = Kamasutra 106.jpg
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  | image2 = Khajuraho-Lakshmana Temple erotic detal1.JPG
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  |image3 = 2 Erotic Kama statues of Khajuraho Hindu Temple de Lakshmana Khajurâho India 2013.jpg
  |image3 = 2 Erotic Kama statues of Khajuraho Hindu Temple de Lakshmana Khajurâho India 2013.jpg
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The origins of the current Indian culture can be traced back to the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], which was contemporaneous with the [[ancient Egypt]]ian and [[Sumer]]ian civilisations, around 2700 BCE. During this period, the first evidence of attitudes towards sex comes from the ancient texts of [[Hinduism]]. These ancient texts, the [[Rig Veda]] among few others, reveal moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fertility prayers. The epics of ancient India, the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], which may have been first composed as early as 500 BCE, had a huge effect on the [[culture of Asia]], influencing later [[History of China|Chinese]], [[History of Japan|Japanese]], [[Tibetan culture]] and [[History of Southeast Asia|South East Asian]] culture. These texts support the view that in ancient India, sex was considered a mutual duty between a married couple, where husband and wife pleasured each other equally, but where sex was considered a private affair, at least by followers of the aforementioned Indian religions.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} It seems that [[polygamy]] was allowed during ancient times. In practice, this seems to have only been practiced by rulers, with common people maintaining a monogamous marriage. It is common in many cultures for a ruling class to practice both [[polyandry]] and [[polygyny]] as a way of preserving dynastic succession.
The origins of the current Indian culture can be traced back to the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], which was contemporaneous with the [[ancient Egypt]]ian and [[Sumer]]ian civilisations, around 2700 BCE. During this period, the first evidence of attitudes towards sex comes from the ancient texts of [[Hinduism]]. These ancient texts, the [[Rig Veda]] among few others, reveal moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fertility prayers. The epics of ancient India, the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], which may have been first composed as early as 500 BCE, had a huge effect on the [[culture of Asia]], influencing later [[History of China|Chinese]], [[History of Japan|Japanese]], [[Tibetan culture]] and [[History of Southeast Asia|South East Asian]] culture. These texts support the view that in ancient India, sex was considered a mutual duty between a married couple, where husband and wife pleasured each other equally, but where sex was considered a private affair, at least by followers of the aforementioned Indian religions. It seems that [[polygamy]] was allowed during ancient times. In practice, this seems to have only been practiced by rulers, with common people maintaining a monogamous marriage. It is common in many cultures for a ruling class to practice both [[polyandry]] and [[polygyny]] as a way of preserving dynastic succession.


[[Nudity]] in art was considered acceptable in southern India, as shown by the paintings at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] and the sculptures of the time. It is likely that as in most countries with [[tropical]] climates, Indians from some regions did not need to wear clothes, and other than for [[fashion]], there was no practical need to cover the upper half of the body. This is supported by historical evidence, which shows that men in many parts of ancient India mostly dressed only the lower half of their bodies with clothes and upper part of body was covered by gold and precious stones, jewellery, while women used to wear traditional sarees made of silk and expensive clothes as a symbol of their wealth.
[[Nudity]] in art was considered acceptable in southern India, as shown by the paintings at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] and the sculptures of the time. It is likely that as in most countries with [[tropical]] climates, Indians from some regions did not need to wear clothes, and other than for [[fashion]], there was no practical need to cover the upper half of the body. This is supported by historical evidence, which shows that men in many parts of ancient India mostly dressed only the lower half of their bodies with clothes and upper part of body was covered by gold and precious stones, jewellery, while women used to wear traditional sarees made of silk and expensive clothes as a symbol of their wealth.


As Indian civilisation further developed and the writing of the [[Upanishads]] around 500&nbsp;BCE, it was somewhere between the 1st and 6th centuries that the [[Kama Sutra]], originally known as Vatsyayana Kamasutram ('Vatsyayana's Aphorisms on Love'), was written.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} This philosophical work on kama shastra, or 'science of love', was intended as both an exploration of human desire, including infidelity, and a technical guide to pleasing a sexual partner within a marriage. This is not the only example of such a work in [[ancient India]], but is the most widely known in modern times. It is probably during this period that the text spread to ancient [[China]], along with [[Buddhist]] scriptures, where Chinese versions were written.
As Indian civilisation further developed and the writing of the [[Upanishads]] around 500&nbsp;BCE, it was somewhere between the 1st and 6th centuries that the [[Kama Sutra]], originally known as Vatsyayana Kamasutram ('Vatsyayana's Aphorisms on Love'), was written.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} This philosophical work on ''kama shastra'', or 'science of love', was intended as both an exploration of human desire, including infidelity, and a technical guide to pleasing a sexual partner within a marriage. This is not the only example of such a work in [[ancient India]], but is the most widely known in modern times. It is probably during this period that the text spread to ancient [[China]], along with [[Buddhist]] scriptures, where Chinese versions were written.


It is also during 10th century to 12th century that some of India's most famous ancient works of art were produced, often freely depicting romantic themes and situations. Examples of this include the depiction of [[Apsaras]], roughly equivalent to [[nymph]]s or [[Siren (mythology)|siren]]s in [[Europe]]an and [[Arabic]] mythology, on some ancient temples. The best and most famous example of this can be seen at the [[Khajuraho]] complex in central India built around 9th to 12th century.
It is also during 10th century to 12th century that some of India's most famous ancient works of art were produced, often freely depicting romantic themes and situations. Examples of this include the depiction of [[Apsaras]], roughly equivalent to [[nymph]]s or [[Siren (mythology)|siren]]s in [[Europe]]an and [[Arabic]] mythology, on some ancient temples. The best and most famous example of this can be seen at the [[Khajuraho]] complex in central India built around 9th to 12th century.
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Kama sutra, Vatsyayayan, commentary, sample ii, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg|A ''Kamasutra'' manuscript page preserved in the vaults of the Raghunatha Hindu temple in Jammu and Kashmir.
Kama sutra, Vatsyayayan, commentary, sample ii, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg|A ''Kamasutra'' manuscript page preserved in the vaults of the Raghunatha Hindu temple in Jammu and Kashmir
Khajuraho12.jpg|Depictions of [[Apsara]]s from the [[Khajuraho|Khajuraho temple complex]].
Khajuraho12.jpg|Depictions of [[Apsara]]s from the [[Khajuraho|Khajuraho temple complex]]
Kama, mithuna artwork in Hindu temples.jpg|Kama-related arts are common in Hindu temples. These scenes include courtship, amorous couples in scenes of intimacy (''mithuna''), or a sexual position. Above: 6th- to 14th-century temples in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and the Himalayas.
Kama, mithuna artwork in Hindu temples.jpg|Kama-related arts are common in Hindu temples. These scenes include courtship, amorous couples in scenes of intimacy (''mithuna''), or a sexual position. Above: 6th- to 14th-century temples in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and the Himalayas.
File:Mogul miniature watercolor, India, 18th century.jpg|Oral sex between men, 18th century
File:Erotic scene -- Gouache painting - 1800 - 1899.jpg|Gouache painting. Probably between 1800 and 1899.
File:Two women embracing and using carrots as dildoes. Gouache Wellcome L0033073.jpg|2 women using carrots as [[dildo]]s, 20th century [[gouache]] painting
</gallery>
</gallery>


== Colonial-era ==
== Colonial-era ==
[[File:Tamil Book Front Cover 1920s.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Marriage guide published in [[Madras Presidency]], in 1920s.]]
[[File:Tamil Book Front Cover 1920s.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Marriage guide published in [[Madras Presidency]], in 1920s]]
Although the Portuguese and French had managed to set up some small enclaves in India, such as Goa, where the [[Catholic]] [[Inquisition]] forcibly converted some of the population of the small region to Catholicism, it was the arrival of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]], who managed to annex the entire Indian subcontinent through alliances with various monarchs, that had the largest effect on the culture of India and its attitudes to sex. The rule was indirect at first through the [[East India Company]] whose administrators did not necessarily interfere extensively and even took advantage of the tattered remnants of Hindu liberalism in sexual matters, for example through liaisons and by maintaining de facto wives. At the same time, there were significant number of [[Orientalism|orientalists]] who saw India as a great civilisation, invented the field of [[Indology]], and advocated a more accepting point of view.


A number of movements were set up by prominent citizens, such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] in [[Bengal]] and the [[Prarthana Samaj]] in [[Bombay Presidency]], to work for the 'reform' of Indian private and public life. Paradoxically while this new consciousness led to the promotion of [[education for women]] and (eventually) a raise in the [[age of consent]] and reluctant acceptance of [[remarriage]] for [[widows]], it also produced a [[Public morality|puritanical]] attitude to sex even within marriage and the home. The liberality of pre-colonial India had also respected the home and relationships.
British colonization of India marks a notable turning point for expressions and opinions of sexuality in India. Prior to the colonial era in India, sexuality as a concept had much more varied viewpoints and traditions surrounding it. Generally, there was acceptance of differing sexual orientations as well as gender identities.<ref>{{Citation |last=Penrose |first=Walter |title=Colliding Cultures: Masculinity and Homoeroticism in Mughal and Early Colonial South Asia |date=2006 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1057/9780230524156_9 |work=Queer Masculinities, 1550–1800 |pages=144–165 |editor-last=O'Donnell |editor-first=Katherine |access-date=2023-11-23 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |language=en |doi=10.1057/9780230524156_9 |isbn=978-1-349-51471-7 |editor2-last=O'Rourke |editor2-first=Michael|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, during the colonial era, there were significant changes to the notion of and expression of sexuality. These changes came as a result of both internal and external influences.
 
External influences came in the form of British colonial rule causing colonial authorities to impose Western values and ideas of sexuality on Indian society. This was not just due to British belief that their societal standards and moral beliefs were correct and consequently needed to be established in India, but rather due to the British desire to more effectively establish control as well. At the time, British society was relatively conservative when it came to sexuality in that expression of sexuality was frowned upon, female sexuality was seen as particularly problematic and needing to be controlled, and overall societal standards can be characterized as critically focused on religious and moral ideas. In addition to that, there was a general view amongst the British that Indian society was inferior and needed to be changed to fit British standards. This paved the way for policies that criminalized practices which weren't inherently sexual such as [[Devadasi#:~:text=Devadasi, or mahari, means ",God through dance and music.|devadasi]], which were religious dancers that became associated with [[Sacred prostitution|temple prostitution]] during the time, or the existence of [[Hijra (South Asia)|Hijra]] communities which were groups of intersex people, transgender people, or eunuchs who lived together and identify as a third gender.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agoramoorthy |first1=Govindasamy |last2=Hsu |first2=Minna J. |date=2014-12-24 |title=Living on the Societal Edge: India's Transgender Realities |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=1451–1459 |doi=10.1007/s10943-014-9987-z |pmid=25536925 |s2cid=21952590 |issn=0022-4197}}</ref> In addition, in 1861 [[Section 377]] of the Indian Penal Code, which already criminalized hijras, was also established to prohibit homosexuality, deeming it an "unnatural offense" that was "against the order of nature."<ref>{{Cite web |title=India Code: Section 377 Details |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show-data?actid=AC_CEN_5_23_00037_186045_1523266765688&orderno=434. |website=India Code}}</ref> The criminalization and stigmatization of various practices such as these occurred not just due to British belief in their immorality, but also because doing so made it easier for British authorities to manage and control the public. For example, criminalizing hijra made it simpler for British officers to categorize the Indian people because classification was a key part of how Britain maintained control and governed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dutta |first=Aniruddha |date=October 2020 |title=Jessica Hinchy. Governing Gender and Sexuality in Colonial India: The Hijra, c. 1850–1900. |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |journal=Journal of British Studies |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=950–952 |doi=10.1017/jbr.2020.102 |s2cid=225120253 |issn=0021-9371}}</ref>
 
However, British imposition of Victorian ideals and subsequent policies were not the only factors causing this shift in Indian sexuality. Changes in internal ideals also developed alongside British influence, creating internal factors that impacted these shifts. Most notable of these factors is regarding the concept of prostitution, and the way the term prostitute ended up being used in colonial India to describe almost all women outside of monogamous Hindu upper-caste marriages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=Durba |author-link=Durba Mitra |title=Indian Sex Life: Sexuality and the Colonial Origins of Modern Social Thought |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2020 |location=Princeton, New Jersey}}</ref> In 1872, British authorities put out a survey in order to gain information about Indian women following the 1860 [[Indian Penal Code]] which outlawed trafficking of girls for prostitution. Through the survey, they aimed to define who prostitutes were in order to better control and manage their existence. However, responses showed that many colonial administrators—both British and Indian alike— believed basically all Indian women could be prostitutes. For example, A. H. Giles—the deputy commissioner of Calcutta's Police—argued that Indian women were more likely to partake in dangerous and illegal behavior and that as a result "the prostitute community is recruited in various ways from all classes and castes," describing the various ways women may begin engaging in prostitution such as "hereditary prostitutes [whose] mothers were prostitutes before them and they were reared into the profession from infancy" or those who "practice as prostitutes with the full knowledge and consent of their husbands...[to] drive a profitable trade."<ref>A. H. Giles, "Collected Memoranda by Officers Consulted on the Subject of Forbidding the Possession of Girls under Ten Years of Age by Prostitutes," Judicial Branch, Judicial Department, October 1872, B. No. 252–335, West Bengal State Archives</ref> Similarly, Bengali Deputy Magistrate [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]] also categorized the different conditions of prostitutes, similarly claiming that while "Prostitutes in general are recruited from all classes of society and do not belong to any hereditary prostitute caste," they exist due to the sexual nature of the women themselves not being restrained.<ref>Letter from Deputy Magistrate Bankim Chandra Chatterjee to Government of Bengal, "Collected Memoranda by Officers Consulted on the Subject of Forbidding the Possession of Girls under Ten Years of Age by Prostitutes," Judicial Branch, Judicial Department, October 1872, B. No. 252–335, West Bengal State Archives.</ref>
 
These ideas of women and their uncontrollable sexuality that needed to be limited were in part due to the British administration's concerns that women who were not in typical monogamous upper-caste marriages were sexually deviant and therefore a threat to the order of society. However, these ideas were not solely created by the British. Upper-caste Bengali Hindus men who desired recognition as being key to the ruling of India also spread these ideas of deviant sexuality alongside idealized concepts of Hindu women for their own purposes.<ref name=":0" /> Through spreading these ideals, they hoped society would be restructured around these ideals and they would be able to consequently gain authority.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0277-5395(89)90038-1 | volume=12 | title=The limits of gender ideology: Bengali women, the colonial state, and the private sphere, 1890–1930 | year=1989 | journal=Women's Studies International Forum | pages=425–437 | last1 = Engels | first1 = Dagmar | issue=4 }}.</ref> Female sexuality was a shared target for both these men and British authorities to fault for various behaviors and then use to establish their control.
 
The colonial era and British policies had an immense impact on Indian sexuality—both legally and societally. The changes that occurred during this period have continued to impact various social movements and politics in India to this day.
 
A number of movements were set up by prominent citizens, such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] in [[Bengal]] and the [[Prarthana Samaj]] in [[Bombay Presidency]], to work for the 'reform' of Indian private and public life. While this new consciousness led to the promotion of [[education for women]] and (eventually) a raise in the [[age of consent]] and reluctant acceptance of [[remarriage]] for [[widows]], it also produced a [[Public morality|puritanical]] attitude to sex even within marriage and the home.


== Current issues ==
== Current issues ==
Conservative views of sexuality are now the norm in the modern republic of India, and South Asia in general. It is often argued that this is partly related to the effect of colonial influence, as well as to the puritanical elements of Islam in countries like Pakistan (e.g. the Islamic revivalist movements, which has influenced many Muslims in Pakistan and Bangladesh). However, such views were also prevalent in the pre-colonial era, especially since the advent of Islam in India which brought [[purdah]] as ideal for Muslim women. Before the gradual spread of Islam largely through the influence of Sufis, there seems to be evidence of liberal attitudes towards sexuality and nudity in art. However, scholars debate the degree to which Islam, as a mass and the varied phenomenon was responsible for this shift.
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2024}}
 
Conservative views of sexuality are now the norm in the modern republic of India, and South Asia in general. It is often argued that this is partly related to the effect of colonial influence, as well as to the puritanical elements of Islam in countries like [[Pakistan]] (e.g. the Islamic revivalist movements, which has influenced many Muslims in Pakistan and [[Bangladesh]]). However, such views were also prevalent in the pre-colonial era, especially since the advent of Islam in India which brought [[purdah]] as ideal for Muslim women. Before the gradual spread of Islam largely through the influence of [[Sufism|Sufis]], there seems to be evidence of [[Liberalism|liberal]] attitudes towards sexuality and [[nudity]] in art. However, scholars{{who|date=June 2024}} debate the degree to which Islam, as a mass and the varied phenomenon was responsible for this shift.


While during the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s and 1970s]] in the west, many people discovered the ancient culture of sexual liberalism in India as a source for western free love movements, and [[Neotantra|neo-Tantric]] philosophy, India itself is currently the more [[Prude|prudish]] culture, embodying [[Victorian era|Victorian]] sensibilities that were abandoned decades ago in their [[country of origin]]. However, with increased exposure to world culture due to globalisation, and the proliferation of progressive ideas due to greater education and wealth, India is beginning to go through a western-style [[sexual revolution]] of its own, especially in cosmopolitan cities.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
While during the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s and 1970s]] in the west, many people discovered the ancient culture of sexual liberalism in India as a source for western [[free love]] movements, and [[Neotantra|neo-Tantric]] philosophy, India itself is currently the more [[Prude|prudish]] culture, embodying [[Victorian era|Victorian]] sensibilities that were abandoned decades ago in their [[country of origin]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}


===Modern India===
===Modern India===
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Modern issues that affect India, as part of the sexual revolution, have become points of argument between conservative and liberal forces, such as political parties and religious pressure groups. These issues are also matters of ethical importance in a nation where freedom and equality are guaranteed in the constitution.
Modern issues that affect India, as part of the sexual revolution, have become points of argument between conservative and liberal forces, such as political parties and religious pressure groups. These issues are also matters of ethical importance in a nation where freedom and equality are guaranteed in the constitution.


Scholarship by Indian sociologist [[Jyoti Puri]] calls attention to the social control around middle-class women's bodies in urban India and how politics of gender and sexuality impact of nationalist and transnational discourses and the role of nation-state. Her third book ''Sexual States: Governance and the Struggle Against the Antisodomy Law in India’s Present'', tracks the efforts to decriminalize homosexuality in India.
Scholarship by Indian sociologist [[Jyoti Puri]] calls attention to the social control around middle-class women's bodies in urban India and how politics of gender and sexuality impact of nationalist and transnational discourses and the role of nation-state. Her third book ''Sexual States: Governance and the Struggle Against the Antisodomy Law in India's Present'', tracks the efforts to decriminalize homosexuality in India.
 
On 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that Section 377 is unconstitutional as it infringed on the fundamental rights of autonomy, intimacy, and identity, thus legalizing homosexuality in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India Ministry of Law and Justice Secretary. [2018] INSC 746 (6 September 2018) |url=http://www.liiofindia.org/in/cases/cen/INSC/2018/746.html |publisher=Legal Information Institute of India |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Section 377 verdict: Here are the highlights |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/section-377-supreme-court-verdict-gay-lgbtq-5343225/ |work=The Indian Express |date=6 September 2018}}</ref>


=== Sexuality in popular entertainment ===
=== Sexuality in popular entertainment ===
{{Main|Sex in Indian entertainment}} [[Sex in Indian entertainment|The entertainment industry]] is an important part of modern India, and is expressive of Indian society in general. Historically, Indian television and film has lacked the frank depiction of sex; until recently, even [[kissing]] scenes were considered [[taboo]]. On the other hand, rape scenes or scenes showing sexual assault were shown. Currently, some Indian states show soft-core sexual scenes and [[nudity]] in films, whilst other areas do not. Mainstream films are still largely catered to the masses.
{{Main|Sex in Indian entertainment}} [[Sex in Indian entertainment|The entertainment industry]] is an important part of modern India, and is expressive of Indian society in general. Historically, Indian television and film has lacked the frank depiction of sex; until recently, even [[kissing]] scenes were considered [[taboo]]. On the other hand, rape scenes or scenes showing sexual assault were shown. Currently, some Indian states show soft-core sexual scenes and [[nudity]] in films, whilst other areas do not. Mainstream films are still largely catered to the masses.
Some recent movies like [[Ek Ladki Ko Dekha Toh Aisa Laga]], [[Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan]], [[Badhaai Do]] help bring the concepts of alternative sexualities and [[LGBT]] inclusion in the popular culture.


=== Pornography ===
=== Pornography ===
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The distribution and production of pornography are both illegal in India; however, accessing pornography in private is not. Regardless, softcore films have been common since the late 1970s, and many directors have produced them. Magazine publications like ''[[Debonair (magazine)]],'' ''Fantasy,'' ''Chastity,'' ''Royal Magazine,'' and ''Dafa 302'' exist in India, and more than 50 million Indians are believed to see porn on a daily basis.
The distribution and production of pornography are both illegal in India; however, accessing pornography in private is not. Regardless, softcore films have been common since the late 1970s, and many directors have produced them. Magazine publications like ''[[Debonair (magazine)]],'' ''Fantasy,'' ''Chastity,'' ''Royal Magazine,'' and ''Dafa 302'' exist in India, and more than 50 million Indians are believed to see porn on a daily basis.


The [[Information Technology Act]], Chapter XI Paragraph 67, the [[Government of India]] clearly considers the transmission of pornography through any electronic medium as a punishable offence. The CEO of the Indian subsidiary of [[eBay]] was charged with various criminal offences for allowing the trading of a CD on the website that contained pornography.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iltb.apargupta.com/?p=57 |title=Avnish Bajaj back in Safe Harbors |publisher=India Law and Tech Blog}}</ref>
The [[Information Technology Act]], Chapter XI Paragraph 67, the [[Government of India]] clearly considers the transmission of pornography through any electronic medium as a punishable offence. The CEO of the Indian subsidiary of [[eBay]] was charged with various criminal offences for allowing the trading of a CD on the website that contained pornography.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://medium.com/india-law-technology-blog/avnish-bajaj-back-in-safe-harbors-b32efe29e16 |title=Avnish Bajaj back in Safe Harbors |date=8 June 2017 |publisher=India Law and Tech Blog}}</ref>


=== Sex industry ===
=== Sex industry ===
{{Main|Prostitution in India}}
{{Main|Prostitution in India}}
While [[prostitution|trade in sex]] was frowned upon in ancient India, it was tolerated and regulated so as to reduce the damage that it could do. However, the stigmatisation that has arisen in modern times has left the many poor sex workers with problems of exploitation and rampant [[Sexually transmitted infection|infection]], including [[AIDS]], and worse, it has allowed a huge [[Human trafficking in India|human-trafficking industry]], like that of [[Eastern Europe]], to take hold. Many poor, young women are kidnapped from villages and sold into sexual [[trafficking in human beings|slavery]].<ref name="bbc">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1205098.stm |title=Sex workers to combat trafficking, BBC News, 2001 |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2015-03-21}}</ref><ref name="bbc2">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6925376.stm |title=HIV fears over trafficked Nepal sex workers, BBC News, 2007 |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2015-03-21}}</ref> There have been some recent efforts to regulate the Indian sex industry.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}
While [[prostitution|trade in sex]] was frowned upon in ancient India, it was tolerated and regulated so as to reduce the damage that it could do.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}  However, the stigmatisation that has arisen in modern{{Clarify|date=April 2025}} times has left the many poor sex workers with problems of exploitation and rampant [[sexually transmitted infection]], including [[AIDS]], and has allowed a [[Human trafficking in India|human-trafficking industry]] to take hold. Thousands of Nepali women are trafficked into India, mostly from rural villages, and sold to brothels in Mumbai and Delhi.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1205098.stm |title=Sex workers to combat trafficking, BBC News, 2001 |date=6 March 2001 |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2015-03-21}}</ref><ref name="bbc2">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6925376.stm |title=HIV fears over trafficked Nepal sex workers, BBC News, 2007 |date=August 2007 |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2015-03-21}}</ref> There have been some recent{{When|date=April 2025}} efforts to regulate the Indian sex industry.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}
 
A supreme court order in May 2022 upheld prostitution as a profession ruling that sex workers had the same human rights as any other citizen of India and thus they can not be discriminated or arrested for their profession.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-26 |title=Supreme Court wants full respect for sex workers: counsel |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc-for-treating-sex-workers-with-full-respect-for-their-dignity/article65464684.ece |access-date=2022-08-23 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Sex work legal', Supreme Court gives historic judgement on prostitution |url=https://zeenews.india.com/india/sex-work-legal-supreme-court-gives-historic-judgement-on-prostitution-2467824.html |access-date=2022-08-23 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref>
 
=== Sexual health ===
Sexual dysfunction in both males and females have been reported in significant numbers in recent years.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Prakash |first1=Om |last2=Sathyanarayana Rao |first2=Ts |date=2010 |title=Sexuality research in India: An update |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |language=en |volume=52 |issue=7 |pages=S260-3 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.69243 |pmid=21836690 |pmc=3146233 |issn=0019-5545 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Many attribute the prevalence of sexual dysfunctions to ignorance around sexual health and conservative attitudes toward sex. Sexual education is also an area of concern for many researchers; culture-bound sexual dysfunctions such as [[Dhat syndrome]] are rooted in erroneous ideas of human physiology, which could be refuted by improved and easily accessible sexual education.
 
Recent studies indicate that sex education remains limited in many parts of India. A 2024 survey found that only about one-fourth of young women and one-third of young men had ever received any formal sex education.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joshi |first1=Rujuta Milind |last2=Gupta |first2=Deepa Jitendra |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Shrabani |date=2024-12-31 |title=A study on the perception of parents on delivery of sex education in India: integrated TISM and MICMAC approach |journal=Cogent Education |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=2408508 |doi=10.1080/2331186X.2024.2408508 |issn=2331-186X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 
Cultural norms often make discussions about sexuality uncomfortable, limiting open communication in households and schools.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Rajni |date=2020 |title=Vital Need for Sex Education in Indian Youth and Adolescents |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12098-020-03240-z |journal=The Indian Journal of Pediatrics |language=en |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=255 |doi=10.1007/s12098-020-03240-z |pmid=32048223 |issn=0019-5456}}</ref> As a result, young people frequently rely on peers, social media, and informal sources, which can spread misinformation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joshi |first1=Rujuta Milind |last2=Gupta |first2=Deepa Jitendra |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Shrabani |date=2024-12-31 |title=A study on the perception of parents on delivery of sex education in India: integrated TISM and MICMAC approach |journal=Cogent Education |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=2408508 |doi=10.1080/2331186X.2024.2408508 |issn=2331-186X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 
Studies of sexual dysfunction in India focus primarily on male sexual dysfunction. [[Dhat syndrome]], a culture-bound psychosexual dysfunction in males is an area of study for many researchers in India. Males who experience Dhat syndrome usually come from rural areas and families with very conservative attitudes around sex.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manjula |first1=M. |last2=Prasadarao |first2=P.S.D.V. |last3=Kumaraiah |first3=V. |last4=Mishra |first4=H. |last5=Raguram |first5=R. |date=June 2003 |title=Sexual dysfunction in single males: A perspective from India |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jclp.10153 |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=701–713 |doi=10.1002/jclp.10153 |pmid=12754698 |issn=0021-9762|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Patients with [[Dhat syndrome]] typically experience other sexual dysfunctions such as erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, in addition to psychiatric disorders such as depressive neurosis and anxiety neurosis.<ref name=":02" /> A study in 2015 showed one in five males in rural South India, and one in seven females, suffered from one or more sexual disorders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Sathyanarayana Rao |first1=Ts |last2=Darshan |first2=Ms |last3=Tandon |first3=Abhinav |date=2015 |title=An epidemiological study of sexual disorders in south Indian rural population |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |language=en |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=150–157 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.158143 |pmid=26124520 |pmc=4462783 |issn=0019-5545 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Prevalence of sexual dysfunction was two to three times higher in illiterate men than literate men in the study.<ref name=":1" />
 
Research shows a greater prevalence of sexual dysfunction in women from higher socioeconomic classes.,<ref name=":1" /> Women's lack of education on sex is an even greater problem in sexual health.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Banerjee |first1=Sushanta K. |last2=Andersen |first2=Kathryn L. |last3=Warvadekar |first3=Janardan |last4=Aich |first4=Paramita |last5=Rawat |first5=Amit |last6=Upadhyay |first6=Bimla |date=December 2015 |title=How prepared are young, rural women in India to address their sexual and reproductive health needs? a cross-sectional assessment of youth in Jharkhand |journal=Reproductive Health |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=97 |doi=10.1186/s12978-015-0086-8 |issn=1742-4755 |pmc=4609062 |pmid=26476778 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In terms of education, knowledge around abortion is a key area of development, as unsafe abortions account for 8-9% of maternal deaths per a bulletin from the India Office of Register General.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dutta |first=Dilip |title=Special Bulletin on Maternal Mortality in India 2007-09 |date=2012 |work=Insight Maternal Mortality – An Indian Facebook |page=20  |publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.|doi=10.5005/jp/books/11596_3 |isbn=978-93-5025-796-8 }}</ref> Women's agency is also heavily considered in studies of female sexual health along with the sociocultural factors such as conservative attitudes toward sex and early marriage.<ref name=":2" /> Much like the men experiencing [[Dhat syndrome]], most cases of female sexual dysfunction are concentrated in rural areas and reinforced by the same social factors discussed in males.
 
Research shows that structured sex education programs can improve adolescents’ understanding of reproductive health, communication skills, and safer behaviors, potentially reducing early pregnancies and unsafe practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Palak |first1=Chakraborty |last2=Mishra |first2=Avantika |date=2021 |title=Lack of Sex Education in India and its Growing Importance in the Digital Era |url=http://ijpsl.in/index.php/volume-1-issue-4/v1i4-lack-of-sex-education-in-india-and-its-growing-importance-in-the-digital-era/ |journal=International Journal of Policy Sciences and Law |language=en-US |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1871–1888}}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 76: Line 107:


== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
{{Too much further reading|date=November 2016}}
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*[[Alain Daniélou]]. ''The Complete Kama Sutra: The First Unabridged Modern Translation of the Classic Indian Text''. Inner Traditions,1993 {{ISBN|0-89281-525-6}}.  
* [[Alain Daniélou]]. ''The Complete Kama Sutra: The First Unabridged Modern Translation of the Classic Indian Text''. Inner Traditions, 1993 {{ISBN|0-89281-525-6}}.
*Doniger, Wendy. "The Mare's Trap, Nature and Culture in The Kama Sutra." Speaking Tiger, 2015. {{ISBN|978-93-85288-06-7}}.
* Doniger, Wendy. "The Mare's Trap, Nature and Culture in The Kama Sutra." Speaking Tiger, 2015. {{ISBN|978-93-85288-06-7}}.
*''[[The Continent of Circe]]'' by [[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]] – this has a chapter devoted to the topic.
* ''[[The Continent of Circe]]'' by [[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]] – this has a chapter devoted to the topic.
*CIOTTI, MANUELA. "'The Bourgeois Woman and the Half-Naked One': Or the Indian Nation's Contradictions Personified." Modern Asian Studies, vol. 44, no. 4, 2010, pp.&nbsp;785–815. www.jstor.org/stable/40664946.
* Ciotti, Manuela. "'The Bourgeois Woman and the Half-Naked One': Or the Indian Nation's Contradictions Personified." [[Modern Asian Studies]], vol. 44, no. 4, 2010, pp.&nbsp;785–815. {{JSTOR|40664946}}.
*Rao, Vidya. "‘Thumri’ as Feminine Voice." Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 25, no. 17, 1990, pp. WS31–WS39. www.jstor.org/stable/4396223.
* Chanana, Karuna. "Hinduism and Female Sexuality: Social Control and Education of Girls in India." Sociological Bulletin, vol. 50, no. 1, [[Indian Sociological Society]], 2001, pp.&nbsp;37–63, {{JSTOR|23620149}}.
*Tripathi, Laxminarayan. "Me Hijra, Me Laxmi." Oxford University Press, 2015. {{ISBN|9780199458264}}. Translated from the Marathi original by R. Raj Rao and P. G. Joshi.  
* Crane, Ralph, and Radhika Mohanram. "The Missionary's Position: Love and Passion in Anglo-India." In Imperialism as Diaspora: Race, Sexuality, and History in Anglo-India, NED-New edition, 1, 1., 13:83–107. [[Liverpool University Press]], 2013. {{JSTOR|j.ctt18mbc75.8}}.
*Revathi, A. "The Truth About Me, A Hijra Life Story." Penguin Books, India, 2010. {{ISBN|9780143068365}}. Translated from Tamil by V. Geetha.  
* Rao, Vidya. "'Thumri' as Feminine Voice". [[Economic and Political Weekly]], vol. 25, no. 17, 1990, pp. WS31–WS39. {{JSTOR|4396223}}.
*Vanita, Ruth. "love's rite, Same-Sex marriage in India and The West.". Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. {{ISBN|9781403981608}}.
* Tripathi, Laxminarayan. "Me Hijra, Me Laxmi." [[Oxford University Press]], 2015. {{ISBN|9780199458264}}. Translated from the Marathi original by R. Raj Rao and P. G. Joshi.
*Narrain, Arvind. "Queer." BOOKS for CHANGE, 2004. ISBN 81 -87380 - 91 -8
* Revathi, A. "The Truth About Me, A Hijra Life Story." Penguin Books, India, 2010. {{ISBN|9780143068365}}. Translated from Tamil by V. Geetha.
*Parkinson, R.B. . "A Little Gay History." The British Museum Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-231-16663-8}}.  
* Vanita, Ruth. "love's rite, Same-Sex marriage in India and The West." [[Palgrave Macmillan]], 2005. {{ISBN|9781403981608}}.
*Edited by Sangari, Kumkum and Vaid, Sudesh. "Recasting Women, Essays in Colonial History." Zubaan Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003. {{ISBN|978-93-84757-73-1}}.  
* Narrain, Arvind. "Queer." Books for Change, 2004. {{ISBN|81-87380-91-8}}.
*Edited by Dasgupta, Rohit and Gokulsing, K. Moti. "Masculinity and Its Challenges in India." Mcfarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. 2041. {{ISBN|978-0-7864-7224-6}}.
* Urban, Hugh B. "'From Sex To Superconsciousness': Sexuality, Tantra, and Liberation in 1970s India." Zorba the Buddha: Sex, Spirituality, and Capitalism in the Global Osho Movement, 1st ed., [[University of California Press]], 2015, pp.&nbsp;76–100, {{JSTOR|j.ctt196322h.8}}.
*Alhuwalia, Sajam. "Rethinking Boundaries: Global and the Local in the History of Birth Control:  an Indian Case Study," orig. in Journal of Women's History, 14: 4(2003); reprinted in Sue Morgan, ed., The Feminist History Reader (2006)
* Parkinson, R.B.. "A Little Gay History." The British Museum Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-231-16663-8}}.
*Alhuwalia, Sajam."Demographic Rhetoric and Sexual Surveillance: Indian Middle Class Advocates of Birth Control, 1847-1947," in J. Mills and Satadru Sen, eds. Confronting the Body:  The politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India (2003)
* Edited by Sangari, Kumkum and Vaid, Sudesh. "Recasting Women, Essays in Colonial History." Zubaan Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003. {{ISBN|978-93-84757-73-1}}.
*Alhuwalia, Sajam."Sex and Reproduction: Politics of Birth Control in Colonial India.1920-1947. Indian Journal of Gender Studies. 2012.
* Edited by Dasgupta, Rohit and Gokulsing, K. Moti. "Masculinity and Its Challenges in India." Mcfarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. 2041. {{ISBN|978-0-7864-7224-6}}.
* George, Annie. "Embodying Identity through Heterosexual Sexuality: Newly Married Adolescent Women in India". Culture, Health & Sexuality, vol. 4, no. 2, [[Taylor & Francis]], Ltd., 2002, pp.&nbsp;207–22, {{JSTOR|4005268}}.
* Ahluwalia, Sanjam. "Demographic Rhetoric and Sexual Surveillance: Indian Middle-Class Advocates of Birth Control, 1877–1947". Reproductive Restraints: Birth Control in India, 1877–1947, [[University of Illinois Press]], 2008, pp.&nbsp;23–53, {{JSTOR|10.5406/j.ctt1xcmgw.5}}.
* Dell, Heather S. "'Ordinary' Sex, Prostitutes, and Middle-Class Wives: Liberalization and National Identity in India". Sex in Development: Science, Sexuality, and Morality in Global Perspective, edited by Vincanne Adams and Stacy Leigh Pigg, [[Duke University Press]], 2005, pp.&nbsp;187–206, {{doi|10.2307/j.ctv1220p6x.12}}.
* Pechilis, Karen. Review of Progress toward an Open Discussion of Sexuality in India and Asia, by Moni Nag, Geetanjali Misra, and Radhika Chandiramani. [[The Journal of Sex Research]] 44, no. 4 (2007): 401–4. {{JSTOR|20620327}}.
* {{cite journal | pmid = 32763620 | doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.07.002 | volume=83 | title=Romantic relationships and sexuality in diverse adolescent populations: Introduction to the special issue | year=2020 | journal=J Adolesc | pages=95–99  | last1 = Espinosa-Hernández | first1 = G | last2 = Choukas-Bradley | first2 = S | last3 = van de Bongardt | first3 = D | last4 = Van Dulmen | first4 = M}}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 32393449 | doi=10.20529/IJME.2020.039 | volume=V | title=Integrating concerns of gender, sexuality and marital status in the medical curriculum | year=2020 | journal=Indian J Med Ethics | pages=92–94  | last1 = Govind | first1 = N | last2 = Chowkhani | first2 = K | issue=2 | doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 32985442 | doi=10.4103/0970-258X.295968 | volume=32 | title=Use of pornography in India: Need to explore its implications | year=2019 | journal=Natl Med J India | pages=282–284  | last1 = Sharma | first1 = MK | last2 = Rao | first2 = GN | last3 = Benegal | first3 = V | last4 = Thennarasu | first4 = K | last5 = Oommen | first5 = D | issue=5 | doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 31533569 | doi=10.1080/26410397.2019.1593787 | volume=27 | title=Sexual health, sexual rights and sexual pleasure: meaningfully engaging the perfect triangle | pmc=7887957 | year=2019 | journal=Sex Reprod Health Matters | article-number=1593787  | last1 = Gruskin | first1 = S | last2 = Yadav | first2 = V | last3 = Castellanos-Usigli | first3 = A | last4 = Khizanishvili | first4 = G | last5 = Kismödi | first5 = E | issue=1 }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 19856739 | doi=10.1080/15574090902913727 | volume=4 | title=Men who have sex with men in India: a systematic review of the literature | year=2008 | journal=J LGBT Health Res | pages=51–70  | last1 = Setia | first1 = MS | last2 = Brassard | first2 = P | last3 = Jerajani | first3 = HR | last4 = Bharat | first4 = S | last5 = Gogate | first5 = A | last6 = Kumta | first6 = S | last7 = Row-Kavi | first7 = A | last8 = Anand | first8 = V | last9 = Boivin | first9 = JF | issue=2–3 }}.
* {{cite journal | pmid = 22250308 | doi=10.1353/jowh.2011.0050 | volume=23 | title=Writing sex and sexuality: archives of colonial North India | year=2011 | journal=J Womens Hist | pages=12–35  | last1 = Gupta | first1 = C | issue=4 }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 17954460 | doi=10.1300/j155v11n03_07 | volume=11 | title=Lesbian studies and activism in India | year=2007 | journal=J Lesbian Stud | pages=243–53 | last1 = Vanita | first1 = R | issue=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 31144604 | doi=10.1080/13691058.2019.1614670 | volume=22 | title=Definitions of sex and intimacy among gender and sexual minoritised groups in urban India | year=2020 | journal=Cult Health Sex | pages=520–534  | last1 = Bowling | first1 = J | last2 = Blekfeld-Sztraky | first2 = D | last3 = Simmons | first3 = M | last4 = Dodge | first4 = B | last5 = Sundarraman | first5 = V | last6 = Lakshmi | first6 = B | last7 = Dharuman | first7 = SD | last8 = Herbenick | first8 = D | issue=5 }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 29250996 | doi=10.1177/1359105317745963 | volume=23 | title=Female condom acceptability in urban India: Examining the role of sexual pleasure | pmc=5772445 | year=2018 | journal=J Health Psychol | pages=218–228  | last1 = Bowling | first1 = J | last2 = Dodge | first2 = B | last3 = Bindra | first3 = N | last4 = Dave | first4 = B | last5 = Sharma | first5 = R | last6 = Sundarraman | first6 = V | last7 = Thirupathur Dharuman | first7 = S | last8 = Herbenick | first8 = D | issue=2 }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 30511146 | doi=10.1007/s10508-018-1361-x | volume=48 | title=Humanizing an Invisible Population in India: Voices from Bisexual Men Concerning Identity, Life Experiences, and Sexual Health | pmc=6349550 | year=2019 | journal=Arch Sex Behav | pages=305–316  | last1 = Banik | first1 = S | last2 = Dodge | first2 = B | last3 = Schmidt-Sane | first3 = M | last4 = Sivasubramanian | first4 = M | last5 = Bowling | first5 = J | last6 = Rawat | first6 = SM | last7 = Dange | first7 = A | last8 = Anand | first8 = V | issue=1 }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 32653036 | doi=10.1186/s12889-020-09191-6 | volume=20 | title=Transitions in adolescent boys and young Men's high-risk sexual behaviour in India | pmc=7353811 | year=2020 | journal=BMC Public Health | article-number=1089  | last1 = Sharma | first1 = SK | last2 = Vishwakarma | first2 = D | issue=1 | doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | pmid = 32372723 | doi=10.1080/26410397.2020.1741494 | volume=28 | title=A systematic review of the evidence on peer education programmes for promoting the sexual and reproductive health of young people in India | pmc=7887991 | year=2020 | journal=Sex Reprod Health Matters | article-number=1741494  | last1 = Siddiqui | first1 = M | last2 = Kataria | first2 = I | last3 = Watson | first3 = K | last4 = Chandra-Mouli | first4 = V | issue=1 }}
 
=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book|title=For the Record: On Sexuality and the Colonial Archive in India|author=Arondekar, A. and Grewal, I. and Kaplan, C. and Wiegman, R.|isbn=978-0-822-39102-9|series=Next Wave: New Directions in Women's Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2F5tVpAs-74C|year=2009 |publisher= [[Duke University Press]] }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Das | first1 = K. | last2 = Rao | first2 = T. S. S. | year = 2019 | title = A Chronicle of Sexuality in the Indian Subcontinent | url = | journal = Journal of Psychosexual Health | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 20–25 | doi = 10.1177/2631831818822017 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite book|title=Passionate Modernity: Sexuality, Class, and Consumption in India|author=Srivastava, S.|isbn=978-1-000-08416-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6MJEAAAQBAJ|year=2020|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Gupta | first1 = Mamta | year = 1994 | title = Sexuality in the Indian subcontinent | url = | journal = Sexual and Marital Therapy | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 57–69 | doi = 10.1080/02674659408409567 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Abraham | first1 = Leena | last2 = Kumar | first2 = K. Anil | year = 1999 | title = Sexual Experiences and Their Correlates Among College Students in Mumbai City, India | url = | journal = [[International Family Planning Perspectives]] | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 139–52 | doi = 10.2307/2991963 | jstor = 2991963 }}
* Das, Vishnupriya. "Dating Applications, Intimacy, and Cosmopolitan Desire in India." Global Digital Cultures: Perspectives from South Asia, edited by ASWIN PUNATHAMBEKAR and SRIRAM MOHAN, [[University of Michigan Press]], 2019, pp.&nbsp;125–41, {{JSTOR|j.ctvndv9rb.9}}
* {{cite journal|author = Puri, Jyoti|title = Concerning Kamasutras: Challenging Narratives of History and Sexuality|journal = Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society|publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]] |volume = 27|number = 3|pages = 603–639|year = 2002|doi =10.1086/337937 |s2cid = 143809154}}
{{Refend}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
* * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2512559.stm BBC Article on AIDS Awareness in India]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2512559.stm BBC Article on AIDS Awareness in India]
* [http://blogjeez.blogspot.com/2011/02/indian-sex-life.html Indian Sex Life Survey] - Average Ages, Statistics on Foreplay, Intercourse & Frequency, Extramarital & Premarital Data, Homosexuality in Indian Society and other such related issues
* [http://blogjeez.blogspot.com/2011/02/indian-sex-life.html Indian Sex Life Survey] - Average Ages, Statistics on Foreplay, Intercourse & Frequency, Extramarital & Premarital Data, Homosexuality in Indian Society and other such related issues
* [http://www.bigeye.com/sexeducation/ancientindia.html History of Sex: Ancient India]
* [http://www.bigeye.com/sexeducation/ancientindia.html History of Sex: Ancient India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114040401/http://www.bigeye.com/sexeducation/ancientindia.html |date=14 January 2015 }}
* [http://www.iasstdaids.org/ IASSTD & AIDS] - Indian Association for the Study of Sexually Transmitted Diseases & AIDS
* [http://www.iasstdaids.org/ IASSTD & AIDS] - Indian Association for the Study of Sexually Transmitted Diseases & AIDS
* [http://www.steami.net/lifestyle/worldwide-sexual-survey-results/ India In World Sex Survey] - Frequency of sex in India & other data
* [http://www.steami.net/lifestyle/worldwide-sexual-survey-results/ India In World Sex Survey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924110108/http://www.steami.net/lifestyle/worldwide-sexual-survey-results/ |date=24 September 2015 }} - Frequency of sex in India & other data
* [http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue23/banerji1.htm The Pink Panties Campaign: The Indian Women's Sexual Revolution]. Intersections: ''Gender and Sexuality in Asia and the Pacific'' Issue 23, January 2010


{{India topics}}
{{India topics}}
{{Sexuality by country}}
{{Sexuality by country}}
{{Human sexuality and sexology}}
{{Human sexuality}}
{{Sexual revolution}}
{{Authority control}}
{{portal bar|India|human sexuality|Sex work|Erotica and pornography|Nudity}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Sex In India}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sexuality in India}}
[[Category:Sexuality in India| ]]
[[Category:Sexuality in India| ]]
[[Category:Demographic history of India|Sex]]
[[Category:Demographic history of India|Sex]]
[[Category:History of human sexuality|India]]
[[Category:History of human sexuality|India]]

Latest revision as of 10:17, 5 February 2026



India has developed its discourse on sexuality differently based on its distinct regions with their own unique cultures. According to R.P. Bhatia, a New Delhi psychoanalyst and psychotherapist, middle-class India's "very strong repressive attitude" has made it impossible for many married couples to function well sexually, or even to function at all.[1]

Background[edit | edit source]

The seeming contradictions of Indian attitudes towards sex (more broadly – sexuality) can be best explained through the context of history. India played a role in shaping understandings of sexuality, and it could be argued that one of the first pieces of literature that treated "Kama" as science came from the Indian subcontinent.[2] It may be argued that historically, India pioneered the use of sexual education through various art forms like sculptures,[3] paintings, pieces of literature. As in all societies, there was a difference in sexual practices in India between common people and powerful rulers, with people in power often indulging in "self-gratification" lifestyles that were not representative of common moral attitudes. Moreover, there are distinct cultural differences seen through the course of history across India.

Ancient times[edit | edit source]

Khajuraho Hindu and Jain temple complex is famous for erotic arts.

The origins of the current Indian culture can be traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation, which was contemporaneous with the ancient Egyptian and Sumerian civilisations, around 2700 BCE. During this period, the first evidence of attitudes towards sex comes from the ancient texts of Hinduism. These ancient texts, the Rig Veda among few others, reveal moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fertility prayers. The epics of ancient India, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, which may have been first composed as early as 500 BCE, had a huge effect on the culture of Asia, influencing later Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan culture and South East Asian culture. These texts support the view that in ancient India, sex was considered a mutual duty between a married couple, where husband and wife pleasured each other equally, but where sex was considered a private affair, at least by followers of the aforementioned Indian religions. It seems that polygamy was allowed during ancient times. In practice, this seems to have only been practiced by rulers, with common people maintaining a monogamous marriage. It is common in many cultures for a ruling class to practice both polyandry and polygyny as a way of preserving dynastic succession.

Nudity in art was considered acceptable in southern India, as shown by the paintings at Ajanta and the sculptures of the time. It is likely that as in most countries with tropical climates, Indians from some regions did not need to wear clothes, and other than for fashion, there was no practical need to cover the upper half of the body. This is supported by historical evidence, which shows that men in many parts of ancient India mostly dressed only the lower half of their bodies with clothes and upper part of body was covered by gold and precious stones, jewellery, while women used to wear traditional sarees made of silk and expensive clothes as a symbol of their wealth.

As Indian civilisation further developed and the writing of the Upanishads around 500 BCE, it was somewhere between the 1st and 6th centuries that the Kama Sutra, originally known as Vatsyayana Kamasutram ('Vatsyayana's Aphorisms on Love'), was written.[citation needed] This philosophical work on kama shastra, or 'science of love', was intended as both an exploration of human desire, including infidelity, and a technical guide to pleasing a sexual partner within a marriage. This is not the only example of such a work in ancient India, but is the most widely known in modern times. It is probably during this period that the text spread to ancient China, along with Buddhist scriptures, where Chinese versions were written.

It is also during 10th century to 12th century that some of India's most famous ancient works of art were produced, often freely depicting romantic themes and situations. Examples of this include the depiction of Apsaras, roughly equivalent to nymphs or sirens in European and Arabic mythology, on some ancient temples. The best and most famous example of this can be seen at the Khajuraho complex in central India built around 9th to 12th century.

  • A Kamasutra manuscript page preserved in the vaults of the Raghunatha Hindu temple in Jammu and Kashmir
    A Kamasutra manuscript page preserved in the vaults of the Raghunatha Hindu temple in Jammu and Kashmir
  • Depictions of Apsaras from the Khajuraho temple complex
    Depictions of Apsaras from the Khajuraho temple complex
  • Kama-related arts are common in Hindu temples. These scenes include courtship, amorous couples in scenes of intimacy (mithuna), or a sexual position. Above: 6th- to 14th-century temples in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and the Himalayas.
    Kama-related arts are common in Hindu temples. These scenes include courtship, amorous couples in scenes of intimacy (mithuna), or a sexual position. Above: 6th- to 14th-century temples in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and the Himalayas.
  • Oral sex between men, 18th century
    Oral sex between men, 18th century
  • Gouache painting. Probably between 1800 and 1899.
    Gouache painting. Probably between 1800 and 1899.
  • 2 women using carrots as dildos, 20th century gouache painting
    2 women using carrots as dildos, 20th century gouache painting

Colonial-era[edit | edit source]

A Marriage guide published in Madras Presidency, in 1920s

British colonization of India marks a notable turning point for expressions and opinions of sexuality in India. Prior to the colonial era in India, sexuality as a concept had much more varied viewpoints and traditions surrounding it. Generally, there was acceptance of differing sexual orientations as well as gender identities.[4] However, during the colonial era, there were significant changes to the notion of and expression of sexuality. These changes came as a result of both internal and external influences.

External influences came in the form of British colonial rule causing colonial authorities to impose Western values and ideas of sexuality on Indian society. This was not just due to British belief that their societal standards and moral beliefs were correct and consequently needed to be established in India, but rather due to the British desire to more effectively establish control as well. At the time, British society was relatively conservative when it came to sexuality in that expression of sexuality was frowned upon, female sexuality was seen as particularly problematic and needing to be controlled, and overall societal standards can be characterized as critically focused on religious and moral ideas. In addition to that, there was a general view amongst the British that Indian society was inferior and needed to be changed to fit British standards. This paved the way for policies that criminalized practices which weren't inherently sexual such as devadasi, which were religious dancers that became associated with temple prostitution during the time, or the existence of Hijra communities which were groups of intersex people, transgender people, or eunuchs who lived together and identify as a third gender.[5] In addition, in 1861 Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, which already criminalized hijras, was also established to prohibit homosexuality, deeming it an "unnatural offense" that was "against the order of nature."[6] The criminalization and stigmatization of various practices such as these occurred not just due to British belief in their immorality, but also because doing so made it easier for British authorities to manage and control the public. For example, criminalizing hijra made it simpler for British officers to categorize the Indian people because classification was a key part of how Britain maintained control and governed.[7]

However, British imposition of Victorian ideals and subsequent policies were not the only factors causing this shift in Indian sexuality. Changes in internal ideals also developed alongside British influence, creating internal factors that impacted these shifts. Most notable of these factors is regarding the concept of prostitution, and the way the term prostitute ended up being used in colonial India to describe almost all women outside of monogamous Hindu upper-caste marriages.[8] In 1872, British authorities put out a survey in order to gain information about Indian women following the 1860 Indian Penal Code which outlawed trafficking of girls for prostitution. Through the survey, they aimed to define who prostitutes were in order to better control and manage their existence. However, responses showed that many colonial administrators—both British and Indian alike— believed basically all Indian women could be prostitutes. For example, A. H. Giles—the deputy commissioner of Calcutta's Police—argued that Indian women were more likely to partake in dangerous and illegal behavior and that as a result "the prostitute community is recruited in various ways from all classes and castes," describing the various ways women may begin engaging in prostitution such as "hereditary prostitutes [whose] mothers were prostitutes before them and they were reared into the profession from infancy" or those who "practice as prostitutes with the full knowledge and consent of their husbands...[to] drive a profitable trade."[9] Similarly, Bengali Deputy Magistrate Bankim Chandra Chatterjee also categorized the different conditions of prostitutes, similarly claiming that while "Prostitutes in general are recruited from all classes of society and do not belong to any hereditary prostitute caste," they exist due to the sexual nature of the women themselves not being restrained.[10]

These ideas of women and their uncontrollable sexuality that needed to be limited were in part due to the British administration's concerns that women who were not in typical monogamous upper-caste marriages were sexually deviant and therefore a threat to the order of society. However, these ideas were not solely created by the British. Upper-caste Bengali Hindus men who desired recognition as being key to the ruling of India also spread these ideas of deviant sexuality alongside idealized concepts of Hindu women for their own purposes.[8] Through spreading these ideals, they hoped society would be restructured around these ideals and they would be able to consequently gain authority.[11] Female sexuality was a shared target for both these men and British authorities to fault for various behaviors and then use to establish their control.

The colonial era and British policies had an immense impact on Indian sexuality—both legally and societally. The changes that occurred during this period have continued to impact various social movements and politics in India to this day.

A number of movements were set up by prominent citizens, such as the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay Presidency, to work for the 'reform' of Indian private and public life. While this new consciousness led to the promotion of education for women and (eventually) a raise in the age of consent and reluctant acceptance of remarriage for widows, it also produced a puritanical attitude to sex even within marriage and the home.

Current issues[edit | edit source]

Conservative views of sexuality are now the norm in the modern republic of India, and South Asia in general. It is often argued that this is partly related to the effect of colonial influence, as well as to the puritanical elements of Islam in countries like Pakistan (e.g. the Islamic revivalist movements, which has influenced many Muslims in Pakistan and Bangladesh). However, such views were also prevalent in the pre-colonial era, especially since the advent of Islam in India which brought purdah as ideal for Muslim women. Before the gradual spread of Islam largely through the influence of Sufis, there seems to be evidence of liberal attitudes towards sexuality and nudity in art. However, scholars[who?] debate the degree to which Islam, as a mass and the varied phenomenon was responsible for this shift.

While during the 1960s and 1970s in the west, many people discovered the ancient culture of sexual liberalism in India as a source for western free love movements, and neo-Tantric philosophy, India itself is currently the more prudish culture, embodying Victorian sensibilities that were abandoned decades ago in their country of origin.[citation needed]

Modern India[edit | edit source]

Main article: Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India

Modern issues that affect India, as part of the sexual revolution, have become points of argument between conservative and liberal forces, such as political parties and religious pressure groups. These issues are also matters of ethical importance in a nation where freedom and equality are guaranteed in the constitution.

Scholarship by Indian sociologist Jyoti Puri calls attention to the social control around middle-class women's bodies in urban India and how politics of gender and sexuality impact of nationalist and transnational discourses and the role of nation-state. Her third book Sexual States: Governance and the Struggle Against the Antisodomy Law in India's Present, tracks the efforts to decriminalize homosexuality in India.

On 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that Section 377 is unconstitutional as it infringed on the fundamental rights of autonomy, intimacy, and identity, thus legalizing homosexuality in India.[12][13]

Sexuality in popular entertainment[edit | edit source]

Main article: Sex in Indian entertainment

The entertainment industry is an important part of modern India, and is expressive of Indian society in general. Historically, Indian television and film has lacked the frank depiction of sex; until recently, even kissing scenes were considered taboo. On the other hand, rape scenes or scenes showing sexual assault were shown. Currently, some Indian states show soft-core sexual scenes and nudity in films, whilst other areas do not. Mainstream films are still largely catered to the masses.

Some recent movies like Ek Ladki Ko Dekha Toh Aisa Laga, Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan, Badhaai Do help bring the concepts of alternative sexualities and LGBT inclusion in the popular culture.

Pornography[edit | edit source]

Main article: Pornography in India

The distribution and production of pornography are both illegal in India; however, accessing pornography in private is not. Regardless, softcore films have been common since the late 1970s, and many directors have produced them. Magazine publications like Debonair (magazine), Fantasy, Chastity, Royal Magazine, and Dafa 302 exist in India, and more than 50 million Indians are believed to see porn on a daily basis.

The Information Technology Act, Chapter XI Paragraph 67, the Government of India clearly considers the transmission of pornography through any electronic medium as a punishable offence. The CEO of the Indian subsidiary of eBay was charged with various criminal offences for allowing the trading of a CD on the website that contained pornography.[14]

Sex industry[edit | edit source]

Main article: Prostitution in India

While trade in sex was frowned upon in ancient India, it was tolerated and regulated so as to reduce the damage that it could do.[citation needed] However, the stigmatisation that has arisen in modern[clarification needed] times has left the many poor sex workers with problems of exploitation and rampant sexually transmitted infection, including AIDS, and has allowed a human-trafficking industry to take hold. Thousands of Nepali women are trafficked into India, mostly from rural villages, and sold to brothels in Mumbai and Delhi.[15][16] There have been some recent[when?] efforts to regulate the Indian sex industry.[citation needed]

A supreme court order in May 2022 upheld prostitution as a profession ruling that sex workers had the same human rights as any other citizen of India and thus they can not be discriminated or arrested for their profession.[17][18]

Sexual health[edit | edit source]

Sexual dysfunction in both males and females have been reported in significant numbers in recent years.[19] Many attribute the prevalence of sexual dysfunctions to ignorance around sexual health and conservative attitudes toward sex. Sexual education is also an area of concern for many researchers; culture-bound sexual dysfunctions such as Dhat syndrome are rooted in erroneous ideas of human physiology, which could be refuted by improved and easily accessible sexual education.

Recent studies indicate that sex education remains limited in many parts of India. A 2024 survey found that only about one-fourth of young women and one-third of young men had ever received any formal sex education.[20]

Cultural norms often make discussions about sexuality uncomfortable, limiting open communication in households and schools.[21] As a result, young people frequently rely on peers, social media, and informal sources, which can spread misinformation.[22]

Studies of sexual dysfunction in India focus primarily on male sexual dysfunction. Dhat syndrome, a culture-bound psychosexual dysfunction in males is an area of study for many researchers in India. Males who experience Dhat syndrome usually come from rural areas and families with very conservative attitudes around sex.[23] Patients with Dhat syndrome typically experience other sexual dysfunctions such as erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, in addition to psychiatric disorders such as depressive neurosis and anxiety neurosis.[19] A study in 2015 showed one in five males in rural South India, and one in seven females, suffered from one or more sexual disorders.[24] Prevalence of sexual dysfunction was two to three times higher in illiterate men than literate men in the study.[24]

Research shows a greater prevalence of sexual dysfunction in women from higher socioeconomic classes.,[24] Women's lack of education on sex is an even greater problem in sexual health.[25] In terms of education, knowledge around abortion is a key area of development, as unsafe abortions account for 8-9% of maternal deaths per a bulletin from the India Office of Register General.[26] Women's agency is also heavily considered in studies of female sexual health along with the sociocultural factors such as conservative attitudes toward sex and early marriage.[25] Much like the men experiencing Dhat syndrome, most cases of female sexual dysfunction are concentrated in rural areas and reinforced by the same social factors discussed in males.

Research shows that structured sex education programs can improve adolescents’ understanding of reproductive health, communication skills, and safer behaviors, potentially reducing early pregnancies and unsafe practices.[27]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Stevens, William K. (22 April 1983). "Sexual Repression in the Land of the Kama Sutra". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  2. ↑ Vātsyāyana, Richard F Burton, and ibn M. 'Umar. The Kama Sutra. New York: Diadem Books, 1984. Print.
  3. ↑ Sahai, Surendra.1999. Khajuraho: The Art of Love, Prakash Book Depot
  4. ↑ Penrose, Walter (2006), O'Donnell, Katherine; O'Rourke, Michael (eds.), "Colliding Cultures: Masculinity and Homoeroticism in Mughal and Early Colonial South Asia", Queer Masculinities, 1550–1800, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 144–165, doi:10.1057/9780230524156_9, ISBN 978-1-349-51471-7, retrieved 23 November 2023{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  5. ↑ Agoramoorthy, Govindasamy; Hsu, Minna J. (24 December 2014). "Living on the Societal Edge: India's Transgender Realities". Journal of Religion and Health. 54 (4): 1451–1459. doi:10.1007/s10943-014-9987-z. ISSN 0022-4197. PMID 25536925. S2CID 21952590.
  6. ↑ "India Code: Section 377 Details". India Code.
  7. ↑ Dutta, Aniruddha (October 2020). "Jessica Hinchy. Governing Gender and Sexuality in Colonial India: The Hijra, c. 1850–1900". Journal of British Studies. 59 (4). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 950–952. doi:10.1017/jbr.2020.102. ISSN 0021-9371. S2CID 225120253.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Mitra, Durba (2020). Indian Sex Life: Sexuality and the Colonial Origins of Modern Social Thought. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  9. ↑ A. H. Giles, "Collected Memoranda by Officers Consulted on the Subject of Forbidding the Possession of Girls under Ten Years of Age by Prostitutes," Judicial Branch, Judicial Department, October 1872, B. No. 252–335, West Bengal State Archives
  10. ↑ Letter from Deputy Magistrate Bankim Chandra Chatterjee to Government of Bengal, "Collected Memoranda by Officers Consulted on the Subject of Forbidding the Possession of Girls under Ten Years of Age by Prostitutes," Judicial Branch, Judicial Department, October 1872, B. No. 252–335, West Bengal State Archives.
  11. ↑ Engels, Dagmar (1989). "The limits of gender ideology: Bengali women, the colonial state, and the private sphere, 1890–1930". Women's Studies International Forum. 12 (4): 425–437. doi:10.1016/0277-5395(89)90038-1..
  12. ↑ "Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India Ministry of Law and Justice Secretary. [2018] INSC 746 (6 September 2018)". Legal Information Institute of India. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  13. ↑ "Section 377 verdict: Here are the highlights". The Indian Express. 6 September 2018.
  14. ↑ "Avnish Bajaj back in Safe Harbors". India Law and Tech Blog. 8 June 2017.
  15. ↑ "Sex workers to combat trafficking, BBC News, 2001". news.bbc.co.uk. 6 March 2001. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  16. ↑ "HIV fears over trafficked Nepal sex workers, BBC News, 2007". news.bbc.co.uk. August 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  17. ↑ "Supreme Court wants full respect for sex workers: counsel". The Hindu. 26 May 2022. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  18. ↑ "'Sex work legal', Supreme Court gives historic judgement on prostitution". Zee News. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Prakash, Om; Sathyanarayana Rao, Ts (2010). "Sexuality research in India: An update". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 52 (7): S260-3. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.69243. ISSN 0019-5545. PMC 3146233. PMID 21836690.
  20. ↑ Joshi, Rujuta Milind; Gupta, Deepa Jitendra; Mukherjee, Shrabani (31 December 2024). "A study on the perception of parents on delivery of sex education in India: integrated TISM and MICMAC approach". Cogent Education. 11 (1) 2408508. doi:10.1080/2331186X.2024.2408508. ISSN 2331-186X.
  21. ↑ Sharma, Rajni (2020). "Vital Need for Sex Education in Indian Youth and Adolescents". The Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 87 (4): 255. doi:10.1007/s12098-020-03240-z. ISSN 0019-5456. PMID 32048223.
  22. ↑ Joshi, Rujuta Milind; Gupta, Deepa Jitendra; Mukherjee, Shrabani (31 December 2024). "A study on the perception of parents on delivery of sex education in India: integrated TISM and MICMAC approach". Cogent Education. 11 (1) 2408508. doi:10.1080/2331186X.2024.2408508. ISSN 2331-186X.
  23. ↑ Manjula, M.; Prasadarao, P.S.D.V.; Kumaraiah, V.; Mishra, H.; Raguram, R. (June 2003). "Sexual dysfunction in single males: A perspective from India". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 59 (6): 701–713. doi:10.1002/jclp.10153. ISSN 0021-9762. PMID 12754698.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Sathyanarayana Rao, Ts; Darshan, Ms; Tandon, Abhinav (2015). "An epidemiological study of sexual disorders in south Indian rural population". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 57 (2): 150–157. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.158143. ISSN 0019-5545. PMC 4462783. PMID 26124520.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Banerjee, Sushanta K.; Andersen, Kathryn L.; Warvadekar, Janardan; Aich, Paramita; Rawat, Amit; Upadhyay, Bimla (December 2015). "How prepared are young, rural women in India to address their sexual and reproductive health needs? a cross-sectional assessment of youth in Jharkhand". Reproductive Health. 12 (1): 97. doi:10.1186/s12978-015-0086-8. ISSN 1742-4755. PMC 4609062. PMID 26476778.
  26. ↑ Dutta, Dilip (2012), "Special Bulletin on Maternal Mortality in India 2007-09", Insight Maternal Mortality – An Indian Facebook, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., p. 20, doi:10.5005/jp/books/11596_3, ISBN 978-93-5025-796-8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  27. ↑ Palak, Chakraborty; Mishra, Avantika (2021). "Lack of Sex Education in India and its Growing Importance in the Digital Era". International Journal of Policy Sciences and Law. 1 (4): 1871–1888.

Further reading[edit | edit source]

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

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