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Indian Stone Age

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The Indian Stone Age (Hindi: भारतीय पाषाणयुग or भारतीय पाषाण-युग) covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the Ancient Indian. Evidence for the most ancient Homo sapiens in the Indian subcontinent has been found in the cave sites of Cudappah of the republic of India, Batadombalena and Belilena in Sri Lanka.[1] In Mehrgarh,modern-day Pakistan, the Neolithic began c. 7000 BCE and lasted until 3300 BCE and the first beginnings of the Bronze Age. In Southern region of India, the Mesolithic lasted until 3000 BCE, and the Neolithic until 1400 BCE, followed by a Megalithic transitional period mostly skipping the Bronze Age. The Iron Age began roughly simultaneously in Northern and Southern region of India, around c. 1200 to 1000 BCE (Painted Grey Ware culture, Hallur, Paiyampalli).

Pre Historic Sites of Middle Krishna-Tungabhadra River Valley of Southern India are probably the efficient paleolithic cultural area's as per the evidences found over the valley
Belan Valley Cave Paintings at Panchmukhi Hill in Sonbhadra

Homo erectusEdit

Further information: Acheulean, Soanian, and Riwat

Homo erectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, (modern-day Pakistan) along the Soan River (nearby modern-day Rawalpindi) during the Pleistocene Epoch. Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across the ancient India.[2] Biface handaxes and cleaver traditions may have originated in the middle Pleistocene.[3] The beginning of the use of Acheulian and chopping tools of the lower Paleolithic may also be dated to approximately the middle Pleistocene.[4]

Neolithic Stone Age of Indian subcontinent (7000 BCE - 5500 BCE) finds were excavated from Pinjore in Haryana on the banks of the stream (paleochannel of Saraswati river) flowing through HMT complex,[5][6] by Guy Ellcock Pilgrim who was a British geologist and palaeontologist, who discovered 15 lakh years (1.5 million) old prehistoric human teeth and part of a jaw denoting that the ancient people, who were intelligent hominins dating as far back as 15,00,000 ybp Acheulean period,[7] lived in Pinjore region near Chandigarh.[8] Quartzite tools of lower Paleolithic period were excavated in this region extending from Pinjore in Haryana to Nalagarh (Solan district) in Himachal Pradesh.[9]

The coming of Homo sapiensEdit

Main article: Peopling of India

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA dates the immigration of Homo sapiens to India to 75,000 to 50,000 years ago.[10][11] Cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest non-mitochondrial record of Homo sapiens in the ancient India. They were dated to 34,000 years ago. (Kennedy 2000: 180). For finds from the Belan in southern Uttar Pradesh, India radiocarbon data have indicated an age of 18,000-17,000 years.

 
Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India.

At the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka humans lived throughout the Upper Paleolithic (10th to 8th millennia BCE), revealing cave paintings dating to c. 30,000 BCE,[12][13] and there are small cup like depressions at the end of the Auditorium Rock Shelter, which is dated to nearly 100,000 years;[14] the Sivaliks and the Potwar (modern-day Pakistan) region also exhibit many vertebrate fossil remains and paleolithic tools. Chert, jasper and quartzite were often used by humans during this period.

PaleolithicEdit

The Paleolithic period in India is traditionally divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic periods. This era falls within the broader geologic Pleistocene Epoch, which spans from approximately 25.8 lakh years ago (2.58 million years) (Ma) to 11,700 years ago (Ka).[15] Consequently, the terms Early Pleistocene and Middle Pleistocene are frequently used as overlapping geological timeframes in discussions regarding the Paleolithic.

Lower PaleolithicEdit

The Lower Paleolithic period in the Indian subcontinent represents the earliest phase of hominid activity in the region and corresponds chronologically with the Early Pleistocene. This archaeological record, spanning from approximately 26 lakh years ago (2.6 million) (Ma)[16] to around 3,00,000 years ago (Ka), is characterised by evidence of lithic technology. Notable among these are the Acheulean industry, often attributed to early hominids such as Homo erectus, and the Soanian industry, named after the Soan River, a tributary of the Indus River.[17] Additionally, distinct Pre-Acheulean lithic assemblages have also been identified during this period.

Siwalik Hills (Pre-Acheulean)Edit

The Masol site, located in the Siwalik Frontal Range north of Chandigarh, India, was surveyed between 2009 and 2011 as part of an Indo-French research program supported by Professor Yves Coppens, the Collège de France, the Academy of Sciences, and the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[18]

This site yielded over 1,469 fossils within a stratigraphic layer that has been confirmed through paleomagnetic dating to be approximately 26 lakh years old (Ma). Among these fossils, there were 45 exhibiting green fractures, 12 showing carnivore traces, and 3 with cut marks found on a tibia shaft from a large herbivore, specifically a bovid shaft, and a rib from a Stegodon (Stegadon insignis).[19] While critics have attributed similar types of bone markings found elsewhere to large predators or trampling,[20] researchers at the Masol site concluded that the "anthropic origin can be in no doubt" based on multiple lines of evidence. Notably, the markings closely matched experimental cut marks produced by quartzite edges. Additionally, taphonomic analysis of the Masol site did not indicate dispersal caused by a natural disaster nor provide evidence for animal predation on such large prey. Furthermore, researchers observed a statistically significant frequency of sharp cut marks—3 out of 1,469 fossils—compared to other sites, such as Java, Indonesia, where only 5 bones out of 30,000 exhibited similar markings in a locale with substantial fossil evidence of Homo erectus.[21]

Evidence of anthropic cut marks on fossilized bone found in the Himalayan foothills, dated to approximately 26 lakh years ago (Ma), positions India as a significant center of hominin evolution. This finding suggests that the region may have been an early witness to scavenging behaviors, akin to those observed at sites such as Dikika, Ethiopia (3.4 Ma),[22] and Lomekwi, Kenya (3.2 Ma).[23] Both of these sites are considered to be earlier and located further from Africa than previously thought, highlighting the potential for India to play a crucial role in understanding the behavioral and evolutionary patterns of early hominins.[24]

Pothohar Plateau (Pre-Acheulean)Edit

While the Masol site provides evidence of quartzite cut marks, other sites in the region reveal the presence of stone tools capable of producing such marks. Riwat, located in the Pothohar Plateau, is recognized as one of the earliest sites containing Pre-Acheulean stone tools, with dates estimated around 25 lakh years ago (Ma). Similarly, the Pabbi Hills (modern-day Northern region of Pakistan) have yielded stone tools dated between 2.2 and 0.9 Ma. The stone tools discovered at these sites, which include both light and heavy-duty implements such as simple end-choppers, represent a distinct and older lithic technology that is separate from the Acheulean and Soanian traditions. This underscores the diversity of early hominid tool-making practices in the region and their significance in understanding the technological evolution of hominins in the ancient India.

Earliest Acheulean SitesEdit

The Attirampakkam site, located near Chennai, was first identified by British geologist Robert Bruce Foote in the 1860s. It has yielded some of the oldest known Acheulean tools not only in India but globally, suggesting that hominins on the Indian subcontinent were already adept at creating bifacial tools, handaxes, and cleavers around 15 lakh years ago (Ma). This dating, supported by paleomagnetic and 26Al/10Be burial dating techniques, positions India's oldest Acheulean tools as contemporaneous with those found in Africa and Central Asia, thereby challenging the traditional narrative of Acheulean colonisation. This raises the possibility of either an earlier dispersal of these technologies or independent development across multiple continents.

Isampur, located in Karnataka, India, is one of over 200 Lower Paleolithic Acheulian sites in the Hunasagi and Baichbal valleys, dated to approximately 1.27 Ma. While older assemblages have been discovered at Attirampakkam and Bori in Maharashtra (1.4 Ma), Isampur stands out as a unique archaeological site functioning as a quarry for lithic manufacturing, where more than 15,000 artifacts have been unearthed. This site provides significant insights into a comprehensive range of early hominin tool-making processes, including the selection of limestone slabs, the removal of large flakes, and the shaping of tools into bifaces such as handaxes and cleavers through secondary flaking techniques. Collectively, these findings underscore the importance of the Indian subcontinent in the early evolution of hominin technology and behavior.

Acheulean Assemblages and Homo erectus in the Indian subcontinentEdit

The presence of Homo erectus in the Indian subcontinent is primarily inferred from lithic assemblages that fall within the temporal range of the species and their association with Acheulian tools, a correlation established at various global sites, including other regions of Asia.

Acheulean assemblages have been identified across numerous locations in the Indian subcontinent (ancient India), including the Kortallayar Valley in Tamil Nadu, the Hunsgi-Baichbal Valleys in Karnataka (notably at Isampur), Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra, Didwana in Rajasthan, and the rock shelters of Bhimbetka along with surrounding open-air sites in the Vindhya hills of Madhya Pradesh. These findings indicate that Acheulean technology was not limited to a specific area but was prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent. This widespread distribution of lithic artifacts suggests that early hominins, such as Homo erectus, had a broad geographical presence across the region, contributing to the understanding of their behavioral patterns and adaptability in diverse environments.

Middle PaleolithicEdit

The Middle Paleolithic in the Indian subcontinent is characterised by the advent of flake-based technologies, which imply a higher level of planning and the emergence of early symbolic behavior. These developments may reflect the activities of early anatomically modern humans.

The transition to the Middle Paleolithic in the Indian subcontinent has been significantly illuminated by findings at Attirampakkam, an open-air site that showcases a lithic industry spanning over a millennium. This quarry site not only contains some of the earliest Acheulean assemblages in the Indian subcontinent, dated to approximately 15 lakh years ago (Ma), but also features the earliest Middle Paleolithic assemblages, dated to around 3,85,000 years ago (Ka).

In a notable publication in Nature in 2018, a research team led by Shanti Pappu reported the discovery of over 7,000 artifacts at Attirampakkam, many of which exhibit evidence of the Levallois technique. This finding challenges long-held assumptions regarding the Out of Africa migration theory, as Levallois tools have traditionally been linked with Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens. The artifacts from Attirampakkam, dated to 385 Ka, represent not only the earliest instances of this technology outside Africa but are also contemporaneous with the earliest known African Levallois point, which dates to 400 Ka in East Africa's Kapthurin Formation. This discovery significantly predates the previously accepted timeline of 130 Ka for the migration of modern humans from Africa into Eurasia, suggesting a more complex narrative regarding the spread of early hominins and their technological innovations.

The broader implications of the findings from Attirampakkam remain a topic of ongoing debate in the field of paleoanthropology. Shanti Pappu, the lead author of the 2018 Nature article, has been cautious not to assign the tools to any specific hominin species. However, she suggests that these artifacts might indicate an earlier arrival of Homo sapiens in India, thereby supporting a more intricate and non-linear migration pattern out of Africa.

Paleoanthropologist John Hawks, who was not involved in the study, remarked that the data from Attirampakkam challenge the previously held belief that modern humans spread from Africa primarily due to significant technological superiority over archaic human species. This perspective shifts the focus from a linear model of migration to one that recognises the complexity of interactions between different hominin groups.

Additionally, independent pre-publication peer reviewer Michael Petraglia described the discovery as a "marvellous" contribution to our understanding of human history in the Indian subcontinent. He emphasized that these findings help bridge a critical knowledge gap spanning from 4,00,000 years ago (Ka) to 1,75,000 Ka, thereby enriching the narrative of human evolution and dispersal in the region. Collectively, these insights underscore the need for a reevaluation of the dynamics of early human migration and technological development. Petraglia considers these artifacts as evidence of an independent advancement made by early humans in Attirampakkam:

"Rather than equating technologies from Europe to Africa to South Asia, you can also recast it as independent invention by large-brained early humans."

The question of whether the Levallois tools found at Attirampakkam were crafted by early modern humans residing in India well before the widely accepted timeline for migration out of Africa, or by earlier hominin species such as Homo heidelbergensis, remains unresolved due to the lack of accompanying DNA or fossil evidence. This ambiguity highlights the challenges in definitively attributing these technological artifacts to a specific hominin lineage. Without direct evidence linking the tools to a particular species, interpretations regarding their creators and the implications for human migration patterns continue to be speculative. The ongoing research in this area underscores the importance of integrating archaeological findings with genetic and fossil data to gain a clearer understanding of the evolutionary history of hominins in India.

Narmada ValleyEdit

The Narmada Valley in central India has provided significant evidence of two distinct hominin populations during the Middle to early Late Pleistocene, approximately 2,50,000 years ago (Ka) to 70 Ka. Fossils discovered by anthropologist Anek Sankhyan include robust yet unusually short clavicles, suggesting the presence of a previously unrecognized "short-stocky" hominin. This population appears to have coexisted with a larger-bodied hominin, often referred to as "Acheulian Man", known for its association with Acheulean stone tool industries.

The findings from the Narmada Valley contribute to our understanding of hominin diversity and adaptation in the region during this period. The existence of these two distinct populations raises intriguing questions about their interactions, ecological niches, and the factors that may have influenced their morphological differences. As research continues, these discoveries will likely provide further insights into the complexities of human evolution in India during the Pleistocene epoch.[25]

Early Hominins of Deccan PlateauEdit

NeolithicEdit

 
Stone Age writing of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India (6,000 BCE)
Further information: Bhirrana, Mehrgarh, and Neolithic Tamil Nadu

The aceramic Neolithic (Mehrgarh I, Baluchistan, Pakistan, also dubbed "Early Food Producing Era") lasts c. 7000 - 5500 BCE. The ceramic Neolithic lasts up to 3300 BCE, blending into the Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around the 7th millennium BCE.[26][27] Recently another site along the ancient Saraswati riverine system in the present day state of Haryana in India called Bhirrana has been discovered yielding a dating of around 7600 BCE for its Neolithic levels.[28]

 
Ketavaram rock paintings, Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh (6000 B.C.)

In South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in the Andhra-Karnataka region that expanded later into Tamil Nadu. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in the Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.[29] The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur, 24 kilometers from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 12 urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, husks, grains of charred rice and Neolithic celts, confirming the presence of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago. Archaeologists have made plans to return to Adhichanallur as a source of new knowledge in the future.[30][31]

See alsoEdit

NotesEdit

  1. ↑ Kennedy, K. A. R.; Deraniyagala, S. U.; Roertgen, W. J.; Chiment, J.; Disotell, T. (April 1987). "Upper Pleistocene Fossil Hominids From Sri Lanka". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 72 (4): 441–461. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330720405. PMID 3111269.
  2. ↑ Parth R. Chauhan. Distribution of Acheulian sites in the Siwalik region Archived 2012-01-04 at the Wayback Machine. An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective.
  3. ↑ Kennedy 2000, p. 136.
  4. ↑ Kennedy 2000, p. 160.
  5. ↑ Manmohan Kumar : Archaeology of Ambala and Kurukshetra Districts, Haryana, 1978, Mss, pp.240-241.
  6. ↑ Haryana Samvad, Oct 2018, p38-40.
  7. ↑ Early Pleistocene Presence of Acheulian Hominins in South India
  8. ↑ Pilgrim, Guy, E. 'New Shivalik Primates and their Bearing on the Question, of the Evolution of Man and the Anthropoides, Records of the Geological Survey of India, 1915, Vol.XIV, pp. 2-61.
  9. ↑ Haryana Gazateer, Revennue Dept of Haryana, Capter-V.
  10. ↑ Alice Roberts (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. p. 90.
  11. ↑ James & Petraglia 2005, S6.
  12. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2010-09-30). The Hindus: An Alternative History. Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 9780199593347.
  13. ↑ Mark M. Jarzombek (2014-05-27). Architecture of First Societies: A Global Perspective. John Wiley & Sons. p. 62. ISBN 9781118421055.
  14. ↑ Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India. "World Heritage Sites - Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka". Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
  15. ↑ "Major divisions | Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy". Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Dambricourt2016
  17. ↑ Gwen Robbins Schug; Subhash R. Walimbe (13 April 2016). A Companion to South Asia in the Past. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-1-119-05547-1.
  18. ↑ Dambricourt Malassé, Anne; Moigne, Anne-Marie; Singh, Mukesh; Calligaro, Thomas; Karir, Baldev; Gaillard, Claire; Kaur, Amandeep; Bhardwaj, Vipnesh; Pal, Surinder; Abdessadok, Salah; Chapon Sao, Cécile; Gargani, Julien; Tudryn, Alina; Garcia Sanz, Miguel (February 2016). "Intentional cut marks on bovid from the Quranwala zone, 2.6 Ma, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 15 (3–4): 317–339. Bibcode:2016CRPal..15..317D. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2015.09.019.
  19. ↑ Moigne, Anne-Marie; Dambricourt Malassé, Anne; Singh, Mukesh; Kaur, Amandeep; Gaillard, Claire; Karir, Baldev; Pal, Surinder; Bhardwaj, Vipnesh; Abdessadok, Salah; Chapon Sao, Cécile; Gargani, Julien; Tudryn, Alina (2016). "The faunal assemblage of the paleonto-archeological localities of the Late Pliocene Quranwala Zone, Masol Formation, Siwalik Range, NW India". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 15 (3–4): 359–378. Bibcode:2016CRPal..15..359M. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2015.09.016.
  20. ↑ "Butchery or trampling? Controversy marks ancient animal bones". www.earthmagazine.org. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  21. ↑ Choi, Kildo (2003). Subsistence and tool use behavior of Homo erectus in Java: An experimental and taphonomic approach (Thesis). ProQuest 305281633.[page needed]
  22. ↑ Fornai, Cinzia; Bookstein, Fred L.; Weber, Gerhard W. (August 2015). "Variability of Australopithecus second maxillary molars from Sterkfontein Member 4". Journal of Human Evolution. 85: 181–192. Bibcode:2015JHumE..85..181F. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.05.013. PMID 26163295.
  23. ↑ Harmand, Sonia; Lewis, Jason E.; Feibel, Craig S.; Lepre, Christopher J.; Prat, Sandrine; Lenoble, Arnaud; Boës, Xavier; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brenet, Michel; Arroyo, Adrian; Taylor, Nicholas; Clément, Sophie; Daver, Guillaume; Brugal, Jean-Philip; Leakey, Louise (May 2015). "3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. PMID 25993961.
  24. ↑ Dambricourt Malassé, Anne (February 2016). "The first Indo-French Prehistorical Mission in Siwaliks and the discovery of anthropic activities at 2.6 million years". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 15 (3–4): 281–294. Bibcode:2016CRPal..15..281D. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2015.12.001.
  25. ↑ Sankhyan, A. R. (2012). "Fossil evidence for pygmy-sized hominins in the Narmada Valley". Current Science. Indian Academy of Sciences. 103 (1): 100–102. JSTOR 24089355. Retrieved 2024-11-20.
  26. ↑ Fuller, Dorian (2006). "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" (PDF). Journal of World Prehistory. 20: 42. doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9006-8. S2CID 189952275.
  27. ↑ Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa, District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28" Archived 2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ↑ "Haryana's Bhirrana oldest Harappan site, Rakhigarhi Asia's largest: ASI". Times of India. 15 April 2015.
  29. ↑ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1976). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-0-19-560686-7.
  30. ↑ Subramanian, T. S. (2004-05-26). "Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 2004-07-01. Retrieved 2007-07-31.
  31. ↑ Zvelebil, Kamil A. (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-90-04-09365-2. The most interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered at Adichanallur. There is a series of urn burials. seem to be related to the megalithic complex.

ReferencesEdit

  • Kennedy, Kenneth Adrian Raine (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: Palaeoanthropology of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472110131.
  • James, Hannah V. A.; Petraglia, Michael D. (December 2005). "Modern Human Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of South Asia" (PDF). Current Anthropology. 46 (Supplement): S3. doi:10.1086/444365. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002B-0DBC-F. S2CID 12529822. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2006.
  • Misra, V. N. (November 2001). "Prehistoric human colonization of India". Journal of Biosciences. 26 (4): 491–531. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.628.6715. doi:10.1007/BF02704749. PMID 11779962. S2CID 26248907.
  • Biagi P, Kazi M M e Negrino F. 1996. An Acheulian workshop at Ziarat Pir Shaban on the Rohri Hills (Sindh - Pakistan). South Asian Studies, 12: 49–62. Cambridge.
  • Biagi P, Kazi M.M, Madella M e Ottomano C. 1998-2000 - Excavations at the Late Palaeolithic site of ZPS2 in the Rohri Hills, Sindh, Pakistan. Origini, XXII: 111–133. Roma.
  • Biagi P. 2003-2004 - The Mesolithic Settlement of Sindh (Pakistan): A Preliminary Assessment. Praehistoria, 4-5: 195–220. Miskolc.
  • Biagi P. 2011 - Late (Upper) Palaeolithic Sites at Jhimpir in Lower Sindh (Pakistan). In Taskiran H., Kartal M., Özcelik K., Kösem M.B. and Kartal G. (eds.) Iş?n Yalç?nkaya'ya Armagan. Ankara University, Ankara: 67–84.
  • Biagi P. and Nisbet R. 2011 - The Palaeolithic sites at Ongar in Sindh, Pakistan: a precious archaeological resource in danger. Antiquity Project Gallery. Antiquity 85 (329): 1–6. August 2011. http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/biagi329/. Cambridge.
  • P. Biagi and E. Starnini 2014 - The Levallois Mousterian assemblages of Sindh (Pakistan) and their relations with the Middle Palaeolithic in the Indian Subcontinent. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia, 42 (1): 18-32 (Elsevier English edition). Doi: 10.1016/j.aeae.2014.10.002.
  • P. Biagi 2015 - Modeling the Past: The Paleoethnological Evidence. In W. Henke, I Tattersall (eds) Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg (2nd revised Edition): 817-843 Doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-27800-6_24-3.
  • P. Biagi 2017 - Why so many different stones? The Late (Upper) Palaeolithic of Sindh reconsidered. Journal of Asian Civilizations, 40 (1): 1-40.
  • P. Biagi and E. Starnini E. 2018 - Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the Indus Valley? The Middle and Late (Upper) Palaeolithic Settlement of Sindh, a Forgotten Region of the Indian Subcontinent. In: Nishiaki Y. and Akazawa T. (eds.) The Middle and Upper Paleolithic Archeology of the Levant and Beyond. Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans Series. Springer, Singapore: 175–197. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6826-3_12.

External linksEdit

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