Kurukh language: Difference between revisions

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| name            = Kurukh
| name            = Kurukh
| altname          = Kurux, Oraon, Uraon
| altname          = Kurux, Oraon, Uraon
| nativename      = {{huge|{{lang|kru-Tols|𑷊𑶲̃𑷗𑶲𑷖}}}}<span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.65;"><br /><small>{{lang|kru-Deva|कुँड़ुख़ (उराँव)}} • {{lang|kru-Beng|কুড়ুখ্}} • {{lang|kru-Orya|କୁଡ଼ୁଖ୍}}</small></span>
| nativename      = {{huge|{{lang|kru-Tols|𑷊𑶲̃𑷗𑶲𑷖}}}}<span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.65;"><br /><small>{{lang|kru-Deva|कुँड़ुख़ (उराँव)}} , {{lang|kru-Beng|কুড়ুখ্}} , {{lang|kru-Orya|କୁଡ଼ୁଖ୍}}</small></span>
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|kru|kũɽux|}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|kru|kũɽux|}}
| image            = Kurukh in Kurukh Banna and Tolong Siki.png
| image            = Kurukh in Kurukh Banna and Tolong Siki.png
| imagescale      = 1.0
| imagescale      = 1
| imagealt        = 'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom)
| imagealt        = 'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom)
| imagecaption    = 'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom)
| imagecaption    = 'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom)
| states          = [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Nepal]]
| states          = [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Nepal]]
| region          = [[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]], [[West Bengal]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Tripura]]<ref name="Kurux"/>
| region          = [[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]], [[West Bengal]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Tripura]]<ref name="Kurux">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kru|title=Kurux|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-11|language=en}}</ref>
| ethnicity        = {{unbulleted list|[[Kurukh people|Kurukh]]|[[Kisan people|Kisan]]}}
| ethnicity        = {{unbulleted list|[[Kurukh people|Kurukh]]|[[Kisan people|Kisan]]}}
| speakers        = 2.28 million
| speakers        = 2.28 million
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| mapcaption      = Distribution of Kurukh speakers in Blue.
| mapcaption      = Distribution of Kurukh speakers in Blue.
| map2            = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| map2            = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapscale        = 1.0
| mapscale        = 1
| mapcaption2      = Kurux is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''
| mapcaption2      = Kurukh is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''
| notice          = IPA
| notice          = IPA
}}
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym
{{Infobox ethnonym
|person=Kur̤u<u>kh</u>
|person=Kur̤u<u>kh</u>
|people=Kur̤u<u>kh</u>aṟ
|people=Kur̤u<u>kh</u>ar
|language=Kur̤u<u>kh</u>
|language=Kur̤u<u>kh</u> Kacchi
|country=Kur̤u<u>kh</u> Xēxēl
}}
}}
'''Kurukh''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʊr|ʊ|x}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʊr|ʊ|k}};<ref>{{OED|Kurukh}}</ref> [[Devanagari]]: कुँड़ुख़, {{IPA|kru|kũɽux|ipa}}), also '''Kurux''', '''Oraon''' or '''Uranw''' ([[Devanagari]]: उराँव, {{IPA|kru|uraːũ̯|ipa}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nepa1253 |title = Glottolog 4.5 - Nepali Kurux}}</ref> is a [[North Dravidian]] language spoken by the [[Kurukh people|Kurukh]] (Oraon) and [[Kisan people|Kisan]] people of [[East India]]. It is spoken by about two million people in the Indian states of [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Tripura]], as well as by 65,000 in northern [[Bangladesh]], 28,600 of a dialect called Uranw in [[Nepal]] and about 5,000 in [[Bhutan]]. The most closely related language to Kurukh is [[Malto language|Malto]]; together with [[Brahui language|Brahui]], all three languages form the [[North Dravidian]] branch of the [[Dravidian language family]]. It is marked as being in a "vulnerable" state in UNESCO's list of [[endangered language]]s.<ref name=guardian-unesco-list>{{cite web|last1=Evans|first1=Lisa|title=Endangered Languages: The Full List|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/apr/15/language-extinct-endangered|work=The Guardian|date=15 April 2011 }}</ref> The Kisan dialect has 206,100 speakers as of 2011.
'''Kurukh''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʊr|ʊ|x}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʊr|ʊ|k}};<ref>{{OED|Kurukh}}</ref> [[Devanagari]]: कुँड़ुख़, {{IPA|kru|kũɽux|ipa}}), also '''Kurux''', '''Oraon''' or '''Uranw''' ([[Devanagari]]: उराँव, {{IPA|kru|uraːũ̯|ipa}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nepa1253 |title = Glottolog 4.5 - Nepali Kurux}}</ref> is a [[North Dravidian]] language spoken by the [[Kurukh people|Kurukh]] (Oraon) and [[Kisan people|Kisan]] people of [[East India]]. It is spoken by about two million people in the Indian states of [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Tripura]], as well as by 65,000 in northern [[Bangladesh]], 28,600 of a dialect called Uranw in [[Nepal]] and about 5,000 in [[Bhutan]]. The most closely related language to Kurukh is [[Malto language|Malto]]; together with [[Brahui language|Brahui]], all three languages form the [[North Dravidian]] branch of the [[Dravidian language family]]. It is marked as being in a "vulnerable" state in UNESCO's list of [[endangered language]]s.<ref name=guardian-unesco-list>{{cite web|last1=Evans|first1=Lisa|title=Endangered Languages: The Full List|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/apr/15/language-extinct-endangered|work=The Guardian|date=15 April 2011 }}</ref> The Kisan dialect has 206,100 speakers as of 2011.


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
According to [[Edward Tuite Dalton]], "Oraon" is an [[exonym]] assigned by neighbouring [[Munda people]], meaning "to roam". They call themselves Kurukh.<ref>Dalton E. T. ''The Oraons: Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal''. 1872. Section 1, page 215.</ref> According to [[Sten Konow]], Uraon will mean ''man'' as in the Dravidian Kurukh language, the word Urapai, Urapo and Urang means ''Man''. The word Kurukh may be derived from the word ''Kur'' or ''Kurcana'' means "shout" and "stammer". So Kurukh will mean 'a speaker'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4I3l9WL4BIC&pg=PR11|title=Grammar of the Kurukh Language|publisher=Mittal Publications|author=Ferdinand Hahn|page=xii|year=1985|access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref>
According to [[Edward Tuite Dalton]], "Oraon" is an [[exonym]] assigned by neighbouring [[Munda people]], meaning "to roam". They call themselves Kurukh.<ref>Dalton E. T. ''The Oraons: Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal''. 1872. Section 1, page 215.</ref> According to [[Sten Konow]], Uraon will mean ''man'' as in the Dravidian [[Kurukh language]], the word Urapai, Urapo and Urang means ''Man''. The word Kurukh may be derived from the word ''Kur'' or ''Kurcana'' means "shout" and "stammer". So Kurukh will mean 'a speaker'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4I3l9WL4BIC&pg=PR11|title=Grammar of the Kurukh Language|publisher=Mittal Publications|author=Ferdinand Hahn|page=xii|year=1985|access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref>


==Classification==
==Classification==
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}}</ref> and is closely related to Sauria Paharia and Kumarbhag Paharia, which are often together referred to as [[Malto language|Malto]].<ref>PS Subrahmanyam, "Kurukh", in [[ELL2]]. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' assigns Nepali Kurux a separate iso code, ''kxl''.</ref>
}}</ref> and is closely related to Sauria Paharia and Kumarbhag Paharia, which are often together referred to as [[Malto language|Malto]].<ref>PS Subrahmanyam, "Kurukh", in [[ELL2]]. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' assigns Nepali Kurux a separate iso code, ''kxl''.</ref>
[[File:DravidianTree.png|thumb|Dravidian language tree]]
[[File:DravidianTree.png|thumb|Dravidian language tree]]


==Writing systems==
==Writing systems==
{{multiple image
| align            = left
| total_width      = 320
| image1            = Kurukh Banna script chart.png
| alt1              =
| caption1          = Kurukh Banna script chart for the Kurukh language
| image2            = Tolong_Siki_Narayan_Oraon.jpg
| alt2              =
| caption2          = Tolong Siki script (bold), next to Devanagari and Latin script
| footer            =
| direction        = horizontal
}}


Kurukh is written in [[Devanagari]], a script also used to write [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and other [[Indo-Aryan languages]].
Kurukh is written in [[Devanagari]], a script also used to write [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and other [[Indo-Aryan languages]].
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In India, Kurukh is mostly spoken in [[Raigarh district|Raigarh]], [[Surguja district|Surguja]], [[Jashpur district|Jashpur]] of [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Gumla district|Gumla]], [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]], [[Lohardaga district|Lohardaga]], [[Latehar district|Latehar]], [[Simdega district|Simdega]] of [[Jharkhand]]; [[Jharsuguda district|Jharsuguda]], [[Sundargarh district|Sundargarh]] and [[Sambalpur district]] of [[Odisha]].
In India, Kurukh is mostly spoken in [[Raigarh district|Raigarh]], [[Surguja district|Surguja]], [[Jashpur district|Jashpur]] of [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Gumla district|Gumla]], [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]], [[Lohardaga district|Lohardaga]], [[Latehar district|Latehar]], [[Simdega district|Simdega]] of [[Jharkhand]]; [[Jharsuguda district|Jharsuguda]], [[Sundargarh district|Sundargarh]] and [[Sambalpur district]] of [[Odisha]].


It is also spoken in [[Jalpaiguri district]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Tripura]] states by Kurukh who are mostly Tea-garden workers.<ref name="Kurux">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kru|title=Kurux|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-11|language=en}}</ref>
It is also spoken in [[Jalpaiguri district]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Tripura]] states by Kurukh who are mostly Tea-garden workers.<ref name="Kurux"/>


==Speakers==
==Speakers==
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{{main|Kurukh phonology}}
{{main|Kurukh phonology}}


The phonology of '''True Kurukh''' represents the language in its native Dravidian state. It is defined by a strict absence of native aspirated consonants and a system where voicing in stops is an allophonic process rather than a phonemic distinction.
=== Vowels ===
 
Kurukh has five cardinal vowels. Each vowel has long, short nasalized and long nasalized counterparts.{{sfn|Kobayashi|Tirkey|2017|pp=23–24}}
===Vowels (Sayōr̤ 12)===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width: auto; border: 1px solid #333; border-collapse: collapse; margin-right: auto; font-size: 0.95em;"
|+ style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em; padding: 5px;" | Table 1: Kurukh Vowel Inventory
|- style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom: 2px solid #333;"
! !! [[Front vowel|Front]] !! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | [[High vowel|High]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|i}} ⟨i⟩, {{IPA link|iː}} ⟨ī⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|u}} ⟨u⟩, {{IPA link|uː}} ⟨ū⟩
|-
! style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|e}} ⟨e⟩, {{IPA link|eː}} ⟨ē⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|o}} ⟨o⟩, {{IPA link|oː}} ⟨ō⟩
|-
! style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | [[Low vowel|Low]]
| style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|a}} ⟨a⟩, {{IPA link|aː}} ⟨ā⟩ || style="text-align: center;" |
|- style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"
! style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | [[Diphthong]]
| style="text-align: center; font-style: italic; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|ai̯}} ⟨ay⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; font-style: italic; padding: 5px;" | {{IPA link|au̯}} ⟨aw⟩
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #333;"
! colspan="4" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; font-size: 0.85em; padding: 8px; text-align: left; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3em;" |
* Each cardinal vowel exists in four states: short, long, and their respective nasalized forms.
* Native diphthongs are glide-vowel sequences.
|}
 
===Consonants (Hawōr̤ 21)===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width: auto; border: 1px solid #333; border-collapse: collapse; margin-top: 10px; margin-right: auto; font-size: 0.9em;"
|+ style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em; padding: 5px;" | Table 2: Native Consonant Inventory (Hawōr̤ 21)
|- style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom: 2px solid #333;"
! colspan="2" | [[Manner of articulation|Manner]] !! [[Bilabial]] !! [[Dentalveolar]] !! [[Retroflex]] !! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] !! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | [[Occlusive]]
! style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; padding: 0 5px;" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|m}} ⟨mă⟩ || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|n}} ⟨nă⟩ || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ɳ}} ⟨ṇă⟩ || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ɲ}} ⟨ñă⟩ || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ŋ}} ⟨ṅă⟩ ||
|-
! style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; padding: 0 5px;" | [[Plosive|Stop]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|p}} ⟨pă⟩<br/><span style="font-size: 0.8em; color: #777; font-style: italic;">↳ {{IPA link|b}} allo.</span>
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|t}} ⟨tă⟩<br/><span style="font-size: 0.8em; color: #777; font-style: italic;">↳ {{IPA link|d}} allo.</span>
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ʈ}} ⟨ṭă⟩<br/><span style="font-size: 0.8em; color: #777; font-style: italic;">↳ {{IPA link|ɖ}} allo.</span>
| style="text-align: center;" |
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|k}} ⟨kă⟩<br/><span style="font-size: 0.8em; color: #777; font-style: italic;">↳ {{IPA link|ɡ}} allo.</span>
|
|- style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | [[Affricate]]
! colspan="4" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: center;" | [[Voiceless]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|tʃ}} ⟨că⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | ||
|-
! colspan="4" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: center;" | [[Voiced]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|dʒ}} ⟨jă⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | ||
|- style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"
! colspan="3" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | [[Fricative]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|s}} ⟨să⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|x}} ⟨<u>kh</u>ă⟩ ||
|- style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"
! rowspan="4" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
! colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: center;" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|l}} ⟨lă⟩ || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ɭ}} ⟨ḷă⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | ||
|-
! rowspan="3" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em;" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
! style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: center;" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|r}} ⟨ṟă⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | ||
|-
! style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: center;" | [[Tap consonant|Tap]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ɾ}} ⟨ră⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: center;" | [[Approximant]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|ɻ}} ⟨r̤ă⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" |
|- style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"
! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | [[Semivowel|Semi-Vowel]]
| style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|w}} ⟨wă⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|j}} ⟨yă⟩ || style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center; padding: 3px;" | {{IPA link|h}} ⟨hă⟩
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #333;"
! colspan="8" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; font-size: 0.85em; padding: 8px; text-align: left; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3em;" |
* Native Kurukh Consonants utilize an '''Abugida Script''' with an '''inherited ă vowel'''.
* This new script prioritizes a restored phonology by excluding the aspirated consonants (Indo-Aryan influence) found in earlier scripts like Kurukh Banna and Tolong Siki.
* As the unique script characters are currently in the '''development phase''', Latin placeholders are used to represent the underlying phonetic structure.
|}
 
===Phonological Observations===
 
* '''Status of Voiced Stops:''' In native [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], [[Voiced stop|voiced stops]] ([b], [d], [ḍ], [ɡ]) are strictly [[Allophone|allophonic]].
* '''Dentalveolar Rhotic Contrast:''' True Kurukh features both the [[Alveolar trill]] {{IPA|/r/}} and the [[Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|alveolar tap]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}}.
* '''Retroflex Rhotic:''' The [[retroflex approximant]] {{IPA|/ɻ/}}, typically represented as '''r̤''' or '''ḻ'''.
* '''Aspiration:''' Entirely absent in the "True Kurukh" [[Phonemic inventory|inventory]]; any [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated sounds]] are [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] imports.
* '''Intervocalic Lenition:''' A core [[Phonological rule|rule]] where [[Stop consonant|stops]] undergo [[Lenition|softening]] between [[Vowel|vowels]].
 
===Elimination of Aspiration===
In standard spoken Kurukh, [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated stops]] like {{IPA|/bʰ/}}, {{IPA|/dʰ/}}, {{IPA|/ḍʰ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʰ/}} are common due to centuries of [[Language contact|contact]] with [[Nagpuri language|Nagpuri]] and [[Hindi]]. In True Kurukh, these are recognized as [[Loanword|non-native]]. The [[Language revitalization|revival process]] replaces these imports with their [[Tenuis consonant|unaspirated]] equivalents or native [[Fricative|fricatives]] (like the [[Velar fricative|velar]] {{IPA|/x/}}), effectively restoring the Dravidian "hardness" of the tongue.
 
===From Phonemic to Allophonic Voicing===
Perhaps the most significant shift is the status of [[Voicing (phonetics)|voiced stops]] (''b, d, ḍ, g''). In [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryanized]] Kurukh, these are independent [[Phoneme|phonemes]]. In '''Native True Kurukh''', [[Voicing (phonetics)|voicing]] is '''purely environmental'''. A stop is generally [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] at the beginning of a word but becomes voiced [[Intervocalic consonant|intervocalically]] (between vowels). This "[[Lenition]]" rule simplifies the [[Phonemic inventory|phonemic inventory]] while adding a melodic, [[Fluency|fluid quality]] to spoken sentences.
 
===Restoration of Liquid Contrasts===
Revived Kurukh places heavy emphasis on its [[Liquid consonant|liquid]] ([[Rhotic consonant|rhotic]] and [[Lateral consonant|lateral]]) distinctions:
* '''The Alveolar Contrast:''' Distinguishing the [[Trill consonant|trill]] {{IPA|/r/}} from the [[Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|tap]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}}.
* '''The Retroflex approximant:''' The revival of the rare Dravidian {{IPA|/ɻ/}} (similar to the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] '[[Tamil phonology#Special_letters|zh]]'), which provides the language with its unique [[Acoustic phonetics|acoustic signature]], distinguishing it from the "[[Flap consonant|flapped]]" rhotics of [[Indo-Aryan languages]].
 
===Phonotactic Purity===
The revival enforces native [[Phonotactics|syllable structures]], largely preferring '''[[Syllable#CV_syllable|Consonant-Vowel (CV)]]''' patterns and strictly governing [[Consonant cluster|consonant clusters]]. This "refining" removes the heavy, cluster-laden [[Phonology|phonology]] of borrowed [[Sanskrit|Sanskritized]] terms, opting instead for the rhythmic, [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] flow native to the [[Kurukh people]].
 
===References===
* {{cite book |last=Hahn |first=Ferdinand |title=Kurukh Grammar |year=1900 |publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press |location=Calcutta}}
 
==Pronoun==
The pronominal system of Kurukh (Oraon) exhibits a sophisticated morphological structure based on long-vowel stems and nasal augmentation. While the personal pronouns follow established standard rules of clusivity, the third-person system is currently the subject of linguistic innovation regarding gender categorization.
 
===1. Personal Pronouns===
Personal pronouns distinguish between singular (''-n'') and plural (''-m'') forms. A defining feature is the distinction between **Exclusive** (excluding the listener) and **Inclusive** (including the listener) 1st-person plural forms. Notably, the inclusive form (*nām*) represents a collective identity; therefore, no singular form exists for the inclusive 1st person.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; font-size: 0.85em; line-height: 1.2em;"
|+ style="font-weight: bold; padding: 2px; font-size: 1.1em;" | Table 1: Personal Pronoun Inflection (Standard Kurukh)<ref name="Hanh1900">Hanh, Ferdinand. Kurukh Grammar. Bengal Secretariat Press, 1900. p. 19-24.</ref>
|- style="background-color: #eaecf0;"
! rowspan="3" | Category !! rowspan="3" | Case & Augment !! colspan="2" | <small>Nasal</small><br/>Number Suffix !! rowspan="3" | Functional Notes
|- style="background-color: #eaecf0;"
! Singular !! Plural
|- style="background-color: #eaecf0;"
! ''*-n'' !! ''*-m''
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''1st (Excl.)'''<br/><small>Stem: ''*ē-''</small>
| Nominative || ēn || ēm || rowspan="2" style="text-align: left; padding: 4px; font-size: 0.9em;" | Exclusive: Excludes listener.
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Oblique || eṅ(g)- || em(m)-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''1st (Incl.)'''<br/><small>Stem: ''*nā-''</small>
| Nominative || — || nām || rowspan="2" style="text-align: left; padding: 4px; font-size: 0.9em;" | Inclusive: Includes listener.<br/>'''Plural only.'''
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Oblique || — || nam(m)-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''2nd Person'''<br/><small>Stem: ''*nī-''</small>
| Nominative || nīn || nīm || rowspan="2" style="text-align: left; padding: 4px; font-size: 0.9em;" | Direct address to listener.
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Oblique || niṅ(g)- || nim(m)-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''Reflexive'''<br/><small>Stem: ''*tā-''</small>
| Nominative || tān || tām || rowspan="2" style="text-align: left; padding: 4px; font-size: 0.9em;" | Reflexive: "Self-referential."
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Oblique || taṅ(g)- || tam(m)-
|}
 
===2. Third Person Pronoun===
The third-person pronominal system is fundamentally deictic, mapping grammatical referents onto physical space (Proximal, Medial, and Distal). Historically and in contemporary usage, Kurukh utilizes a '''Binary Gender System''', though a new proposal (2026) suggests a transition to a '''Ternary Gender System'''.
 
====Current Standard: Binary Gender System====
The existing standard in Kurukh categorizes all referents into two groups:<ref name="Hanh1900">Hanh, Ferdinand. Kurukh Grammar. Bengal Secretariat Press, 1900. p. 19-24.</ref>
* '''Masculine:''' Refers specifically to men and deities.
* '''Non-Masculine:''' A composite category that includes women, animals, and all inanimate objects. Both Feminine and Neuter referents traditionally share the same suffixes (typically ''-d'').
 
====New Proposal: Ternary Gender System (2026)====
This linguistic innovation proposes splitting the "Non-Masculine" category to create a three-way distinction. This is achieved by introducing a specific '''Feminine Definite Marker''' (suffix ''*-ḷ'') to distinguish female persons from the Neuter category. This suffix is morphologically derived from the Kurukh terms ''peḷ'' or ''peḷḷō'', meaning "woman" or "girl," effectively distilling the semantic essence of female personhood into a functional grammatical marker.<ref name="Revive2026">Revive Kurukh Linguistic Committee. Proposed Ternary Gender Paradigms for Morphological Innovation. 2026.</ref>


{| class="wikitable" style="width: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #2a4b8d; font-size: 0.82em; line-height: 1.1em; border-collapse: collapse;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ style="font-weight: bold; padding: 5px; font-size: 1.1em;" | Table 2: Third Person Pronominal Matrix (Proposed Ternary Innovation)
|+
|- style="background-color: #2a4b8d; color: white;"
Kurukh simple vowels
! colspan="2" | Deictic Category !! colspan="2" | ''*ī-'' Proximal (Near) !! colspan="2" | ''*Hu-'' Medial (Mid) !! colspan="2" | ''*ā-'' Distal (Far)
!
|- style="background-color: #cfe2ff;"
![[Front vowel|Front]]
! Gender !! Case !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
![[Central vowel|Central]]
|-
![[Back vowel|Back]]
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''Epicene (Hon.)'''<br/><small>Suffix: ''*-ṟ''</small>
| Nom. || īṟ || iwar̤aṟ || Huṟ || Huwar̤aṟ || āṟ || awar̤aṟ
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Obl. || īṟ- || iwar̤aṟ- || Huṟ- || Huwar̤aṟ- || āṟ- || awar̤aṟ-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''Masculine'''<br/><small>Suffix: ''*-s''</small>
| Nom. || īs || iwar̤as || Hus || Huwar̤as || ās || awar̤as
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Obl. || īs- || iwar̤as- || Hus- || Huwar̤as- || ās- || awar̤as-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #e8f5e9; padding: 2px;" | '''Feminine (New Proposal)'''<br/><small>Suffix: ''*-ḷ''</small>
| Nom. || īḷ || iwar̤aḷ || Huḷ || Huwar̤aḷ || āḷ || awar̤aḷ
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Obl. || īḷ- || iwar̤aḷ- || Huḷ- || Huwar̤aḷ- || āḷ- || awar̤aḷ-
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 2px;" | '''Neuter'''<br/><small>Suffix: ''*-d''</small>
![[High vowel|High]]
| Nom. || īd || iwar̤ad || Hud || Huwar̤ad || ād || awar̤ad
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
|-
| style="background-color: #fdf2f2; font-weight: bold;" | Obl. || īd- || iwar̤ad- || Hud- || Huwar̤ad- || ād- || awar̤ad-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align: left; font-size: 90%; background-color: #ffffff; padding: 8px;" |
![[Low vowel|Low]]
'''Technical and Status Notes:'''
|
# '''Status:''' Standard Kurukh is currently binary (Masculine/Non-Masculine). The Feminine category (highlighted green) is a proposed innovation for 2026.
|{{IPA link|a}}
# '''Etymology:''' The lateral retroflex '''-ḷ''' is derived from ''peḷ''/''peḷḷō'' (woman/girl).
|
# '''Innovation:''' This marker creates a separate Feminine gender identity for female persons, removing them from the Neuter group.
# '''Oblique Stems:''' Shaded in red, these stems are utilized when appending case suffixes.
# '''Structure:''' Plural forms follow the formula: [Deictic Base] + [Animacy ''-wa-''] + [Plural ''-r̤a-''] + [Gender Suffix].
|}
|}


===3. Case Suffixes and Declension===
=== Consonants ===
In Kurukh, grammatical cases are formed by appending suffixes to the '''Oblique Stem''' of the pronoun. The genitive system utilizes a stable pronominal suffix alongside person-specific attributive suffixes.
The table below illustrates the articulation of the consonants.{{sfn|Kobayashi|Tirkey|2017|p=33}}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
{| class="wikitable" style="width: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #2a4b8d; font-size: 0.85em; border-collapse: collapse;"
|+Kurukh consonants
|+ style="font-weight: bold; padding: 5px; font-size: 1.1em;" | Table 3: Core Case Suffixes in Kurukh
! colspan="3" |
|- style="background-color: #2a4b8d; color: white;"
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! Case !! Suffix !! Function !! Example
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
|-
! style="padding: 3px;" | Nominative
! colspan="3" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| ∅ || Subject of the sentence || ēn (I)
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| ({{IPA link|ɳ}})
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
|-
! style="padding: 3px;" | Accusative
! rowspan="4" | [[Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
| '''-an''' || Direct object || eṅgan (Me)
! rowspan="2" | {{small|voiceless}}
! {{small|plain}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| {{IPA link|ʈ}}
| {{IPA link|tʃ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
|-
! style="background-color: #e8f5e9; font-weight: bold; padding: 3px;" | Genitive-Pronominal
! {{small|aspirated}}
| style="background-color: #e8f5e9; font-weight: bold;" | '''-ay''' || True Possessive Suffix (Stable across all persons) || eṅgay / āsay (Mine / His)
| {{IPA link|pʰ}}
| {{IPA link|tʰ}}
| {{IPA link|ʈʰ}}
| {{IPA link|tʃʰ}}
| {{IPA link|kʰ}}
|
|-
|-
! style="background-color: #fff3cd; padding: 3px;" | Genitive-Attributive (Personal)
! rowspan="2" | {{small|voiced}}
| style="background-color: #fff3cd; font-weight: bold;" | '''-e''' || Possessive for 1st/2nd Person (Attributive) || eṅge (My...)
! {{small|plain}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|ɖ}}
| {{IPA link|dʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
|-
! style="background-color: #fff3cd; padding: 3px;" | Genitive-Attributive (3rd Person)
! {{small|aspirated}}
| style="background-color: #fff3cd; font-weight: bold;" | '''-in''' || Possessive for 3rd Person (Attributive) || āsin (His...)
| {{IPA link|bʱ}}
| {{IPA link|dʱ}}
| {{IPA link|ɖʱ}}
| {{IPA link|dʒʱ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡʱ}}
|
|-
|-
! style="padding: 3px;" | Dative
! colspan="3" | [[Fricative]]
| '''-āgē''' || Indirect object (To/For) || eṅgāgē
|
| {{IPA link|s}}
|
| ({{IPA link|ʃ}})
| {{IPA link|x}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
|-
! style="padding: 3px;" | Instrumental
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| '''-(a)tī''' || By means of / Agent || eṅgatī
! {{small|plain}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}
| {{IPA link|ɽ}}
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="padding: 3px;" | Ablative
! {{small|aspirated}}
| '''-antī / -le''' || Movement away from / Source || eṅgantī
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɽʱ}}
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="padding: 3px;" | Locative
! colspan="3" | [[Glide consonant|Glide]]
| '''-(a)nū''' || Location (In / On / Inside) || eṅganū
| {{IPA link|w}}
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|}
|}


====Linguistic Note on Genitive-Attributive Split====
* Medially voiced aspirates and voiced plosives + /h/ contrast, there are some minimal pairs like /dʱandha:/ "astonishment" and /dʱandʱa:/ "exertion". Clusters of voiced aspirates and /h/ are possible too as in /madʒʱhi:/ "middle" and /madʒʱis/ "zamindar's agent".{{sfnp|Kobayashi |Tirkey|2017|p=35}}
The Genitive-Attributive category (used when the pronoun modifies a noun) exhibits a categorical split based on the person of the referent:
* Of the nasals, /m, n/ are phonemic; [ɳ] only occurs before retroflex plosives; /ŋ/ mostly occurs before other velars but can occur finally with deletion of previous /g/, there are cases where /ŋg/ and /ng/ contrast; /ɲ/ mostly occurs before post alveolars but /j/ can become /ɲ/ around nasal vowels as in /paɲɲa:/ (or /pãjja:/).{{sfnp|Kobayashi |Tirkey|2017|p=36}}
* '''Personal Category (-e):''' Specifically applied to 1st and 2nd person stems (e.g., ''eṅge'', ''niṅge'').
* '''Third Person Category (-in):''' Specifically applied to 3rd person stems across the deictic matrix (e.g., ''āsin'', ''āḷin'', ''ādin'').
* '''The Stable Suffix (-ay):''' Regardless of the person, the Genitive-Pronominal suffix remains consistently '''-ay''', functioning as a standalone possessive pronoun.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Line 332: Line 235:
===Nouns===
===Nouns===


Kurukh nouns have three grammatical genders, namely masculine, feminine and neuter. To the Kurukh only men are masculine; women and goddesses (evil spirits) are feminine; all others are neutral. Masculine nouns of the third person singular have two forms, the indefinite and the definite. The indefinite is the simplest form of the noun, thus ''āl'' man. The definite form is made by adding ''-as'' for the singular, thus ''ālas'', ("the man").<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | title=Kurukh grammar | date=1911 | publisher=Calcutta Bengal Secretariat Press | url=https://archive.org/details/kurukhgrammar00hahnuoft/page/10/mode/2up }}</ref>  
Kurukh nouns have three grammatical genders, namely masculine, feminine and neuter. To the Kurukh only men are masculine ; women and goddesses (evil spirits) are feminine ; all others are neutral. Masculine nouns of the third person singular have two forms, the indefinite and the definite. The indefinite is the simplest form of the noun, thus ''āl'' man. The definite form is made by adding ''-as'' for the singular, thus ''ālas'', ("the man").<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | title=Kurukh grammar | date=1911 | publisher=Calcutta Bengal Secretariat Press | url=https://archive.org/details/kurukhgrammar00hahnuoft/page/10/mode/2up }}</ref>  


There are only two grammatical numbers, the singular and the plural.<ref name="auto1"/>
There are only two grammatical numbers, the singular and the plural.<ref name="auto1"/>
Line 350: Line 253:
| Accusative || āl'''an''' || āl'''asin''' || āl'''arin'''  
| Accusative || āl'''an''' || āl'''asin''' || āl'''arin'''  
|-
|-
| Ablative || āl'''tī''' || āl'''as tī''' || āl'''artī''', āl'''arintī'''  
| Ablative || āl'''tī''' || āl'''as tī''' || āl'''artī''' , āl'''arintī'''  
|-
|-
| Instrumental || āl '''trī''', āl '''trū''' || - || ālar '''ṭrī''', ālar '''trū'''
| Instrumental || āl '''trī''', āl '''trū''' || - || ālar '''ṭrī''', ālar '''trū'''
Line 378: Line 281:
| Accusative || mukk'''an''' || mukk'''arin'''  
| Accusative || mukk'''an''' || mukk'''arin'''  
|-
|-
| Ablative || mukk'''antī''' || mukk'''artī''', mukk'''arintī'''  
| Ablative || mukk'''antī''' || mukk'''artī''' , mukk'''arintī'''  
|-
|-
| Instrumental || mukkā '''trī''', mukkā '''trū''' || mukkar '''trī''', mukkar '''trū'''
| Instrumental || mukkā '''trī''', mukkā '''trū''' || mukkar '''trī''', mukkar '''trū'''
Line 405: Line 308:
| Accusative || all'''an''' || allā '''guṭhin'''  
| Accusative || all'''an''' || allā '''guṭhin'''  
|-
|-
| Ablative || all'''antī''' || allā '''guṭhi tī''', allā '''guṭhintī'''  
| Ablative || all'''antī''' || allā '''guṭhi tī''' , allā '''guṭhintī'''  
|-
|-
| Instrumental || allā '''trī''', allā '''trū''' || allā '''guṭhi trī''', allā '''guṭhi trū'''
| Instrumental || allā '''trī''', allā '''trū''' || allā '''guṭhi trī''', allā '''guṭhi trū'''
Line 474: Line 377:
Kurukh has a number of alternative names such as Uraon, Kurux, Kunrukh, Kunna, Urang, Morva, and Birhor. Two dialects, Oraon and Kisan, have 73% intelligibility between them. Oraon but not Kisan is currently being standardised. Kisan is currently endangered, with a decline rate of 12.3% from 1991 to 2001.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement8.aspx|title=Census of India: Growth of Non-Scheduled Languages-1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001|last=ORGI|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref>
Kurukh has a number of alternative names such as Uraon, Kurux, Kunrukh, Kunna, Urang, Morva, and Birhor. Two dialects, Oraon and Kisan, have 73% intelligibility between them. Oraon but not Kisan is currently being standardised. Kisan is currently endangered, with a decline rate of 12.3% from 1991 to 2001.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement8.aspx|title=Census of India: Growth of Non-Scheduled Languages-1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001|last=ORGI|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref>


== References ==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
* Hahn, Ferdinand. ''Kurukh Grammar''. Bengal Secretariat Press, 1900.
* Revive Kurukh Linguistic Committee. ''Proposed Ternary Gender Restorations for Morphological Restoration''. 2026.


==Sources==
==Sources==
Line 513: Line 412:


{{DEFAULTSORT:Kurukh Language}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kurukh Language}}
[[Category:Dravidian languages]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
<!-- for Kurukh -->
[[Category:Dravidian languages]] <!-- for Kurukh -->
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Languages of Jharkhand]]

Latest revision as of 13:33, 6 May 2026


Kurukh
Kurux, Oraon, Uraon
Template:Huge
कुँड़ुख़ (उराँव) , কুড়ুখ্ , କୁଡ଼ୁଖ୍
'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom)
'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom)
Pronunciationkru
Native toIndia, Bangladesh, and Nepal
RegionOdisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Bihar, Tripura[1]
Ethnicity
Native speakers
2.28 million (2002–2011)[2][1][3]
Dialects
  • Oraon
  • Kisan
  • Dhangar
Tolong Siki
Kurukh Banna
Devanagari
Odia
Official status
Official language in
India
Language codes
ISO 639-3Variously:
kru – Kurux
kxl – Nepali Kurux (Dhangar)
xis – Kisan
Glottologkuru1301
Distribution of Kurukh speakers in Blue.
Kurukh is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Template:Infobox ethnonym Kurukh (/ˈkʊrʊx/ or /ˈkʊrʊk/;[4] Devanagari: कुँड़ुख़, kru), also Kurux, Oraon or Uranw (Devanagari: उराँव, kru),[5] is a North Dravidian language spoken by the Kurukh (Oraon) and Kisan people of East India. It is spoken by about two million people in the Indian states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal, Assam and Tripura, as well as by 65,000 in northern Bangladesh, 28,600 of a dialect called Uranw in Nepal and about 5,000 in Bhutan. The most closely related language to Kurukh is Malto; together with Brahui, all three languages form the North Dravidian branch of the Dravidian language family. It is marked as being in a "vulnerable" state in UNESCO's list of endangered languages.[6] The Kisan dialect has 206,100 speakers as of 2011.

Etymology[edit | edit source]

According to Edward Tuite Dalton, "Oraon" is an exonym assigned by neighbouring Munda people, meaning "to roam". They call themselves Kurukh.[7] According to Sten Konow, Uraon will mean man as in the Dravidian Kurukh language, the word Urapai, Urapo and Urang means Man. The word Kurukh may be derived from the word Kur or Kurcana means "shout" and "stammer". So Kurukh will mean 'a speaker'.[8]

Classification[edit | edit source]

Kurukh belongs to the Northern Dravidian group of the Dravidian family languages,[9] and is closely related to Sauria Paharia and Kumarbhag Paharia, which are often together referred to as Malto.[10]

Dravidian language tree

Writing systems[edit | edit source]

Kurukh Banna script chart for the Kurukh language
Tolong Siki script (bold), next to Devanagari and Latin script

Kurukh is written in Devanagari, a script also used to write Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali and other Indo-Aryan languages.

In 1991, Basudev Ram Khalkho from Odisha released the Kurukh Banna script. In Sundargarh district of Odisha the Kurukh Banna alphabet is taught and promoted by Kurukh Parha. Fonts have been developed and people are using it widely in books, magazines and other material. The alphabet is also used by Oraon people in the states of Chhattisgarh, Bengal, Jharkhand and Assam.[11]

In 1999, Narayan Oraon, a doctor, invented the alphabetic Tolong Siki script specifically for Kurukh. Many books and magazines have been published in Tolong Siki script, and it saw official recognition by the state of Jharkhand in 2007. The Kurukh Literary Society of India has been instrumental in spreading the Tolong Siki script for Kurukh literature.[12][13]

Geographical distribution[edit | edit source]

Distribution of Kurukh in India, 2011 census

  Jharkhand (47.89%)
  Chhattisgarh (25.99%)
  West Bengal (8.65%)
  Odisha (6.84%)
  Bihar (4.43%)
  Assam (3.69%)
  Other (2.51%)

In India, Kurukh is mostly spoken in Raigarh, Surguja, Jashpur of Chhattisgarh, Gumla, Ranchi, Lohardaga, Latehar, Simdega of Jharkhand; Jharsuguda, Sundargarh and Sambalpur district of Odisha.

It is also spoken in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, Assam and Tripura states by Kurukh who are mostly Tea-garden workers.[1]

Speakers[edit | edit source]

It is spoken by 2,053,000 people from the Oraon and Kisan tribes, with 1,834,000 and 219,000 speakers respectively. The literacy rate is 23% in Oraon and 17% in Kisan. Despite the large number of speakers, the language is considered to be endangered.[14] The governments of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh have introduced the Kurukh language in schools with majority Kurukhar students. Jharkhand and West Bengal both list Kurukh as an official language of their respective states.[15] Bangladesh also has some speakers.

Phonology[edit | edit source]

Main article: Kurukh phonology

Vowels[edit | edit source]

Kurukh has five cardinal vowels. Each vowel has long, short nasalized and long nasalized counterparts.[16]

Kurukh simple vowels
Front Central Back
High i u
Mid e o
Low a

Consonants[edit | edit source]

The table below illustrates the articulation of the consonants.[17]

Kurukh consonants
Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n (ɳ) ɲ ŋ
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless plain p t ʈ tʃ k ʔ
aspirated pʰ tʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ
voiced plain b d ɖ dʒ ɡ
aspirated bʱ dʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
Fricative s (ʃ) x h
Rhotic plain ɾ ɽ
aspirated ɽʱ
Glide w l j
  • Medially voiced aspirates and voiced plosives + /h/ contrast, there are some minimal pairs like /dʱandha:/ "astonishment" and /dʱandʱa:/ "exertion". Clusters of voiced aspirates and /h/ are possible too as in /madʒʱhi:/ "middle" and /madʒʱis/ "zamindar's agent".[18]
  • Of the nasals, /m, n/ are phonemic; [ɳ] only occurs before retroflex plosives; /ŋ/ mostly occurs before other velars but can occur finally with deletion of previous /g/, there are cases where /ŋg/ and /ng/ contrast; /ɲ/ mostly occurs before post alveolars but /j/ can become /ɲ/ around nasal vowels as in /paɲɲa:/ (or /pãjja:/).[19]

Morphology[edit | edit source]

Kurukh, like other Dravidian languages, is an agglutinative language. The sentence structure is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV). In its morphological construction, there is suffixation but there are no infixes or prefixes.[20]

Nouns[edit | edit source]

Kurukh nouns have three grammatical genders, namely masculine, feminine and neuter. To the Kurukh only men are masculine ; women and goddesses (evil spirits) are feminine ; all others are neutral. Masculine nouns of the third person singular have two forms, the indefinite and the definite. The indefinite is the simplest form of the noun, thus āl man. The definite form is made by adding -as for the singular, thus ālas, ("the man").[21]

There are only two grammatical numbers, the singular and the plural.[21]

The following is an example declension table for a masculine noun "āl", meaning "man" [22]

Case Singular Definite Plural
Nominative āl ālas ālar
Genitive āl ālas gahi ālar gahi
Dative āl ālas gē ālar gē
Accusative ālan ālasin ālarin
Ablative āltī ālas tī ālartī , ālarintī
Instrumental āl trī, āl trū - ālar ṭrī, ālar trū
Vocative ē ālayо̄ - ē ālarо̄
Locative āl ālas nū ālar nū

The feminine declension is almost identical to the masculine, but lacks a definite form. The following example is for "mukkā" ("woman").[22]

Case Singular Plural
Nominative mukkā mukkar
Genitive mukkā gahi mukkar gahi
Dative mukkāgē mukkar gē
Accusative mukkan mukkarin
Ablative mukkantī mukkartī , mukkarintī
Instrumental mukkā trī, mukkā trū mukkar trī, mukkar trū
Vocative ē mukkai ē mukkarо̄
Locative mukkā nū mukkar nū

The neuter declension for "allā" ("dog") shows almost identical singular forms, but a difference in pluralization.[22]

Case Singular Plural
Nominative allā allā guṭhi
Genitive allā gahi allā guṭhi gahi
Dative allā gē allā guṭhi gē
Accusative allan allā guṭhin
Ablative allantī allā guṭhi tī , allā guṭhintī
Instrumental allā trī, allā trū allā guṭhi trī, allā guṭhi trū
Vocative ē allā ē allā guṭhi
Locative allā nū allā guṭhi nū


Education[edit | edit source]

The Kurukh language is taught as a subject in the schools of Jharkhand, Chhattishgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam.[23]

Sample phrases[edit | edit source]

Phrases English Translation
Nighai endra naame? What is your name?
Neen ekase ra'din? How are you? (Girl)
Neen ekase ra'dai? How are you? (Boy)
Een korem ra'dan. I am fine.
Neen ekshan kalalagdin? Where are you going? (Girl)
Neen ekshan kalalagday? Where are you going? (Boy)
Endra manja? What happened?
Ha'an Yes
Malla No
Een mokha Lagdan. I am eating.
Neen mokha. You eat.
Neen ona. You drink
Aar mokha lagnar. They are eating.
Daw makha Good Night

Sample text[edit | edit source]

English[edit | edit source]

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Devanagari script[edit | edit source]

होर्मा आलारिन् हक् गहि बारे नू मल्लिन्ता अजादि अरा आण्टें मन्ना गहि हक़् ख़खर्कि रै। आरिन् लुर् अरा जिया गहि दव् बौसा ख़खकि रै अरा तम्है मझि नू मेल्-प्रें गहि बेव्हार् नन्ना चहि।

Latin script[edit | edit source]

Hōrmā ālārin hak gahi bāre nū mallintā azādi arā aṅṭēm mannā gahi haq xakharki raī. Ārin lur arā jiyā gahi dav bausā xakhakī raī arā tamhai majhi nū mēl-prēm gahi bēvhār nannā nā cahi.

Alternative names and dialects[edit | edit source]

Kurukh has a number of alternative names such as Uraon, Kurux, Kunrukh, Kunna, Urang, Morva, and Birhor. Two dialects, Oraon and Kisan, have 73% intelligibility between them. Oraon but not Kisan is currently being standardised. Kisan is currently endangered, with a decline rate of 12.3% from 1991 to 2001.[24]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Kurux". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
  2. ↑ "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2018-07-07.
  3. ↑ "Kurux, Nepali". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
  4. ↑ "Kurukh". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Template:OEDsub
  5. ↑ "Glottolog 4.5 - Nepali Kurux".
  6. ↑ Evans, Lisa (15 April 2011). "Endangered Languages: The Full List". The Guardian.
  7. ↑ Dalton E. T. The Oraons: Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal. 1872. Section 1, page 215.
  8. ↑ Ferdinand Hahn (1985). Grammar of the Kurukh Language. Mittal Publications. p. xii. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
  9. ↑ Stassen, Leon (1997). Intransitive Predication. Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory. Oxford University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0199258932.
  10. ↑ PS Subrahmanyam, "Kurukh", in ELL2. Ethnologue assigns Nepali Kurux a separate iso code, kxl.
  11. ↑ Mandal, Biswajit. "Kurukh Banna". Omniglot.
  12. ↑ Ager, Simon. "Tolong Siki alphabet and the Kurukh language". Omniglot. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  13. ↑ Pandey, Anshuman (8 April 2010). "Preliminary Proposal to Encode the Tolong Siki Script in the UCS" (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  14. ↑ Daniel Nettle and Suzanne Romaine. Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Page 9.
  15. ↑ "Kurukh given official language status in West Bengal". Jagranjosh.com. 2017-03-06. Retrieved 2019-05-12.
  16. ↑ Kobayashi & Tirkey 2017, pp. 23–24.
  17. ↑ Kobayashi & Tirkey 2017, p. 33.
  18. ↑ Kobayashi & Tirkey (2017), p. 35.
  19. ↑ Kobayashi & Tirkey (2017), p. 36.
  20. ↑ "Vitality and Endangerment of Contemporary Kurukh" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-03.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Kurukh grammar". Calcutta Bengal Secretariat Press. 1911.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Kurukh grammar". Calcutta Bengal Secretariat Press. 1911.
  23. ↑ Singh, Shiv Sahay (2017-03-02). "Kurukh gets official language status in West Bengal". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  24. ↑ ORGI. "Census of India: Growth of Non-Scheduled Languages-1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001". www.censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2017-10-15.

Sources[edit | edit source]

Further reading[edit | edit source]

Folktale collections

External links[edit | edit source]

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