Bharatpedia

Kashmiri language


Kashmiri (English: /kæʃˈmɪəri/)[6] or Koshur (, /kəːʃur/)[7] is a language from the Dardic subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages, spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris, primarily in the Indian administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmiri
كٲشُر, कॉशुर, 𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀
Kashmiri language in 3different scripts.png
The word "Koshur" in Sharada script (ancient, liturgical), Perso-Arabic script (contemporary, official status), and Devanagari (contemporary)
Native toIndia, Pakistan
RegionKashmir division and parts of Chenab valley, Jammu and Kashmir,[1] parts of northern Azad Kashmir
EthnicityKashmiris
Native speakers
7 million (2011 census)[2]
Dialects
Perso-Arabic script (contemporary, official status),[3]
Devanagari (contemporary),[3]
Sharada script (ancient/liturgical)[3]
Official status
Official language in
Jammu and Kashmir, India[4][5]
Language codes
ISO 639-1ks
ISO 639-2kas
ISO 639-3kas
Glottologkash1277
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

In 2020 the Parliament of India passed a bill to make Kashmiri an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri, Hindi, English and Urdu. Kashmiri is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.

Geographic distribution and statusEdit

There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India.[8] Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley and Chenab Valley of Jammu and Kashmir.[9]

Kashmiri is also spoken in Pakistan, primarily in the territory of Azad Kashmir, where the speakers are mostly concentrated in the Neelam and Leepa valleys and in the district of Haveli.[10][better source needed] Their numbers are not known exactly, but in 2012 they were estimated at around 130,000.[11] At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.[12]

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[13] It was a part of the eighth Schedule in the former constitution of the Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.[14]

In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.[15][16][17] Before that Urdu was sole official language of Jammu and Kashmir since 1889.

Most Kashmiri speakers use Urdu or English as a second language.[1] Since November 2008, the Kashmiri language has been made a compulsory subject in all government schools in the Valley up to secondary level.[18][19]

Kashmiri is closely related to Poguli and Kishtwari, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

PhonologyEdit

Kashmiri has the following vowel phonemes:[20][21]

VowelsEdit

  Front Central Back
High i iː ɨ ɨː u uː
Mid e eː ə əː o oː
Low a aː ɔ ɔː

ConsonantsEdit

Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post-alv./
Palatal 		Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Stop/
Affricate 		plain p⠀b t⠀d t͡s ʈ⠀ɖ t͡ʃ⠀d͡ʒ k⠀ɡ
aspirated pʰ tʰ t͡sʰ ʈʰ t͡ʃʰ kʰ
Fricative s⠀z ʃ h
Approximant w l j
Trill r

ArchaismsEdit

Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.[22]

Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi-Urdu (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.[22]

Writing systemEdit

There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script, the Devanagari script and the Sharada script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.[3]

The Kashmiri language is traditionally written in the Sharada script after the 8th Century A.D.[23] This script however, is not in common use today, except for religious ceremonies of the Kashmiri Pandits.[24]

Today it is written in Perso-Arabic and Devanagari scripts (with some modifications).[25] Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.[26]

The Perso-Arabic script is recognised as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.[27][28][29][30]

Nowadays, Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has come to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script has come to be associated with the Kashmiri Hindu community.[31][32]

Perso-Arabic scriptEdit

ConsonantsEdit

Name Transliteration IPA Isolated glyph
bē b [b]
pē p [p]
phạ ph [pʰ]
tē t [t]
thạ th [tʰ]
ṭē ṭ [ʈ]
ṭhạ ṭh [ʈʰ]
sē s [s]
jīm j [d͡ʒ]
chīm ch [t͡ʃ]
chhạ chh [t͡ʃʰ]
hay h [h]
khay kh [x], [kʰ]
dāl d [d]
ḍāl ḍ [ɖ]
zāl z [z]
rē r [r]
ṛē ṛ [ɽ]
zē z [z]
tsē ts [t͡s]
tshạ tsh [t͡sʰ]
sīn s [s]
shīn sh [ʃ]
sọ̄d s [s]
zọ̄d z [z]
tọy t [t]
zọy z [z]
ạn – [∅]
gạn g [ɡ]
fē f [f], [pʰ]
qāf q [k]
kīf k [k]
khạ kh [kʰ]
gāf g [ɡ]
lām l [l]
mīm m [m]
nūn n, ̃ [n] , [◌̃]
nūn gọnā ̃ [◌̃]
wāw v/w [w]
hē h [h]
, lọkuṭ yē, boḍ yē y [j] ,
, gōl yāyuk, tālür' ya, ' [ʲa], [ʲ]

VowelsEdit

Name Transliteration IPA Vowel combined with
consonant (be) 		Final vowel glyph Medial vowel glyph Initial vowel glyph Isolated vowel glyph Unicode diacritic glyph details
zabar a [a] U+064E ARABIC FATHA
mad ā [aː] (آ) U+0622 ARABIC LETTER ALEF WITH MADDA ABOV (Initial & Isolate)

(ا) U+0627 ARABIC LETTER ALEF (Medial & Final)

amālü ạ (ö) [ə] U+0654 ARABIC HAMZA ABOVE
amālü mad ạ̄ (ȫ) [əː] (ٲ) U+0672 ARABIC LETTER ALEF WITH WAVY HAMZA ABOVE
zēr i [i] U+0650 ARABIC KASRA
kashi zēr ī [iː] (ای) U+06CC ARABIC LETTER FARSI YEH & U+0656 ARABIC SUBSCRIPT ALEF (Initial & Medial)

U+06CC ARABIC LETTER FARSI YEH (Final & Isolate)

sāyi u',ü [ɨ] U+0655 ARABIC HAMZA BELOW
sāyi mad ū',ǖ [ɨː] (ٳ) U+0673 ARABIC LETTER ALEF WITH WAVY HAMZA BELOW
pēsh u [u] U+064F ARABIC DAMMA
kashi wāwuk ū [uː] (وٗ) U+0648 ARABIC LETTER WAW & U+0657 ARABIC INVERTED DAMMA
nīmü wāwuk o [o] (ۆ) U+06C6 ARABIC LETTER OE
wāwuk ō [oː] (و) U+0648 ARABIC LETTER WAW
lạṭ' wāwuk ọ [ɔ] (ۄ) U+06C4 ARABIC LETTER WAW WITH RING
lạṭ' wāwuk mad ọ̄ [ɔː] (ۄ + ا) U+06C4 ARABIC LETTER WAW WITH RING & U+0627 ARABIC LETTER ALEF
khīmü yāyuk e [e] ( ٚ) U+065A ARABIC VOWEL SIGN SMALL V ABOVE combined with (ے) U+06D2 ARABIC LETTER YEH BARREE
yāyuk ē [eː] (ی) U+06CC ARABIC LETTER FARSI YEH

DevanagariEdit

ConsonantsEdit

Letter क ख ग च छ ज च़ छ़ ज़ ट ठ ड त थ द न प फ ब म य र ल व श स ह
IPA [k] [kʰ] [g] [t͡ʃ] [t͡ʃʰ] [d͡ʒ] [t͡s] [t͡sʰ] [z] [ʈ] [ʈʰ] [ɖ] [t] [tʰ] [d] [n] [p] [pʰ] [b] [m] [j] [r] [l] [w] [ʃ] [s] [h]
Transliteration k kh g č čh j c ch z ṭ ṭh ḍ t th d n p ph b m y r l w š s h

VowelsEdit

There have been a few versions of the devanagari script for Kashmiri.[33] The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below.[34] This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal.[35][36] This version makes use of the vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signs कॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] and elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.

Letter ' ' ॲ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
IPA [a] [aː] [ə] [əː] [i] [iː] [ɨ] [ɨː] [u] [uː] [e] [eː] [əi] [o] [oː] [ɔː] [ɔ] [◌̃]
Transliteration a ā ö ȫ i ī ü ǖ u ū e ē ai o ō au ọ ̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k or

Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari.[37][38] The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signs / for the schwa-like vowel [ə] & elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] and a new stand alone vowel and vowel sign for the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel.

Letter ' ' ॳ ॴ ' ' ॶ ॷ ' ' ऎ ' ' ऒ ' ' ' '
IPA [a] [aː] [ə] [əː] [i] [iː] [ɨ] [ɨː] [u] [uː] [e] [eː] [əi] [o] [oː] [ɔː] [ɔ] [◌̃]
Transliteration[39] a ā ö ȫ i ī ü ǖ u ū e ē ai o ō au ọ ̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k

Sharada scriptEdit

ConsonantsEdit

Name Transliteration IPA Isolated glyph Remarks[40] [41]
𑆑𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆑 kōv kạ ka [ka] 𑆑
𑆒𑇀𑆮𑆤𑆴 𑆒 khvani khạ kha [kʰa] 𑆒
𑆓𑆓𑆫𑇀 𑆓 gagar gạ ga [ɡa] 𑆓
𑆓𑆳𑆱𑆴 𑆔 gāsi ghạ gha [ɡʰa] 𑆔 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆳𑆫𑆶𑆓𑇀 𑆕 nārug ṅạ ṅa [ŋa] 𑆕 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆖𑆳𑆛𑆶𑆮𑇀 𑆖 tsāṭuv chạ cha [t͡ʃa] 𑆖
𑆗𑇀𑆮𑆛𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆗 tshvaṭiñ chhạ chha [t͡ʃʰa] 𑆗
𑆘𑆪𑆴 𑆘 zayi jạ ja [d͡ʒa] 𑆘
𑆘𑆳𑆯𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆙 zashiñ jhạ jha [d͡ʒʰa] 𑆙 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆒𑇀𑆮𑆤 𑆦𑆶𑆛𑆴 𑆚 khvana phuṭi ñạ ña [ɲa] 𑆚 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆃𑆫𑇀-𑆩𑆳𑆀𑆛 ar mām̐ṭa ṭa [ʈa] 𑆛
𑆱𑆫𑇀-𑆩𑆳𑆀𑆜 sar mām̐ṭha ṭha [ʈʰa] 𑆜
𑆝𑆶𑆝𑇀 𑆝 ḍuḍ ḍạ ḍa [ɖa] 𑆝
𑆝𑆑 𑆞 ḍaka ḍhạ ḍha [ɖʰa] 𑆞 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆳𑆤𑆓𑆶𑆫𑆴 𑆟 nānaguri ṇạ ṇa [ɳa] 𑆟 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆠𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆠 tov tạ ta [ta] 𑆠
𑆡𑆳𑆯𑆴 𑆡 thāshi thạ tha [tʰa] 𑆡
𑆢𑆢𑆮𑇀 𑆢 dadav dạ da [da] 𑆢
𑆢𑆷𑆚𑇀 𑆣 dūñ dhạ dha [dʰa] 𑆣 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆱𑇀𑆠𑆶𑆮𑇀 𑆤 nastūv nạ na [na] 𑆤
𑆥𑆝𑆶𑆫𑆴 𑆥 paḍuri pạ pa [pa] 𑆥
𑆦𑆫𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆦 phariñ phạ pha [pʰa] 𑆦
𑆧𑆶𑆧𑇀 𑆧 bub bạ ba [ba] 𑆧
𑆧𑆳𑆪𑆴 𑆨 bāyi bhạ bha [bʰa] 𑆨 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆩𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆩 mōv mạ ma [ma] 𑆩
𑆪𑆳𑆮 𑆪 yāva yạ ya [ja] 𑆪
𑆫𑆑 𑆫 raka rạ ra [ra] 𑆫
𑆬𑆳𑆮 𑆬 lāva lạ la [la] 𑆬
𑆧𑆝𑆶 𑆝𑆶𑆝𑇀 𑆝 boḍu ḍuḍ ḍạ ḷa [ɭa] 𑆭 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆮𑆯𑆴 𑆮 vashi vạ va [wa] 𑆮
𑆯𑆑𑆫𑇀 𑆯 shakar shạ sha [ʃa] 𑆯
𑆦𑆳𑆫𑆴 𑆰 phāri ṣạ ṣa [ʂa] 𑆰 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this consonant.
𑆱𑆶𑆱𑇀 𑆱 sus sạ sa [sa] 𑆱
𑆲𑆳𑆬 𑆲 hala hạ ha [ha] 𑆲

VowelsEdit

Name Transliteration IPA Isolated glyph Remarks[40]
𑆄𑆢𑆿 𑆃 ādau a a [a] 𑆃
𑆎𑆠𑆮𑇀 𑆄 aitav ā ā [aː] 𑆄
𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆪𑆼 yeyev yē i [i] 𑆅
𑆅𑆯𑆫𑆮𑇀 𑆆 yisherav yī ī [iː] 𑆆
𑆮𑇀𑆮𑆥𑆬𑇀 𑆮𑆾 vọpal vō u [u] 𑆇
𑆮𑇀𑆮𑆥𑆬𑇀 𑆧𑆳 𑆈 vọpal bā ū ū [uː] 𑆈
𑆉𑆤𑆮𑇀 𑆉 r̥enav r̥ [r̩] 𑆉 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this vowel.
𑆫𑆒𑆮𑇀 𑆊 rakhav r̥̄ [r̩ː] 𑆊 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this vowel.
𑆬𑇀𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆋 leyev l̥ [l̩] 𑆋 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this vowel.
𑆬𑆵𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆌 līsav l̥̄ [l̩ː] 𑆌 The Kashmiri Language does not possess this vowel.
𑆠𑆬𑆮𑇀𑆪𑇀 𑆍 talavya yē ē [eː] 𑆍
𑆠𑆳𑆬𑆵 𑆎 tolī ai ai [əi] 𑆎
𑆮𑆶𑆜𑆾 𑆏 vuṭhō ō ō [oː] 𑆏
𑆃𑆯𑆴𑆢𑆵 𑆐 ashidī au au [ɔː] 𑆐
𑆃𑆝𑆴 𑆖𑆤𑆢𑇀𑆫 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆶 aḍi tsandra phyor am̐ [◌̃] 𑆃𑆀
𑆩𑆱𑇀 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆁 mas phyori aṃ aṃ [n],[m] 𑆃𑆁
𑆢𑆾 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆂 dō phyori aḥ aḥ [h] 𑆃𑆂

Vowel mark

Name Transliteration IPA Isolated vowel mark Vowel mark indicated on consonant pa Distinct ways of indicating vowel marks on special consonants
𑆮𑆲𑆳𑆪𑇀 vahāy -ā [aː] 𑆳 𑆥𑆳 𑆕 = 𑆕𑆳

𑆘 = 𑆘𑆳

𑆛 = 𑆛𑆳

𑆟 = 𑆟𑆳

𑆩𑆷𑆤𑇀𑆡𑆫𑇀 mūnthar -i [i] 𑆴 𑆥𑆴
𑆃𑆫𑇀 𑆩𑆷𑆤𑇀𑆡𑆫𑇀 ar mūnthar -ī [iː] 𑆵 𑆥𑆵
𑆒𑆶𑆫𑆶 khuru -u [u] 𑆶 𑆥𑆶 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆶

𑆓 = 𑆓𑆶

𑆙 = 𑆙𑆶

𑆚 = 𑆚𑆶

𑆝 = 𑆝𑆶

𑆠 = 𑆠𑆶

𑆨 = 𑆨𑆶

𑆫 = 𑆫𑆶

𑆯 = 𑆯𑆶

𑆃𑆫𑇀 𑆒𑆷𑆫𑆷 ar khūrū -ū [uː] 𑆷 𑆥𑆷 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆷

𑆓 = 𑆓𑆷

𑆙 = 𑆙𑆷

𑆚 = 𑆚𑆷

𑆝 = 𑆝𑆷

𑆠 = 𑆠𑆷

𑆨 = 𑆨𑆷

𑆫 = 𑆫𑆷

𑆯 = 𑆯𑆷

𑆉𑆤𑆮𑇀 𑆉 r̥enav r̥a -r̥ [r̩] 𑆸 𑆥𑆸 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆸
𑆫𑆒𑆮𑇀 𑆊 rakhav ru -r̥̄ [r̩ː] 𑆹 𑆥𑆹 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆹
𑆬𑇀𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆋 leyev l̥a -l̥ [l̩] 𑆺 𑆥𑆺
𑆬𑆵𑆱𑆮𑇀 𑆌 līsav l̥̄a -l̥̄ [l̩ː] 𑆻 𑆥𑆻
𑆲𑇀𑆮𑆁𑆝𑆷 hvanḍū -ē [eː] 𑆼 𑆥𑆼
𑆲𑇀𑆮𑆁𑆘𑆾𑆫𑇀 hvanjōr -ai [əi] 𑆽 𑆥𑆽
𑆃𑆑𑆶 𑆯𑇀𑆪𑆷𑆫𑆶 oku shyūr -ō [oː] 𑆾 𑆥𑆾
𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆯𑆴 𑆮𑆲𑆳𑆪𑇀 okushi vahāy -au [ɔː] 𑆿 𑆥𑆿
𑆃𑆝𑆴 𑆖𑆤𑇀𑆢𑇀𑆫 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆶 aḍi tsandra phyor -am̐ [◌̃] 𑆀 𑆥𑆀
𑆩𑆱𑇀 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆁 mas phyori aṃ -aṃ [n],[m] 𑆁 𑆥𑆁
𑆢𑆾 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆂 dō phyori aḥ -aḥ [h] 𑆂 𑆥𑆂

GrammarEdit

Kashmiri is a fusional language[42] with verb-second (V2) word order.[43] Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.[44]

NounsEdit

Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.[42]

GenderEdit

The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun.[42] A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms.[45] The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:[46]

Process Masculine Feminine Meaning
Adding of affix [huːn] [huːnʲ] dog
vowel change [gagur]


[gagɨr]


rat
consonant change [hokʰ] [hot͡ʃʰ] dry
vowel/consonant change [tot] [tət͡s] hot
suppletive form [marɨd] [zanaːn] man/woman
masculine only [kaːw] --- crow
feminine only --- [mət͡ʃʰ] fly

Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.[45]

CaseEdit

There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative.[47] Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.

Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense.[47] Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb is marked.[47][48][49] However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case.[50]

Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.[51]

Noun morphologyEdit

The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.[50][52]

Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
Nom. -Ø -Ø -Ø -Ø
Erg. -[an]
 -[aw]
 -[i]
 -[aw]
Dat. -[as] or -[is]
or 		-[an]
 -[i]
 -[an]
Abl. -[i] or -[ɨ]
or 		-[aw]
 -[i]
 -[aw]
Voc. -[aː]
 -[aw]
 -[ij]
 -[aw]

VerbsEdit

Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries.[53] Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.[54]

TenseEdit

Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -/aːn/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):[55]

Present
Masculine Feminine
1st Person Sing. [t͡ʃʰus jiwaːn]
 [t͡ʃʰas jiwaːn]
2nd Person Sing. [t͡ʃʰukʰ jiwaːn]
 [t͡ʃʰakʰ jiwaːn]
3rd Person Sing. [t͡ʃʰu jiwaːn]
 [t͡ʃʰe jiwaːn]
1st Person Pl. [t͡ʃʰi jiwaːn]
 [t͡ʃʰa jiwaːn]
2nd Person Pl. [t͡ʃʰiw jiwaːn]
 [t͡ʃʰaw jiwaːn]
3rd Person Pl. [t͡ʃʰi jiwaːn]
 [t͡ʃʰe jiwaːn]

Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions.[56] The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to completed past actions. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.[57]

As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative.[57] Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.[57][58]

Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):[59]

Simple Past (Transitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person [por]
 [pərʲ]
 [pər]
 [pari]
2nd Person Non-honorific [porutʰ]
 [pəritʰ]
 [pərɨtʰ]
 [parʲatʰ]
Honorific [porwɨ]
 [pəriwɨ]
 [pərwɨ]
 [pariwɨ]
3rd Person [por]
 [pərʲ]
 [pər]
 [pari]

A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.[60]

Simple Past (Special Intransitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person -[us]
 -[ʲ]
 -[as]
 -[i]
2nd Person -[kʰ]
 -[wɨ]
 -[kʰ]
 -[wɨ]
3rd Person -Ø -Ø -[t͡ʃʰ]
 -[i]

Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.[61]

Simple Past (Intransitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person -[jas]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːjas]
 -[jeːji]
2nd Person -[jaːkʰ]
 -[jeːjiwɨ]
 -[jeːjakʰ]
 -[jeːjiwɨ]
3rd Person -[joːw]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːji]

In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change.[62] Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:[63]

Indefinite Past (Transitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st/3rd Person -[joːw]
 -[eːji]
 -[eːji]
 -[eːji]
2nd Person -[joːtʰ]
 -[eːjatʰ]
 -[eːjatʰ]
 -[eːjatʰ]
Remote Past (Transitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st/3rd Person -[eːjoːw]
 -[eːjaːji]
 -[eːjaːji]
 -[eːjaːji]
2nd Person -[eːjoːtʰ]
 -[eːjeːjatʰ]
 -[eːjeːjatʰ]
 -[eːjeːjatʰ]

As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:[64]

Indefinite Past (Special Intransitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person -[aːs]
 -[aːjas]
 -[aːjas]
 -[aːji]
2nd Person -[kʰ]
 -[kʰ]
 -[aːjakʰ]
 -[aːjiwɨ]
3rd Person -[aw]
 -[aːji]
 -[aːji]
 -[aːji]
Remote Past (Special Intransitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Perso -[aːjaːs]
 -[eːjaːji]
 -[eːjeːjas]
 -[eːjeːji]
2nd Person -[aːkʰ]
 -[eːjiwɨ]
 -[aːjakʰ]
 -[aːjiwɨ]
3rd Person -[eːjoːw]
 -[eːjeːji]
 -[eːjaːjɨ]
 -[eːjaːjɨ]

Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:[65]

Indefinite Past (Intransitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person -[jas]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːjas]
 -[jeːji]
2nd Person -[jaːkʰ]
 -[jeːjiwɨ]
 -[jeːjakʰ]
 -[jeːjiwɨ]
3rd Person -[joːw]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːji]
Remote Past (Intransitive)
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person -[jeːjaːs]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːjaːs]
 -[jeːji]
2nd Person -[jeːjakʰ]
 -[jeːjiwɨ]
 -[jeːjakʰ]
 -[jeːjiwɨ]
3rd Person -[jeːjoːw]
 -[jeːji]
 -[jeːjaːjɨ]
 -[jeːjɨ]

Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:[66]

Future (Intransitive)
Singular Plural
1st Person -[mɨ]
 -[maw]
2nd Person -[akʰ]
 -[jiw]
3rd Person -[ji]
 -[an]

The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:[67]

Future (Transitive)
Singular Object Plural Object
1st Person Sing. -[an]
 -[akʰ]
1st Person Pl. -[ɨhoːn]
 -[ɨhoːkʰ]
2nd Person Sing. -[ɨhǝn]
 -[ɨhǝkʰ]
2nd Person Pl. -[ɨhuːn]
 -[ɨhuːkʰ]
3rd Person Sing. -[jas]
 -[jakʰ]
3rd Person Pl. -[ɨnas]
 -[ɨnakʰ]

AspectEdit

There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /aːsun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).[68]

Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:[68]

Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
-[mut]
 -[mɨtʲ]
 -[mɨt͡s]
 -[mat͡sɨ]

The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/aːn/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement.[69] A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.[70]

PronounsEdit

Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.[71]

Nominative
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person [bɨ]
 [ǝsʲ]
 [bɨ]
 [ǝsʲ]
2nd Person [t͡sɨ]
 [tohʲ] or [tuhʲ]
or 		[t͡sɨ]
 [tohʲ] or [tuhʲ]
or
3rd Person proximate [ji]
 [jim]
 [ji]
 [jimɨ]
remote I [hu]
 [hum]
 [hɔ]
 [humɨ]
remote II [su]
 [tim]
 /sɔ/
 [timɨ]
Ergative
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person [me]
 [asi]
 [me]
 [asi]
2nd Person [t͡se]
 [tɔhi]
 [t͡se]
 [tɔhi]
3rd Person proximate [jemʲ]
 [jimaw]
 [jemi]
 [jimaw]
remote I [humʲ]
 [humaw]
 [humi]
 [humaw]
remote II [tǝmʲ]
 [timaw]
 [tami]
 [timaw]
Dative
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person [me]
 [asi]
 [me]
 [asi]
2nd Person [t͡se]
 [tɔhi]
 [t͡se]
 [tɔhi]
3rd Person proximate [jemis]
 [jiman]
 [jemis]
 [jiman]
remote I [humis]
 [human]
 [humis]
 [human]
remote II [tǝmis]
 [timan]
 [tǝmis]
 [timan]
Ablative
Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Person [me]
 [asi]
 [me]
 [asi]
2nd Person [t͡se]
 [tɔhi]
 [t͡se]
 [tɔhi]
3rd Person proximate [jemi]
 [jimaw]
 [jemi]
 [jimaw]
remote I [humi]
 [humaw]
 [humi]
 [humaw]
remote II [tǝmi]
 [timaw]
 [tǝmi]
 [timaw]

There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.[72]

Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
1st Sing. [mjoːn] [mjəːnʲ] [mjəːnʲ] [mjaːni]
1st Pl. [soːn] [səːnʲ] [səːnʲ] [saːni]
2nd Sing. [t͡ʃoːn] [t͡ʃəːnʲ] [t͡ʃəːnʲ] [t͡ʃaːni]
2nd Pl. [tuhund] [tuhɨndʲ] [tuhɨnz] [tuhnzɨ]
3rd Sing. Prox. [jemʲ sund] [jemʲ sɨndʲ] [jemʲ sɨnz] [jemʲ sɨnzɨ]
3rd Pl. Prox. [jihund] [jihɨndʲ] [jihɨnz] [jihnzɨ]


3rd Sing. R I [humʲ sund] [humʲ sɨndʲ] [humʲ sɨnz] [humʲ sɨnzɨ]
3rd Pl. R I [huhund] [huhɨndʲ] [huhɨnz] [huhnzɨ]
3rd Sing. R II [tǝmʲ sund] [tǝmʲ sɨndʲ] [tǝmʲ sɨnz] [tǝmʲ sɨnzɨ]
3rd Pl. R II [tihɨnd] [tihɨndʲ] [tihɨnz] [tihnzɨ]

AdjectivesEdit

There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all.[73] Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns.[74] The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective /wɔzul/ ("red"):[75][76]

Masculine Feminine
singular plural singular plural
Nom. [wɔzul]
 [wɔzɨlʲ]
 [wɔzɨd͡ʒ]
 [wɔzd͡ʒi]
Erg. [wɔzlɨ]
 [wɔzlʲaw]
 [wɔzd͡ʒi]
 [wɔzd͡ʒaw]
Dat. [wɔzlis]
 [wɔzlʲan]
 [wɔzd͡ʒi]
 [wɔzd͡ʒan]
Abl. [wɔzlɨ]
 [wɔzlʲaw]
 [wɔzd͡ʒi]
 [wɔzd͡ʒaw]

Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -lad or -a, adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.[75]

The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words tsor ("more") and sitha ("most"), respectively.[77]

NumeralsEdit

Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated into cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers.[78] These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.), multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.[78]

Cardinal Ordinal Aggregative Multiplicative Emphatic
Suffix   -[jum] for masculine

-[im] for feminine

-[waj] -[ɡun] or -[ɡon] for masculine

-[ɡɨn] for feminine

-[j]
0. [sifar]
1. [akʰ] [ǝkjum] or [ǝkim] 
or
   [oɡun] or [oɡɨn] 
or
[akuj]
2. [zɨ] [dojum] or [dojim] 
or
[dɔʃwaj] [doɡun] or [doɡɨn] 
or
[zɨj]
3. [tre] [trejum] or [trejim] 
or
[treʃwaj] [troɡun] or [troɡɨn] 
or
[trej]
4. [t͡soːr] [t͡suːrjum] or [t͡suːrim] 
or
[t͡sɔʃwaj] [t͡soɡun] or [t͡soɡɨn] 
or
[t͡soːraj]
5. [pãːt͡sʰ] or [pə̃ːt͡sʰ] 
or
[pɨ:t͡sjum] or [pɨ:t͡sim] 
or
[pãːt͡sɨwaj] [pãːt͡sɨɡun] or [pãːt͡sɨɡɨn] 
or
[pãːt͡saj]
6. [ʃe] [ʃejum] or [ʃejim] 
or
[ʃenɨwaj] [ʃuɡun] or [ʃuɡɨn] 
or
[ʃej]
7. [satʰ] [sətjum] or [sətim] 
or
[satɨwaj] [satɨɡun] or [satɨɡɨn] 
or
[sataj]
8. [əːʈʰ] [ɨːʈʰjum] or [uːʈʰjum] 
or

[ɨːʈʰim] or [uːʈʰim] 

or
[əːʈʰɨwaj] [əːʈʰɨɡun] or [əːʈʰɨɡɨn] 
or
[əːʈʰaj]
9. [naw] [nəwjum] or [nəwim] 
or
[nawɨwaj] [nawɨɡun] or [nawɨɡɨn] 
or
[nawaj]
10. [dəh] or [daːh] 
or
[dəhjum] or [dəhim] 
or
[dəhɨwaj] [dəhɨɡon] or [dəhɨɡɨn] 
or
[dəhaj]
11. [kah] or [kaːh] 
or
[kəhjum] or [kəhim] 
or
12. [bah] or [baːh] 
or
[bəhjum] or [bəhim] 
or
13. [truwaːh] [truwəːhjum] or [truwəːhim] 
or
14. [t͡sɔdaːh] [t͡sɔdəːhjum] or [t͡sɔdəːhim] 
or
15. [pandaːh] [pandəːhjum] or [pandəːhim] 
or
16. [ʃuraːh] [ʃurəːhjum] or [ʃurəːhim] 
or
17. [sadaːh] [sadəːhjum] or [sadəːhim] 
or
18. [arɨdaːh] [arɨdəːhjum] or [arɨdəːhim] 
or
19. [kunɨwuh] [kunɨwuhjum] or [kunɨwuhim] 
or
20. [wuh] [wuhjum] or [wuhim] 
or
21. [akɨwuh] [akɨwuhjum] or [akɨwuhim] 
or
22. [zɨtoːwuh] [zɨtoːwuhjum] or [zɨtoːwuhim] 
or
23. [trowuh] [trowuhjum] or [trowuhim] 
or
24. [t͡sowuh] [t͡sowuhjum] or [t͡sowuhim] 
or
25. [pɨnt͡sɨh] [pɨnt͡sɨhjum] or [pɨnt͡sɨhim] 
or
26. [ʃatɨwuh] [ʃatɨwuhjum] or [ʃatɨwuhim] 
or
27. [satoːwuh] [satoːwuhjum] or [satoːwuhim] 
or
28. [aʈʰoːwuh] [aʈʰoːwuhjum] or [aʈʰoːwuhim] 
or
29. [kunɨtrɨh] [kunɨtrɨhjum] or [kunɨtrɨhim] 
or
30. [trɨh] [trɨhjum] or [trɨhim] 
or
31. [akɨtrɨh] [akɨtrɨhjum] or [akɨtrɨhim] 
or
32. [dɔjitrɨh] [dɔjitrɨhjum] or [dɔjitrɨhjim] 
or
33. [tejitrɨh] [tejitrɨhjum] or [tejitrɨhim] 
or
34. [t͡sɔjitrɨh] [t͡sɔjitrɨhjum] or [t͡sɔjitrɨhim] 
or
35. [pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨh] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨh] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨhjum] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨhjum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨhim] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨhim] 

or
36. [ʃejitrɨh] [ʃejitrɨhjum] or [ʃejitrɨhim] 
or
37. [satɨtrɨh] [satɨtrɨhjum] or [satɨtrɨhim] 
or
38. [arɨtrɨh] [arɨtrɨhjum] or [arɨtrɨhim] 
or
39. [kunɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [kunɨtəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[kunɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [kunɨtəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
40. [t͡satd͡ʒih] or [t͡satd͡ʒiː] 
or
[t͡satd͡ʒihjum] or [t͡satd͡ʒihim] 
or
41. [akɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [akɨtəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[akɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [akɨtəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
42. [dɔjitəːd͡ʒih] or [dɔjitəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[dɔjitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [dɔjitəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
43. [tejitəːd͡ʒih] or [tejitəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[tejitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [tejitəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
44. [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒih] or [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
45. [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒiː] 
or  or  or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] 

or
46. [ʃejitəːd͡ʒih] or [ʃejitəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[ʃejitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [ʃejitəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
47. [satɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [satɨtəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[satɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [satɨtəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
48. [arɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [arɨtəːd͡ʒiː] 
or
[arɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [arɨtəːd͡ʒihim] 
or
49. [kunɨwanzaːh] [kunɨwanzəːhjum] or [kunɨwanzəːhim] 
or
50. [pant͡saːh] [pant͡səːhjum] or [pant͡səːhim] 
or
51. [akɨwanzaːh] [akɨwanzəːhjum] or [akɨwanzəːhim] 
or
52. [duwanzaːh] [duwanzəːhjum] or [duwanzəːhim] 
or
53. [truwanzaːh] or [trɨwanzaːh] 
or
[truwanzəːhjum] or [truwanzəːhim] 
or

[trɨwanzəːhjum] or [trɨwanzəːhim] 

or
54. [t͡suwanzaːh] [t͡suwanzəːhjum] or [t͡suwanzəːhim] 
or
55. [pə̃ːt͡sɨwanzaːh] or [pãːt͡sɨwanzaːh] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨwanzəːhjum] or [pãːt͡sɨwanzəːhjum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨwanzəːhim] or [pãːt͡sɨwanzəːhim] 

or
56. [ʃuwanzaːh] [ʃuwanzəːhjum] or [ʃuwanzəːhim] 
or
57. [satɨwanzaːh] [satɨwanzəːhjum] or [satɨwanzəːhim] 
or
58. [arɨwanzaːh] [arɨwanzəːhjum] or [arɨwanzəːhim] 
or
59. [kunɨhəːʈʰ] [kunɨhəːʈʰjum] or [kunɨhəːʈʰim] 
or
60. [ʃeːʈʰ] [ʃeːʈʰjum] or [ʃeːʈʰim] 
or
61. [akɨhəːʈʰ] [akɨhəːʈʰjum] or [akɨhəːʈʰim] 
or
62. [duhəːʈʰ] [duhəːʈʰjum] or [duhəːʈʰim] 
or
63. [truhəːʈʰ] or [trɨhəːʈʰ] 
or
[truhəːʈʰjum] or [truhəːʈʰim] 
or

[trɨhəːʈʰjum] or [trɨhəːʈʰim] 

or
64. [t͡suhəːʈʰ] [t͡suhəːʈʰjum] or [t͡suhəːʈʰim] 
or
65. [pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰ] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰjum] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰjum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰim] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰim] 

or
66. [ʃuhəːʈʰ] [ʃuhəːʈʰjum] or [ʃuhəːʈʰim] 
or
67. [satɨhəːʈʰ] [satɨhəːʈʰjum] or [satɨhəːʈʰim] 
or
68. [arɨhəːʈʰ] [arɨhəːʈʰjum] or [arɨhəːʈʰim] 
or
69. [kunɨsatatʰ] [kunɨsatatyum] or [kunɨsatatim] 
or
70. [satatʰ] [satatjum] or [satatim] 
or
71. [akɨsatatʰ] [akɨsatatjum] or [akɨsatatim] 
or
72. [dusatatʰ] [dusatatjum] or [dusatatim] 
or
73. [trusatatʰ] or [trɨsatatʰ] 
or
[trusatatjum] or [trusatatim] 
or

[trɨsatatjum] or [trɨsatatim] 

or
74. [t͡susatatʰ] [t͡susatatjum] or [t͡susatatim] 
or
75. [pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatʰ] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatjum] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatjum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatim] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatim] 

or
76. [ʃusatatʰ] [ʃusatatjum] or [ʃusatatim] 
or
77. [satɨsatatʰ] [satɨsatatjum] or [satɨsatatim] 
or
78. [arɨsatatʰ] [arɨsatatjum] or [arɨsatatim] 
or
79. [kunɨʃiːtʰ] [kunɨʃiːtjum] or [kunɨʃiːtim] 
or
80. [ʃiːtʰ] [ʃiːtjum] or [ʃiːtjim] 
or
81. [akɨʃiːtʰ] [akɨʃiːtjum] or [akɨʃiːtim] 
or
82. [dɔjiʃiːtʰ] [dɔjiʃiːtjum] or [dɔjiʃiːtjum] 
or
83. [trejiʃiːtʰ] [trejiʃiːtjum] or [trejiʃiːtim] 
or
84. [t͡sɔjiʃiːtʰ] [t͡sɔjiʃiːtjum] or [t͡sɔjiʃiːtim] 
or
85. [pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtʰ] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtjum] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtjum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtim] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtim] 

or
86. [ʃejiʃiːtʰ] [ʃejiʃiːtjum] or [ʃejiʃiːtim] 
or
87. [satɨʃiːtʰ] [satɨʃiːtjum] or [satɨʃiːtim] 
or
88. [arɨʃiːtʰ] [arɨʃiːtjum] or [arɨʃiːtim] 
or
89. [kunɨnamatʰ] [kunɨnamatjum] or [kunɨnamatim] 
or
90. [namatʰ] [namatjum] or [namatim] 
or
91. [akɨnamatʰ] [akɨnamatjum] or [akɨnamatim] 
or
92. [dunamatʰ] [dunamatjum] or [dunamatim] 
or
93. [trunamatʰ] or [trɨnamatʰ] 
or
[trunamatjum] or [trunamatim] 
or

[trɨnamatjum] or [trɨnamatim] 

or
94. [t͡sunamatʰ] [t͡sunamatjum] or [t͡sunamatim] 
or
95. [pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatʰ] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatjum] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatjum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatim] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatim] 

or
96. [ʃunamatʰ] [ʃunamatjum] or [ʃunamatim] 
or
97. [satɨnamatʰ] [satɨnamatjum] or [satɨnamatim] 
or
98. [arɨnamatʰ] [arɨnamatjum] or [arɨnamatjim] 
or
99. [namɨnamatʰ] [namɨnamatjum] or [namɨnamatim] 
or
100. [hatʰ] [hatyum] or [hatim] 
or
101. [akʰ hatʰ tɨ akʰ] [akʰ hatʰ tɨ ǝkjum] or [akʰ hatʰ tɨ ǝkim] 
or
102. [akʰ hatʰ tɨ zɨ] [akʰ hatʰ tɨ dojum] or [akʰ hatʰ tɨ dojim] 
or
200. [zɨ hatʰ] [du hatyum] or [duhatim] 
or
300. [tre hatʰ] [trɨ hatyum] or [trɨ hatim] 
or
400. [t͡soːr hatʰ] [t͡su hatyum] or [t͡su hatim] 
or
500. [pə̃ːt͡sʰ hatʰ] or [pãːt͡sʰ hatʰ] 
or
[pə̃ːt͡sɨ hatyum] or [pãːt͡sɨ hatyum] 
or

[pə̃ːt͡sɨ hatim] or [pãːt͡sɨ hatim] 

or
600. [ʃe hatʰ] [ʃe hatyum] or [ʃe hatim] 
or
700. [satʰ hatʰ] [ʃatɨ hatyum] or [ʃatɨ hatim] 
or
800. [əːʈʰ ʃatʰ] [əːʈʰ ʃatjum] or [əːʈʰ ʃatim] 
or
900. [naw ʃatʰ] [naw ʃatjum] or [naw ʃatim] 
or
1000. [saːs] [səːsjum] or [səːsim] 
or
1001. [akʰ saːs akʰ] [akʰ saːs ǝkjum] or [akʰ saːs ǝkim] 
or
1002. [akʰ saːs zɨ] [akʰ saːs dojum] or [akʰ saːs dojim] 
or
1100. [akʰ saːs hatʰ]


or

[kah ʃatʰ] or [kaːh ʃatʰ] 

or
[akʰ saːs hatjum] or [akʰ saːs hatim] 
or

or

[kah ʃatjum] or [kaːh ʃatjum] 

or

[kah ʃatim] or [kaːh ʃatim] 

or
1500. [akʰ saːs pãːt͡sʰ hatʰ]


or

[pandaːh ʃatʰ]


[akʰ saːs pãːt͡sɨ hatjum] or [akʰ saːs pãːt͡sɨ hatim] 
or

or

[pandaːh ʃatjum] or [pandaːh ʃatim] 

or
10,000. [dəh saːs] or [daːh saːs] 
or
[dəh səːsjum] or [daːh səːsjum] 
or

[dəh səːsim] or [daːh səːsim] 

or
Hundred thousand [lat͡ʃʰ] [lat͡ʃʰjum] or [lat͡ʃʰim] 
or
Million [dəh lat͡ʃʰ] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰ] 
or
[dəh lat͡ʃʰjum] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰjum] 
or

[dəh lat͡ʃʰim] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰim] 

or
Ten million [kɔroːr] or [karoːr] 
or
[kɔroːrjum] or [karoːrjum] 
or

[kɔroːrim] or [karoːrim] 

or
Billion [arab] [arabjum] or [arabim] 
or
Hundred billion [kʰarab] [kʰarabjum] or [kʰarabim] 
or
The ordinal number "1st" which is [ǝkjum] for its masculine genre and [ǝkim] for its feminine genre is also known as [ɡɔɖnjuk] and [ɡɔɖnit͡ʃ] respectively.[79]

VocabularyEdit

Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on.[80][81] After the arrival of Islamic administrative rule in India, Kashmiri acquired many Persian loanwords.[81] In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has been imported from Hindustani and Punjabi.[82]

Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabularyEdit

Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi.[22] Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word yadi instead.[22]

First person pronounEdit

Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā̃v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa).[83]

VariationsEdit

There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims.[84] For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word [oɡun] while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word [naːr].[85]

Sample textEdit

Perso-Arabic scriptEdit

Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: 

[86]

[səːriː insaːn t͡ʃʰi aːzaːd zaːmɨtʲ . wʲakaːr tɨ hokuːk t͡ʃʰi hiwiː . timan t͡ʃʰu soːt͡ʃ samad͡ʒ ataː karnɨ aːmut tɨ timan pazi bəːj baraːdəriː hɨndis d͡ʒazbaːtas tahat akʰ əkis akaːr bakaːr jun]

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Sharada scriptEdit

Verses by Lalleshwari:[87]

𑆏𑆩𑆶𑆅 𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆃𑆗𑆶𑆫 𑆥𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩𑇀 𑆱𑆶𑆪𑆲𑆳 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆫𑆾𑆛𑆶𑆩𑇀 𑆮𑆶𑆤𑇀𑆢𑆱𑇀 𑆩𑆁𑆘 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆑𑆤𑆴 𑆥𑇀𑆪𑆜 𑆓𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩𑇀 𑆠 𑆖𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩𑇀 𑆃𑆱𑆱𑇀 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆠 𑆱𑆥𑆤𑇀𑆪𑆱 𑆱𑆾𑆤𑇆

[oːmuj akuj at͡ʃʰur porum, suj maːli roʈum wɔndas manz, suj maːli kani pʲaʈʰ gorum tɨ t͡sorum, əːsɨs saːs tɨ sapnis sɔn.]

"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."

𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆏𑆀𑆑𑆳𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆤𑆳𑆨𑆴 𑆣𑆫𑆼 𑆑𑆶𑆩𑇀𑆮𑆪 𑆧𑇀𑆫𑆲𑇀𑆩𑆳𑆟𑇀𑆝𑆱 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆓𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆒 𑆩𑆶𑆪 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆖𑇀𑆪𑆠𑆱 𑆑𑆫𑆼 𑆠𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆑𑇀𑆪𑆳 𑆑𑆫𑆼𑇆

[akuj omkaːr jus naːbi dareː, kumbeː brahmaːnɖas sum gareː, akʰ suj mantʰɨr t͡sʲatas kareː, tas saːs mantʰɨr kjaː kareː.]

One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Kashmiri: A language of India". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  2. ↑ Kashmiri at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Sociolinguistics. Mouton de Gruyter. 1977. Retrieved 30 August 2009.
  4. ↑ "Jammu, Kashmir & Ladakh: Ethno-linguistic areas". koshur.org. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  5. ↑ "The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Bill, 2020". prsindia. 23 September 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  6. ↑ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
  7. ↑ Template:E20
  8. ↑ "Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 2 July 2018. The precise figures from the 2011 census are 6,554,36 for Kashmiri as a "mother tongue" and 6,797,587 for Kashmiri as a "language" (which includes closely related smaller dialects/languages).
  9. ↑ "Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri". Kashmir News Network: Language Section (koshur.org). Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  10. ↑ Snedden, Christopher (2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Oxford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-84904-622-0.
  11. ↑ Shakil, Mohsin (2012). "Languages of Erstwhile State of Jammu Kashmir (A Preliminary Study)".
  12. ↑ Kiani, Khaleeq (28 May 2018). "CCI defers approval of census results until elections". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  13. ↑ "Scheduled Languages of India". Central Institute of Indian Languages. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  14. ↑ "The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (India)" (PDF). General Administrative Department of the Government of Jammu & Kashmir (India). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  15. ↑ "The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020" (PDF). The Gazette of India. 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  16. ↑ "Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020". Rising Kashmir. 23 September 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  17. ↑ ANI. "BJP president congratulates J-K people on passing of Jammu and Kashmir Official Language Bill 2020". BW Businessworld. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  18. ↑ "Kashmiri made compulsory subject in schools". One India. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  19. ↑ "Jammu And Kashmir State Board Of School Education". jkbose.ac.in. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  20. ↑ "Koshur: Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course: Transcription". Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  21. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 9-16.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 K.L. Kalla (1985), The Literary Heritage of Kashmir, Mittal Publications, ... Kashmiri alone of all the modern Indian languages preserves the dvi (Kashmiri du) of Sanskrit, in numbers such as dusatath (Sanskrit dvisaptati), dunamat (Sanskrit dvanavatih) ... the latter (Yodvai) is archaic and is to be come across mainly in the Vedas ...
  23. ↑ "Sarada". Lawrence. Archived from the original on 24 February 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  24. ↑ "The Sharada Script: Origin and Development". Kashmiri Overseas Association. Archived from the original on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  25. ↑ "Kashmiri (कॉशुर / كٲشُر)". Omniglot. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  26. ↑ Daniels & Bright (1996). The World's Writing Systems. pp. 753–754.
  27. ↑ Kaw, M.K (2004). Kashmir and It's [sic] People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp. 303–304. ISBN 9788176485371.
  28. ↑ Mahapatra, B.P (1989). The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use : India : Book 1 Constitutional Languages. Presses Université Laval. p. 270. ISBN 9782763771861.
  29. ↑ "Braj B. Kachru: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri". www.koshur.org. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  30. ↑ "Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course". www.koshur.org. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  31. ↑ "Valley divide impacts Kashmiri, Pandit youth switch to Devnagari". Indian Express. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  32. ↑ "Devnagari Script for Kashmiri: A Study in its Necessity, Feasibility and Practicality". Kashmiri Overseas Association. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  33. ↑ "Kashmiri (deva)". r12a.github.io. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  34. ↑ Everson, Michael & Pravin Satpute. (2006). Proposal to add four characters for Kashmiri to the BMP of the UCS.
  35. ↑ "Project ZAAN: Basic Reader for Kashmiri Language". www.koausa.org. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  36. ↑ Raina, Author M. K. (4 May 2020). "One Page Primer on Kashmiri Language". M K Raina. Retrieved 26 November 2020. {{cite web}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  37. ↑ Government of India. (2009). Proposal to add six characters in the Devanagari block for representation of Kashmiri language in Devanagari script.
  38. ↑ Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). Comments on India’s Proposal to Add Devanagari Characters for Kashmiri.
  39. ↑ The central vowels are typically transcribed ⟨ạ⟩ and ⟨u’⟩ when transliterating Arabic script, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ when transliterating Nagari.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). Proposal to Encode the Sharada Script in ISO/IEC 10646.
  41. ↑ Grierson, George (1916). On the Sarada Alphabet. pp. 8–12.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 25.
  43. ↑ Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri (2002). Kashmir News Network, pp.80.
  44. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. ii.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 28.
  46. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 26-28.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 31.
  48. ↑ Wade 1888, p. 16.
  49. ↑ Bhatt, Rajesh (2007)."Ergativity in Indo-Aryan Languages", MIT Ergativity Seminar, pp.6.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 32.
  51. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 39.
  52. ↑ Wade 1888, pp. 10-15.
  53. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 83-84.
  54. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 119.
  55. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 84.
  56. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 86.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 87.
  58. ↑ Zakharyin, Boris (2015). "Indo-Aryan Ergativity and its Analogues in Languages of Central and Western Eurasia", The Poznań Society for the Advancement of Arts and Sciences, PL ISSN 0079-4740, pp.66.
  59. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 89-90.
  60. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 91-92.
  61. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 93.
  62. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 94.
  63. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 94-95.
  64. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 96-97.
  65. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 96-99.
  66. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 100-101.
  67. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 103.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 105.
  69. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 107.
  70. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 108.
  71. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 53.
  72. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 52.
  73. ↑ Koshur 2002, pp.79.
  74. ↑ Wade 1888, p. 19.
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Wade 1888, p. 20.
  76. ↑ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 59.
  77. ↑ Wade 1888, p. 21.
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Koul & Wali 2006, p. 64.
  79. ↑ Toushikhani S. k, Koul J. lal. Kashir Dictionary Vol 1.
  80. ↑ The Encyclopedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Volumes 15-16. Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. p. 690. Sanskrit has been actively studied for many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that, for convenience' sake, it is now frequently classed as belonging to the north-western group of Indo-Aryan languages, instead of as belonging to the Pisaca family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either classification is wrong.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Gorekar, Niẓāmuddīn Es (2002). Indo-Islamic Relations. KnowledgeCity Books. p. 67. The Kashmiri language was in the beginning greatly influenced by the Sanskrit language, but with the coming of the Muslims and monarchs like Zainu'l-Abedin it began to accept the influence of Persian which was the language of the rulers.
  82. ↑ Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 6 April 2010. p. 582. ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4. Kashmiri vocabulary can be broadly categorized into Kashmiri/Dardic, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Hindi/Urdu, Persian, and Arabic origins.
  83. ↑ John D. Bengtson, Harold Crane Fleming (2008), In hot pursuit of language in prehistory: essays in the four fields of anthropology, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2008, ISBN 978-90-272-3252-6, ... However, Gujarati as well as a Dardic language like Kashmiri still preserve the root alternation between subject and non-subject forms (but they replaced the derivative of the Sanskrit subject form ahám by new forms) ...
  84. ↑ Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie (6 April 2010), Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world, Elsevier, 2008, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7, ... Kashmiri occupies a special position in the Dardic group, being probably the only dardic language that has a written literature dating back to the early 13th century ...
  85. ↑ Krishna, Gopi (1967). Kundalini: The Evolutionary Energy in Man. Boston: Shambhala. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-57062-280-9.
  86. ↑ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Kashmiri Language" (PDF).
  87. ↑ "Lal Vakh in Sharada script".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

86. the word koshur(𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀) written on New Testament in Kashmiri, (manuscript)

BibliographyEdit

  • Chopra, R. M (2013). "Indo-Persian Literature in Kashmir". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259.
  • Koul, Omkar N; Wali, Kashi (2006). Modern Kashmiri Grammar (PDF). Springfield: Dunwoody Press. ISBN 1-931546-07-X.
  • Wade, TR (1888). A Grammar of the Kashmiri Language. SPCK.

External linksEdit

Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kashmiri_language&oldid=409413"