India: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Country in South Asia}}
{{about|the Republic of India}}
{{about|the Republic of India}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of India
| conventional_long_name = Republic of India
| common_name            = India
| common_name            = India
| native_name            = <!--Do NOT remove this from the infobox as infobox translations and transliterations do not fall under [[BP:Manual of Style/India-related articles#Indic scripts in leads and infoboxes]].--> {{transl|hi|ISO|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}<br />{{smaller|(see [[Names of India in its official languages|other local names]])}}
| native_name            = गणतन्त्र भारत (Hindi)
Gaṇatantra Bhārat
| image_flag            = Flag of India.svg
| image_flag            = Flag of India.svg
| alt_flag              = Horizontal tricolour flag bearing, from top to bottom, deep saffron, white, and green horizontal bands. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel with 24 spokes.
| alt_flag              = Horizontal tricolour flag bearing, from top to bottom, deep saffron, white, and green horizontal bands. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel with 24 spokes.
Line 19: Line 14:
| other_symbol_type      = National song
| other_symbol_type      = National song
| national_motto        = {{native phrase|sa|"[[Satyameva Jayate]]"|italics=off}}
| national_motto        = {{native phrase|sa|"[[Satyameva Jayate]]"|italics=off}}
| national_anthem        = {{native phrase|bn|"[[Jana Gana Mana]]"|italics=off|paren=omit}}<ref name="india.gov.in">{{cite web |url=https://india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols |title=National Symbols &#124; National Portal of India |publisher=[[India.gov.in]] |quote=The National Anthem of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950. |access-date=1 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204121208/https://india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols |archive-date=4 February 2017 }}</ref><ref name="tatsama">{{cite news |title=National anthem of India: a brief on 'Jana Gana Mana' |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/national-anthem-of-india-a-brief-on-jana-gana-mana-498576.html |date=14 August 2012 |access-date=7 June 2019 |publisher=[[News18 India|News18]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417194530/https://www.news18.com/news/india/national-anthem-of-india-a-brief-on-jana-gana-mana-498576.html |archive-date=17 April 2019}}</ref><br />"Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People"{{lower|0.2em|{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p=1}}<ref name="india.gov.in" />}}<br />
| national_anthem        = {{native phrase|bn|"[[Jana Gana Mana]]"|italics=off|paren=omit}}<ref name="india.gov.in">{{cite web |url=https://india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols |title=National Symbols &#124; National Portal of India |publisher=India.gov.in |quote=The National Anthem of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950. |access-date=1 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204121208/https://india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols |archive-date=4 February 2017 }}</ref><ref name="tatsama">{{cite news |title=National anthem of India: a brief on 'Jana Gana Mana' |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/national-anthem-of-india-a-brief-on-jana-gana-mana-498576.html |access-date=7 June 2019 |publisher=[[News18 India|News18]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417194530/https://www.news18.com/news/india/national-anthem-of-india-a-brief-on-jana-gana-mana-498576.html |archive-date=17 April 2019}}</ref><br />"Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People"{{lower|0.2em|{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p=1}}<ref name="india.gov.in" />}}<br />
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Jana Gana Mana instrumental.ogg]]}}</div>
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Jana Gana Mana instrumental.ogg]]}}</div>
| national_languages    = None<ref name="Times News Network" /><ref name="NoneNtl" /><ref name="Press Trust of India" />
| national_languages    = None
| image_map              = India (orthographic projection).svg
| image_map              =  
| map_width              = 250px
| map_width              = 250px
| alt_map                = Image of a globe centred on India, with India highlighted.
| alt_map                = Image of a globe centred on India, with India highlighted.
| map_caption            = Area controlled by India shown in dark green; regions claimed but not controlled shown in light green
| map_caption            =  
| capital                = [[New Delhi]]
| capital                = [[New Delhi]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|28|36|50|N|77|12|30|E|type:city_region:IN}}
| coordinates            = {{Coord|28|36|50|N|77|12|30|E|type:city_region:IN}}
| largest_city          = {{plainlist|
| largest_city          = [[Mumbai]]
* [[Mumbai]] (city proper)
| official_languages    = [[Hindi]] <br> [[English language|English]]
* [[Delhi]] (metropolitan area)
| regional_languages    = [[Kannada]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]]
}}
| languages_type        =  
| official_languages    = {{hlist |[[Hindi]]|[[Indian English|English]]{{efn|According to [[Part XVII of the Constitution of India]], [[Standard Hindi|Hindi]] in the [[Devanagari]] script is the [[official language]] of the Union, along with [[Indian English|English]] as an additional official language.{{sfn|National Informatics Centre|2005}}{{sfn|Ministry of Home Affairs 1960}}<ref name="india.gov.in2">{{cite web |url=https://india.gov.in/india-glance/profile |title=Profile &#124; National Portal of India |publisher=[[India.gov.in]] |access-date=23 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830064815/http://india.gov.in/india-glance/profile |archive-date=30 August 2013 }}</ref> [[States and union territories of India|States and union territories]] can have a different official language of their own other than Hindi or English.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/constitutional-provisions |title=Constitutional Provisions – Official Language Related Part-17 of the Constitution of India |website=[[Department of Official Language]] via [[Government of India]] |access-date=18 April 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418112326/https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/constitutional-provisions |archive-date=18 April 2021}}</ref>}}
| languages              =  
| regional_languages    = {{collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;
|title = [[Languages with official status in India#State level|State level]] and [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|{{nowrap|Eighth Schedule}}]]<ref name="langoff">{{cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |title=50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2012 to June 2013) |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, [[Ministry of Minority Affairs]], [[Government of India]] |access-date=26 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2016}}</ref>
|{{hlist
| [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
| [[Dogri language|Dogri]]
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| [[Hindi]]
| [[Kannada]]
| [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
| [[Kokborok]]
| [[Konkani language|Konkani]]
| [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
| [[Malayalam]]
| [[Meitei language|Manipuri]]
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| [[Mizo language|Mizo]]
| [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| [[Odia language|Odia]]
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| [[Sanskrit]]
| [[Santali language|Santali]]
| [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| [[Urdu]]
}}
}}
| languages_type        = Native languages
| languages              = [[List of languages by number of native speakers in India|447 languages]]{{efn|Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped. [[Ethnologue]] lists 461 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide), 447 of which are living, while 14 are extinct.<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|editor=Lewis, M. Paul |editor2=Simons, Gary F. |editor3=Fennig, Charles D.|year=2014|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Seventeenth edition) : India|publisher=[[Ethnologue]] by SIL International|location= Dallas, Texas|url= http://www.ethnologue.com/country/IN|access-date=15 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue2">{{cite web|url=http://archive.ethnologue.com/15/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=area|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217151950/http://archive.ethnologue.com/15/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=area|title=Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Seventeenth edition) : Statistical Summaries  |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] by SIL International |archive-date=December 17, 2014|access-date=December 17, 2014}}</ref>}}
| demonym                = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| demonym                = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| government_type        = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[parliamentary republic]]
| membership            = [[United Nations]], [[G20]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[G4]], [[BRICS]], [[SAARC]], [[BIM-STEC]], [[SCO]]
| government_type        = [[Federal]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of India|President]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of India|President]]
| leader_name1          = [[Ram Nath Kovind]]
| leader_name1          = [[Ram Nath Kovind]]
Line 73: Line 37:
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]]
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3          = [[Narendra Modi]]
| leader_name3          = [[Narendra Modi]]
| leader_title4          = [[Chief Justice of India|Chief Justice]]
| leader_title4          = [[Speaker of the Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha Speaker]]
| leader_name4          = [[N. V. Ramana]]
| leader_name4          = [[Om Birla]]
| leader_title5          = [[Speaker of the Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha Speaker]]
| leader_title5          = [[Chief Justice of India|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name5          = [[Om Birla]]
| leader_name5          = [[N. V. Ramana]]
| leader_title6          =
| leader_name6          =
| legislature            = [[Parliament of India|Parliament]]
| legislature            = [[Parliament of India|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[Rajya Sabha]]
| upper_house            = [[Rajya Sabha]]
| lower_house            = [[Lok Sabha]]
| lower_house            = [[Lok Sabha]]
| sovereignty_type      = [[Indian independence movement|Independence]]
| sovereignty_type      = Formation
| sovereignty_note      = from the [[United Kingdom]]
| sovereignty_note      =  
| established_event1    = [[Dominion of India|Dominion]]
| established_event1    = Indus Valley Civilization
| established_date1      = [[Independence Day (India)|15 August 1947]]
| established_date1      = 3300 BCE
| established_event2    = [[Republic]]
| established_event2    = Aryan city-states
| established_date2      = [[Republic Day (India)|26 January 1950]]
| established_date2      = 1500 BCE
| area_km2              = 3,287,263<ref name="india.gov.in" />
| area_km2              = 3,601,733<ref name="india.gov.in" />
| area_footnote          = {{efn|"The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as {{convert|3287260|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and the total land area as {{convert|3060500|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}; the United Nations lists the total area as {{convert|3287263|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and total land area as {{convert|2973190|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}."{{harv|Library of Congress|2004}}.}}
| area_footnote          =  
| area_rank              = 7th
| area_rank              = 7th
| area_sq_mi            = 1,269,346
| area_sq_mi            =  
| percent_water          = 9.6
| percent_water          = 9.6
| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UN Population|India}}{{UN Population|ref}}
| population_estimate    = 1,352,357,985
| population_census      = 1,210,854,977<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html|title=Population Enumeration Data (Final Population)|work=2011 Census Data|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]]|access-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522213913/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html|archive-date=22 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A-2_Data_Tables/00%20A%202-India.pdf|title=A – 2 Decadal Variation in Population Since 1901|work=2011 Census Data|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]]|access-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430213141/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A-2_Data_Tables/00%20A%202-India.pdf|archive-date=30 April 2016}}</ref>
| population_census      =  
| population_estimate_year = {{UN Population|Year}}
| population_estimate_year = 2021
| population_estimate_rank = 2nd
| population_estimate_rank = 2nd
| population_census_year = 2011
| population_census_year =  
| population_census_rank = 2nd
| population_census_rank =  
| population_density_km2 = {{Pop density|{{Indian population clock}}|3287263|km2|disp=num|prec=1}}
| population_density_km2 = 490.99
| population_density_sq_mi = {{Pop density|{{Indian population clock}}|1269219|sqmi|disp=num|prec=1}}
| population_density_sq_mi =  
| population_density_rank = 19th
| population_density_rank = 198th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$11.353 trillion}}<ref name=imf>{{cite news |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/weo-report?c=534,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2019&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database: April 2021 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |newspaper=Imf |date=April 2021 |access-date=6 April 2021}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP                = $11.35 trillion
| GDP_PPP_year          = 2022
| GDP_PPP_year          = 2022
| GDP_PPP_rank          = 3rd
| GDP_PPP_rank          = 3rd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita    = {{increase}} $8,079<ref name=imf/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita    = $8,080
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 122nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 126th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$3.25 trillion}}<ref name=imf/>
| GDP_nominal            = $3.25 trillion
| GDP_nominal_year      = 2022
| GDP_nominal_year      = 2022
| GDP_nominal_rank      = 6th
| GDP_nominal_rank      = 6th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,313<ref name=imf/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,310
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 145th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 144th
| Gini                  = 35.7 <!--number only-->
| Gini                  = 41.8
| Gini_year              = 2011
| Gini_year              = 2013
| Gini_change            =  
| Gini_change            = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref              = <ref>{{cite web|title=Gini Index coefficient|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison|website=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707032440/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison|archive-date=7 July 2021}}</ref>
| Gini_ref              = <ref>{{cite web|title=Income Gini coefficient|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/income-gini-coefficient|website=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|access-date=14 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|archive-date=10 June 2010}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 98th
| Gini_rank              =  
| HDI                    = 0.645 <!--number only-->
| HDI                    = 0.645
| HDI_year              = 2019 <!--Please use the year to which the HDI [[Human Development Index]] data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_year              = 2020
| HDI_change            = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_change            = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=December 15, 2020|access-date=December 15, 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank              = {{ordinal|131}}
| HDI_rank              = 131st
| currency              = [[Indian rupee]] (₹)
| currency              = [[Indian rupee]] (₹)
| currency_code          = INR
| currency_code          = INR
Line 130: Line 96:
   | {{nowrap|{{abbr|dd|day}}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|yyyy|year}}}}{{efn|See [[Date and time notation in India]].}}
   | {{nowrap|{{abbr|dd|day}}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|yyyy|year}}}}{{efn|See [[Date and time notation in India]].}}
}}
}}
| electricity            = [[Mains electricity by country|230 V–50 Hz]]
| electricity            = 230 V–50 Hz
| drives_on              = left<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of all left- & right-driving countries around the world |url=https://www.worldstandards.eu/cars/list-of-left-driving-countries/ |date=13 May 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=worldstandards.eu}}</ref>
| drives_on              = [[Left- and right-hand traffic|left]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of all left- & right-driving countries around the world |url=https://www.worldstandards.eu/cars/list-of-left-driving-countries/ |date=13 May 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=worldstandards.eu}}</ref>
| calling_code          = [[Telephone numbers in India|+91]]
| calling_code          = [[Telephone numbers in India|+91]]
| cctld                  = [[.in]] ([[.in#Internationalised domain names and country codes|others]])
| cctld                  = [[.in]] ([[.in#Internationalized domain names and country codes|others]])
| englishmotto          = "Truth Alone Triumphs"{{lower|0.2em|{{sfn|National Informatics Centre|2005}}}}
| englishmotto          = "Truth Alone Triumphs"{{lower|0.2em|{{sfn|National Informatics Centre|2005}}}}
| religion_year          = 2011
| religion_year          = 2011
| religion              = {{ubl
| religion              = {{ubl
  | 79.8% [[Hinduism in India|Hinduism]]
  | 79.8% [[Hinduism]]  
  | 14.2% [[Islam in India|Islam]]
  | 14.2% [[Islam in India|Islam]]
  | 2.3% [[Christianity in India|Christianity]]
  | 2.3% [[Christianity]]
  | 1.7% [[Sikhism in India|Sikhism]]
  | 1.7% [[Sikhism]]
| 0.7% [[History of Buddhism in India|Buddhism]]
  | 2.6% others or Unaffiliated  
  | 0.4% [[Jainism in India|Jainism]]
| 0.23% [[Irreligion in India|Unaffiliated]]
| 0.65% [[Religion in India|Others]]<ref name="Census2011religion" />
  }}
  }}
| official_website      = <!-- do not add www.gov.in – The article is about the country, not the government – from Template:Infobox country, "do not use government website (e.g. usa.gov) for countries (e.g. United States) -->
| official_website      = <!-- do not add www.gov.in – The article is about the country, not the government – from Template:Infobox country, "do not use government website (e.g. usa.gov) for countries (e.g. United States) -->
| today                  =  
| today                  =  
| iso3166code            = IN
| established_event6    = British Raj
| established_event8    = Current constitution
| established_date7      = 15 August 1947
| established_event7    = Independence
| established_date6      = 2 August 1858
| established_event4    = Mughal Empire
| established_date5      = 14 November 1818
| established_event5    = Maratha Confederation
| established_date4      = 1526
| established_date3      = 300 BCE
| established_event3    = Maurya Kingdom
| established_date8      = 26 January 1950
}}
}}
'''India'''<!--Do not add pronunciation per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section]]-->, officially the '''Republic of India''' ([[Hindi]]: {{transl|hi|ISO|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}<!--Do not add pronunciation per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section]]-->),<ref>–{{citation|title=The Essential Desk Reference |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA76|year=2002|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-512873-4|page=76}} "Official name: Republic of India.";<br />–{{citation|author=John Da Graça|title=Heads of State and Government|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0YfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA421 |year=2017|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-349-65771-1|page=421}} "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)";<br />–{{citation|author=Graham Rhind |title=Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|year=2017|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-351-93326-1|page=302}} "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.";<br />–{{citation|last=Bradnock|first=Robert W.|title=The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|year=2015|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-317-40511-5|page=108}} "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya";<br />–{{citation|title=Penguin Compact Atlas of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLw-ReHIgvQC&pg=PA140|year=2012|publisher=[[Penguin Group|Penguin]] |isbn=978-0-7566-9859-1|page=140}} "Official name: Republic of India";<br />–{{citation|title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA515|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]|pages=515–516}} "Officially, Republic of India";<br />–{{citation|title=Complete Atlas of the World, 3rd Edition: The Definitive View of the Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5moCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54-IA10|year=2016|publisher=[[DK Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4654-5528-4|page=54}} "Official name: Republic of India";<br />–{{citation|title=Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQWhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726|date=10 May 2013|publisher=[[CQ Press]]|isbn=978-1-4522-9937-2|page=726}} "India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)"</ref> is a country in [[South Asia]]. It is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|seventh-largest country]] by area, the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|second-most populous]] country, and the most populous [[democracy]] in the world. Bounded by the [[Indian Ocean]] on the south, the [[Arabian Sea]] on the southwest, and the [[Bay of Bengal]] on the southeast, it shares land borders with [[Pakistan]] to the west;{{efn|1 = The [[Government of India]] also regards [[Afghanistan]] as a bordering country, as it considers all of [[Kashmir]] to be part of India. However, this is [[Kashmir conflict|disputed]], and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: {{cite web |title=Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management) |url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|access-date=1 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317182910/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2015|url-status=dead}} }} [[China]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bhutan]] to the north; and [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]]; its [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] share a maritime border with [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Indonesia]].


[[Modern humans]] arrived on the [[Indian subcontinent]] from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin">{{harvnb|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10 10]}}, "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref><ref name="Dyson2018p1">
'''India''' ([[Hindi]]: {{transl|hi|ISO|Bhārat}}), officially the '''Republic of India''' ([[Hindi]]: {{transl|hi|ISO|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}), is a country in [[South Asia]]. It is second largest country in [[population]] and seventh largest country by land area. It is also the most populous [[democracy]] in the world,<ref name="hrw - India">{{cite web|title=India|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/india_2012.pdf|publisher=HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH|accessdate=29 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="The world's largest democratic event: India begins voting">{{cite news|last=Basu|first=Moni|title=The world's largest democratic event: India begins voting|url=http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2014/04/world/infographic-india-by-the-numbers/|publisher=CNN|accessdate=29 August 2016}}</ref> bounded by the [[Indian Ocean]] on the south, the [[Arabian Sea]] on the southwest, and the [[Bay of Bengal]] on the southeast. It has seven neighbors: [[Pakistan]] in north-west, [[China]] in north, and [[Myanmar]] in east and [[Sri Lanka]] in south. The [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], a union territory of India, is also near [[Thailand]] and [[Indonesia]] along with Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Andaman and Nicobar Islands · India|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Andaman+and+Nicobar+Islands,+India/@10.213225,91.00633,7z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x3064a00f2b650ff3:0xce80055648fccb2c!8m2!3d11.7400867!4d92.6586401?hl=en|access-date=2021-06-03|website=Andaman and Nicobar Islands · India|language=en-AU}}</ref>
{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}, "Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present."</ref><ref name="Fisher2018p23">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}}, "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the ''Homo sapiens'' range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago."
</ref>
Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human [[genetic diversity]].<ref name="Dyson2018-28a">
{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28]}}
</ref> [[Neolithic|Settled life]] emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the [[Indus River|Indus]] [[river basin]] 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] of the third millennium BCE.<ref name="Combined-2">
(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4–5]}};<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 33]}}
</ref>
By {{BCE|1200}}, an [[Proto-language|archaic form]] of [[Sanskrit]], an [[Indo-European language]], had [[Trans-cultural diffusion|diffused]] into India from the northwest,<ref name="Lowe2015">
{{cite book |last=Lowe |first=John J. |title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms |year=2015|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-100505-3 |pages=1–2 |quote=(The Rigveda) consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500&nbsp;BCE and 1200&nbsp;BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2}}</ref><ref name="Combined-4-Rigveda">(a) {{cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael |author-link=Michael Witzel|editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C&pg=PA68|year=2008|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|pages=68–70|chapter=Vedas and Upanisads|quote=It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); ... The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on.  This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a ''tape-recording'' of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. (pp. 68–69) ... The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE. (p. 70)}}<br/>(b) {{citation|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUnaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18|date=3 February 2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-936009-3|pages=xviii, 10|quote=A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500-1000 BCE  Rig Veda; ca. 1200-900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda (p. xviii); Hindu texts began with the ''Rig Veda'' ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE (p. 10)}}<br/>(c) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}}, "In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. [[Vedic Sanskrit]] is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva)."
<br/>(d) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14–15]}}, "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. ... It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence."; <br /> (e) {{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA46 46–]}}, "The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."</ref> [[Oral transmission|unfolding]] as the language of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', and recording the dawning of [[Hinduism]] in India.<ref name="Combined-3">
(a) {{citation|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie|author-link1=Stephanie W. Jamison|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel |title=The Rigveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|year=2020|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-063339-4|pages=2, 4|quote=The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2)  Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).}};<br/>(b) {{citation|last=Flood|first=Gavin|author-link=Gavin Flood|editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yT3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|date=20 August 2020|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-105322-1|pages=4–|chapter=Introduction|quote=I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterized by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).}};<br/>(c) {{cite book|last=Michaels|first=Axel|author-link=Axel Michaels|editor=Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis|title=The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|year=2017|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-100709-5|pages=86–97|quote=Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three ''samskaras'' (initiation, marriage, and death ritual).  Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened.  Although ''samskaras'' vary from region to region, from class (''varna'') to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the ''Brahmin'' priests. (p 86)}}<br/>(d) {{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA35|year=1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=35|quote=It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals.  The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.}}
</ref> The [[Dravidian languages]] of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions.<ref name="Combined-4">
{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16], [https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}}
</ref>
By {{BCE|400}}, [[social stratification|stratification]] and [[social exclusion|exclusion]] by [[caste]] had emerged within Hinduism,<ref name="Dyson2018-16a">
{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16]}}
</ref>
and [[History of Buddhism in India|Buddhism]] and [[History of Jainism|Jainism]] had arisen, proclaiming [[social order]]s unlinked to heredity.<ref name="Fisher2018-59">
{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59]}}
</ref>
Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] and [[Gupta Empire]]s based in the [[Ganges Basin]].<ref name="Combined-5">
(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16–17]}};<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67]}};<br/>(c) {{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA56 56–57]}};<br/>(d) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–30]}}.</ref>
Their collective [[era]] was suffused with wide-ranging creativity,<ref name="Combined-6">
(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28–29]}};
<br/>(b) {{citation|author=Glenn Van Brummelen |editor=Thomas F. Glick |editor2=Steven Livesey |editor3=Faith Wallis |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|year=2014|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-45932-1|pages=46–48|chapter=Arithmetic}}
</ref> but also marked by the declining status of women,<ref name="Combined-7">
(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}};<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Stein|2010|p=90}};<br/>(c) {{citation |last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor=Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers |title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia}}
</ref> and the incorporation of [[untouchability]] into an organised system of belief.{{efn|"A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest."{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 93}}}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 93}} In [[South India]], the [[Middle kingdoms of India#The Deccan plateau and South|Middle kingdoms]] exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="AsherAsher2006-17">
{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA17 17]}}</ref>


In the early medieval era, [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], and [[Zoroastrianism]] put down roots on India's southern and western coasts.<ref name="Combined-8">
The [[capital (city)|capital]] of India is [[New Delhi]]. India is a [[peninsula]], bound by the [[Indian Ocean]] in the south, the [[Arabian Sea]] on the west and [[Bay of Bengal]] in the east. The [[coastline]] of India is of about {{convert|7517|km|mi|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="sanilkumar">{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=V. Sanil|first2=K. C. |last2=Pathak|first3= P.|last3= Pednekar|first4= N. S. N. |last4=Raju|title=Coastal processes along the Indian coastline|journal=Current Science|volume=91|issue=4|year=2006|pages=530–536|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf}}</ref> India has the second largest [[Indian Armed Forces|military force]] in the world and is also a [[nuclear weapon]] state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/india/nuke/index.html |title=India Nuclear Forces |accessdate=2009-04-11 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref>
(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 54]}};
<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA78 78–79]}};
<br/>(c) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}}
</ref>
Muslim armies from [[Central Asia]] intermittently overran India's northern plains,<ref name="Combined-13">
(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68–70]}};<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19 19], 24}}</ref>
eventually establishing the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and drawing northern India into the cosmopolitan [[Islamic Golden Age|networks of medieval Islam]].<ref name="Combined-10">
(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 48]}};
<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA53 52]}}</ref>
In the 15th century, the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture in south India.<ref name="AsherAsher2006-74">
{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA74 74]}}</ref>
In the [[Punjab]], [[Sikhism]] emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.<ref name="AsherAsher2006-267">
{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA267 267]}}</ref>
The [[Mughal Empire]], in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,<ref name="AsherAsher2006-152">
{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152 152]}}</ref>
leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.{{efn|"Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800&nbsp;km (500 mi) to Agra for burial in the Rauza-i Munauwara ("Illuminated Tomb") – a personal tribute and a stone manifestation of his imperial power. This tomb has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal."<ref name="Fisher2018-106"/>}}<ref name="Fisher2018-106">
{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 106]}}
</ref>
Gradually expanding [[Company rule in India|rule of the British East India Company]] followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also consolidating its [[sovereignty]].<ref name="Combined-11">
(a) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA289 289]}}
<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}}
</ref> [[British Raj|British Crown rule]] began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,<ref name="Combined-12">{{citation|last=Taylor|first=Miles|editor=Aldrish, Robert |editor2=McCreery, Cindy |title=Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iR3GDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|year=2016|publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5261-0088-7|pages=38–39|chapter=The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George}}</ref>{{sfn|Peers|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dyQuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}} but [[Industrial Revolution|technological changes]] were introduced, and ideas of education, modernity and the public life took root.<ref name="EmbreeHay1988">
{{citation
|last1=Embree|first1=Ainslie Thomas|last2=Hay|first2=Stephen N.|last3=Bary|first3=William Theodore De|title=Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XoMRuiSpBp4C&pg=PA85|year=1988|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|isbn=978-0-231-06414-9|page=85|chapter=Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates}}
</ref>
A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the major factor in ending British rule.<ref>{{citation|last=Marshall|first=P. J.|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC&pg=PA179 |year=2001|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-00254-7 |pages=179–181}}</ref> In 1947 the British Indian Empire was [[Partition of India|partition]]ed into two independent [[Dominion#India, Pakistan and Bangladesh|dominions]], a Hindu-majority [[Dominion of India]] and a Muslim-majority [[Dominion of Pakistan]], amid large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration.<ref>(a) {{harvnb|Copland|2001|pp=71–78}};<br/>(b) {{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=222}}.</ref>


India has been a [[federal republic]] since 1950, governed in a democratic [[parliamentary system]]. It is a [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]], multilingual and multi-ethnic society. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to 1.211&nbsp;billion in 2011.<ref name="Dyson2018-219">
India's economy became the world's fastest growing in the [[G20 developing nations]] during the last quarter of 2014, replacing the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref name="India clocks 7.5% growth in January-March quarter, becomes world's fastest growing economy">{{cite news|title=India clocks 7.5% growth in January-March quarter, becomes world's fastest growing economy|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/node/2090462%20DNA,Indian%20economy%20overtaken%20china%20growth%20rate|accessdate=29 August 2016|newspaper=DNA India|date=29 May 2015}}</ref> India's [[literacy]] and [[wealth]] are also rising.<ref>{{cite web |last =Singh |first =Gyanant |title =Rising economic wealth and literacy behind increase of court cases, claims report |work =India Today |date =16 January 2013 |url =http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-economic-wealth-literacy-rising-court-cases-report-india-today/1/242401.html |accessdate =11 January 2016  }}</ref> According to New World Wealth, India is the fifth richest country in the world with a total individual [[wealth]] of $5.6 trillion.<ref name="India on 10 wealthiest country list, takes 5th spot">{{cite news|title=India on 10 wealthiest country list, takes 5th spot|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-on-10-wealthiest-country-list-takes-7th-spot/articleshow/53825462.cms|accessdate=29 August 2016|newspaper=The Times of India|date=23 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="India's large population helps push it to 7th position in wealthiest nations list">{{cite news|title=India's large population helps push it to 5th position in wealthiest nations list|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indias-large-population-helps-push-it-to-7th-position-in-wealthiest-nations-list/articleshow/53825341.cms|accessdate=29 August 2016|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=23 August 2016}}</ref> However, it still has many [[Social issue|social]] and [[Economics|economic]] issues like [[Poverty in India|poverty]] and [[corruption]]. India is a founding member of the [[World Trade Organisation]] (WTO), and has signed the [[Kyoto Protocol]].
{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 219], 262}}
</ref>
During the same time, its nominal [[per capita income]] increased from US$64 annually to US$1,498, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951,<ref name="Fisher2018-8">
{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8]}}
</ref>
India has become a [[List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate|fast-growing]] [[G20|major economy]] and a hub for [[Information technology in India|information technology services]], with an expanding middle class.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2012-265">
{{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA265 265–266]}}
</ref> It has [[Indian Space Research Organisation|a space programme]] which includes several planned or completed [[List of Solar System probes|extraterrestrial missions]]. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2012-266">
{{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA266 266]}}
</ref>
India has substantially reduced its rate of poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.<ref name="Dyson2018-216-a">
{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216]}}
</ref>
India is a [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon state]], which ranks high in [[List of countries by military expenditures|military expenditure]]. It has disputes over [[Kashmir]] with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.<ref name=kashmir-disputes>(a) {{citation |title=Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |access-date=15 August 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent{{nbsp}}... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |archive-date=13 August 2019 |url-status=live}};<br/>(b) {{citation |last1=Pletcher |first1=Kenneth |title=Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin |access-date=16 August 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, ... constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402090308/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin |archive-date=2 April 2019}};<br/>(c) {{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Americana]]: Jefferson to Latin |publisher=[[Scholastic Library Publishing]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328 |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6 |page=328 |author=C. E Bosworth |quote=KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947}}</ref>
Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are [[Gender inequality in India|gender inequality]], [[Malnutrition in India|child malnutrition]],<ref name="NarayanJohn2018-lead">{{cite journal|last1=Narayan |first1=Jitendra |last2=John|first2=Denny|last3=Ramadas|first3=Nirupama|title=Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives|journal=[[Journal of Public Health Policy]]|volume=40|issue=1|year=2018 |pages=126–141|issn=0197-5897 |doi=10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5|pmid=30353132|s2cid=53032234}}
</ref>
and rising levels of [[Air pollution in India|air pollution]].<ref name="BalakrishnanDey2019-lead">{{cite journal|last1=Balakrishnan|first1=Kalpana|last2=Dey|first2=Sagnik|title=The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017|journal=[[The Lancet Planetary Health]]|volume=3|issue=1|year=2019|pages=e26–e39|display-authors=etal |issn=2542-5196 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4|pmid=30528905|pmc=6358127}}
</ref>
India's land is [[megadiverse country|megadiverse]], with four [[biodiversity hotspots]].<ref name=IUCN-India>{{citation|title=India|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN)|url=https://www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india|year=2019}}
</ref> Its forest cover comprises 21.7% of its area. <ref name="ISFR"/> [[Wildlife in India|India's wildlife]], which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in [[Culture of India|India's culture]],<ref name="WoodroffeThirgood2005">{{citation|last1=Karanth|first1=K. Ullas|last2=Gopal|first2=Rajesh |editor=Rosie Woodroffe |editor2=Simon Thirgood |editor3=Alan Rabinowitz |title=People and Wildlife, Conflict Or Co-existence?|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vNzRzcjntAC&pg=PA374|year=2005|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-53203-7|page=374|chapter=An ecology-based policy framework for human-tiger coexistence in India}}</ref> is supported among these forests, and elsewhere, in [[Protected areas of India|protected habitats]].


== Etymology ==
India has the fourth largest number of spoken languages per country in the world, only behind [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.ethnologue.com/enterprise-faq/which-countries-have-most-languages|title = Which countries have the most languages?|website = Ethnologue|date = 8 February 2013}}</ref> People of many different religions live there, including the five most popular world religions: [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Islam]], and [[Christianity]]. The first three religions originated from the [[Indian subcontinent]] along with Jainism.
{{Main|Names of India}}
According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (third edition 2009), the name "India" is derived from the [[Classical Latin]] ''India'', a reference to [[South Asia]] and an uncertain region to its east; and in turn derived successively from: [[Hellenistic Greek]] ''India'' ('' Ἰνδία''); [[ancient Greek]] ''Indos'' ('' Ἰνδός''); [[Old Persian]] ''[[Hindush]]'', an eastern province of the [[Achaemenid empire]]; and ultimately its [[cognate]], the [[Sanskrit]] ''Sindhu'', or "river," specifically the [[Indus River]] and, by implication, its well-settled southern basin.<ref>{{citation|title=India (noun)|publisher=[[Oxford English Dictionary]], 3rd Edition|year=2009|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/94384#eid677811}} (subscription required)</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Thieme |first=P. |chapter=Sanskrit ''sindu-/Sindhu-'' and Old Iranian ''hindu-/Hindu-'' |editor1=Mary Boyce |editor2=Ilya Gershevitch |title=W. B. Henning memorial volume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3UBAAAAMAAJ |year=1970 |publisher=[[Lund Humphries]] |pages=447–450|isbn=978-0-85331-255-0 }}</ref> The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] referred to the Indians as ''Indoi'' (''{{ISO 639-2|GRC|Ἰνδοί}}''), which translates as "The people of the Indus".{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}}


The term ''[[Names for India#Bhārata|Bharat]]'' ({{transl|hi|ISO|Bhārat}}; {{IPA-hns|ˈbʱaːɾət|pron|hi-Bharat.ogg}}), mentioned in both [[Indian epic poetry]] and the [[Constitution of India]],<ref name="Clementin-Ojha" />{{sfn|Ministry of Law and Justice 2007}} is used in its variations by [[Names of India in its official languages|many Indian languages]]. A modern rendering of the historical name ''Bharatavarsha'', which applied originally to [[North India|northern India]],<ref name="Jha2014">{{citation|last=Jha|first=Dwijendra Narayan|title=Rethinking Hindu Identity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqDgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2014|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-317-49034-0|page=11}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 253]}} ''Bharat'' gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.<ref name=Clementin-Ojha>{{cite journal |last=Clémentin-Ojha |first=Catherine |title='India, that is Bharat…': One Country, Two Names |journal=South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal |volume=10 |year=2014 |url=http://samaj.revues.org/3717 |archive-date=28 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928035644/http://samaj.revues.org/3717}}</ref><ref name=Barrow />
== National Symbols of India ==
[[File:Emblem of India.svg|left|thumb|National emblem of India]]
The National emblem of India shows four [[lion]]s standing back-to-back. The lions symbolise power, pride, confidence, and courage (bravery). Only the government can use this emblem, according to the [[State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005]]


''[[Hindustan]]'' ({{IPA-hns|ɦɪndʊˈstaːn||Hindustan.ogg}}) is a [[Middle Persian]] name for India, introduced during the [[Mughal Empire]] and used widely since. Its meaning has varied, referring to a region encompassing present-day northern India and [[Pakistan]] or to India in its near entirety.<ref name="Clementin-Ojha" /><ref name=Barrow>{{cite journal |last=Barrow |first=Ian J. |title=From Hindustan to India: Naming change in changing names |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=26 |pages=37–49 |number=1 |year=2003 |doi=10.1080/085640032000063977|s2cid=144039519 }}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Hindustan|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan|access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref>
The name India comes from the Greek word, ''Indus''. This came from the word ''sindhu'', which in time turned into Hind or [[Hindustani language|Hindi]] or [[Hinduism|Hindu]]. The preferred native name or endonym is "Bharat" in [[Hindi]] and other Indian languages as contrasted with names from outsiders. Some of the national symbols are:
 
* National anthem: [[Jana Gana Mana]]
* National song: [[Vande Mataram]]
* National animal: Tiger
* National bird: Peacock
* National flower: Lotus
* National tree: Banyan
* National river: [[Ganges]] (Ganga)
* National fruit: [[Mango]]
* National heritage animal: Elephant
* National heritage bird: Indian eagle
<gallery>
File:Bengal Tiger Karnataka.jpg|<div align="center">''[[Tiger|Panthera tigris]]'' <br>Tiger<br>(national animal)</div>
File:Peacock, East Park, Hull - panoramio.jpg|<div align="center">''[[Indian Peafowl|Pavo cristatus]]''<br>Peacock<br>(national bird)</div>
File:Lotus Nelumbo nucifera Flower Close 2048px.jpg|<div align="center">''[[Nelumbo]]nucifera'' <br>Lotus<br> (national flower)</div>
File:Banyan 02 in Tenganan by Line1.jpg|<div align="center">''[[Ficus benghalensis]]''<br>Banyan<br> (national tree)</div>
</gallery>


== History ==
== History ==
{{Main|History of India|History of the Republic of India}}
[[File:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] was built by Shah Jahan as a memorial to his wife [[Mumtaz Mahal]].
It is a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site. It is thought to be of "outstanding universal value".<ref name="UNESCO_TM">{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list|title=Taj Mahal|accessdate=28 September 2007|work=World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|quote=The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value.}}</ref>]]
{{main|History of India}}
Some of the main classical languages of the world [[Tamil language]] was born in today's India. Both of these languages are more than 3000 years old.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/dravidian-language-family-is-4500-years-old-study/article23314180.ece|title=Dravidian language family is 4,500 years old: study|date=2018-03-21|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-04-25|others=PTI|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The country founded a [[religion]] called [[Hinduism]], which most Indians still follow. Later, a king named Chandragupt Maurya built an empire called  the [[Maurya Empire]] in 300 BC. It made most of [[South Asia]] into one whole country.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Maurya dynasty
|url = http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html
|author = Jona Lendering
|accessdate = 2007-06-17
|archive-date = 2012-02-08
|archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/65IEUKA7W?url=http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> From 180 BC, many other countries invaded India. Even later (100 BC &nbsp;AD 1100), other Indian dynasties (empires) came, including the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas.<ref>{{cite web
|title = South India
|url = http://www.webindia123.com/history/MEDIEVAL/history%20south.htm
|accessdate = 2007-06-19
|publisher = Suni System Ltd.
|year = 2007}}</ref> Southern India at that time was famous for its science, art, and writing. The [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] of [[Thanjavur]] were pioneers at war in the seas and invaded [[Malaya]], [[Borneo]], [[Cambodia]]. The influence of [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] are still well noticeable in [[Southeast Asia|SE Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-were-main-achievements-raja-raja-chola-285062|title=What were the main achievements of Raja Raja Chola and Rajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty in south India {{!}} eNotes|website=eNotes|accessdate=2017-08-26|archive-date=2016-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106165149/http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-were-main-achievements-raja-raja-chola-285062|url-status=dead}}</ref>


=== Ancient India ===
Many [[dynasty|dynasties]] ruled India around the year 1000. Some of these were the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]], [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]], and the [[Maratha dynasty|Maratha]] empires. In the 1600s, European countries invaded India, and the British controlled most of India by 1856.<ref>{{cite web
{{multiple image|perrow=1/1|total_width=300
|title = From Trade to Colonization - Historic Dynamics of the East India Companies
| align = left
|url = http://india_resource.tripod.com/eastindia.html
| image_style = border:none;
|accessdate = 2007-06-19
| image1 = 1500-1200 BCE Rigveda, manuscript page sample i, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), Adhyaya 1, lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg
|date = 3 June 2007
| caption1 = A 19th-century manuscript of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', composed orally, {{BCE|1500–1200}};<ref name="Lowe2015"/> the manuscript uses a 14th-century script style.
|at = paragraph 18
| image2 = Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53.jpg
|archive-date = 2012-12-05
| caption2 = An illustration from an early-modern manuscript of the Sanskrit epic [[Ramayana]], composed in story-telling fashion {{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|300}}}}.<ref name="Lowe2017-epic">{{cite book|last=Lowe|first=John J.|title=Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|year=2017|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-879357-1|page=58 |quote=The term ‘Epic Sanskrit’ refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.}}</ref>
|archive-url = https://archive.is/20121205034929/india_resource.tripod.com/eastindia.html
}}
|url-status = dead
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin"/><ref name="Dyson2018p1"/><ref name="Fisher2018p23"/> The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin"/> After {{BCE|6500}}, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in [[Mehrgarh]] and other sites in what is now [[Balochistan, Pakistan]].{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = 104–105}} These gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 21–23}}{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = 104–105}} the first urban culture in South Asia,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 181}} which flourished during {{BCE|2500–1900}} in what is now Pakistan and western India.{{sfn|Possehl|2003|p = 2}} Centred around cities such as [[Mohenjo-daro]], [[Harappa]], [[Dholavira]], and [[Kalibangan]], and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 181}}
}}</ref>


During the period {{BCE|2000–500}}, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the [[Chalcolithic]] cultures to the [[Iron Age]] ones.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 255}} The [[Vedas]], the oldest scriptures associated with [[Hinduism]],{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 186–187}} were composed during this period,{{sfn|Witzel|2003|pp = 68–69}} and historians have analysed these to posit a [[Vedic period|Vedic culture]] in the [[Punjab region]] and the upper [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 255}} Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of [[Indo-Aryan migration]] into the subcontinent from the north-west.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=186–187}} The [[caste system]], which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.{{Sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=41–43}} On the [[Deccan Plateau]], archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|p=255}} In [[South India]], a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of [[megalith]]ic monuments dating from this period,{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=250–251}} as well as by nearby traces of [[agriculture]], [[irrigation tanks]], and craft traditions.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=250–251}}
In the early 1900s, [[million]]s of people peacefully started to [[wikt:protest|protest]] against British control. One of the people who led the freedom movement was [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who only used peaceful tactics, including a way called "[[ahimsa]]", which means "non-violence".<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 3">{{cite book
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300
|title = Concise Encyclopedia
| align = right
|publisher = Dorling Kindersly Limited
| image_style = border:none;
|year = 1997
| image1 = Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png
|pages = 455
| caption1 = [[Mauryan Empire]], {{circa|{{BCE|250}}}}.{{efn|Territories of the Maurya Empire conceptualized as core areas or linear networks separated by large autonomous regions in the works of scholars such as: historians [[Hermann Kulke]] and [[Dietmar Rothermund]];{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=69-70}} [[Burton Stein]];<ref name="Stein2010">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=GBS.PA74 74]}}, "In the past it was not uncommon for historians to conflate the vast space thus outlined with the oppressive realm described in the Arthashastra and to posit one of the earliest and certainly one of the largest totalitarian regimes in all of history. Such a picture is no longer considered believable; at present what is taken to be the realm of Ashoka is a discontinuous set of several core regions separated by very large areas occupied by relatively autonomous peoples."</ref> David Ludden;<ref name="Ludden2013-29">{{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–30]}}, "The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. ... In most ''janapadas'', the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left."</ref> and [[Romila Thapar]];{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA451 451–466]}} anthropologists [[Monica L. Smith]]{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA453 453]}} and [[Stanley Tambiah]];{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA451 451–466]}} archaeologist [[Robin Coningham]];{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA451 451–466]}} and historical demographer [[Tim Dyson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16–17]}}, "Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south."</ref>}}
|isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> On 15 August 1947, India peacefully became free and independent from the [[British Empire]]. India's [[constitution]] was founded on 26 January 1950. Every year, on this day, Indians celebrate Republic Day. The first official leader ([[Prime Minister]]) of India was [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].
| image2 = South Asia historical AD450 EN.svg
| caption2 = [[Gupta Empire]], {{circa|{{CE|450}}}}
| image3=Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg
| caption3 = Cave 26 of the rock-cut [[Ajanta Caves]], {{nowrap|5th century CE}}
}}


In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the ''[[mahajanapadas]]''.{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 260–265}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 53–54}} The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. [[Jainism]] came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, [[Mahavira]].{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 312–313}} [[Buddhism]], based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 54–56}}{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 21}}{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 67–68}} In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up [[Nekkhamma|renunciation]] as an ideal,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 300}} and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of [[Magadha]] had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Empire]].{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 319}} The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 78–79}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 70}} The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for [[Ashoka]]'s renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|dhamma]]''.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 367}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 63}}
After 1947, India had a socialist planned economy. It is one of the founding members of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[United Nations]]. It has fought many [[war]]s since independence from [[Britain]], including the wars in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, and 1999 with [[Pakistan]] and in 1962 with [[People's Republic of China|China]]. It also fought a war to capture [[Goa]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]]-built [[harbour|port]] and a city that was not a part of India until 1961. The Portuguese refused to give it to the country, and so India had to use force and the Portuguese were defeated. India has also done nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998, and it is one of the few countries that have [[nuclear bomb]]s.<ref name="India is a Nuclear State">{{cite web
|title = India Profile
|url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/index.html
|accessdate = 2007-06-20
|year = 2003
|publisher = NTI}}</ref> Since 1991, India has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.<ref>{{cite web
| author = Montek S. Ahluwalia
| title = Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?
| version =
| publisher = Journal of Economic Perspectives
| year = 2002
| url = http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/speech/spemsa/msa008.doc
| format = MS Word
| accessdate = 2007-06-13
| archive-date = 2010-03-04
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100304170307/http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/speech/spemsa/msa008.doc
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>


The [[Sangam literature]] of the [[Tamil language]] reveals that, between {{BCE|200}} and {{CE|200}}, the southern peninsula was ruled by the [[Chera Dynasty|Cheras]], the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], and the [[Pandyan Dynasty|Pandyas]], dynasties that [[Indo-Roman trade|traded extensively with the Roman Empire]] and with [[Western Asia|West]] and [[Southeast Asia|South-East Asia]].{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 89–90}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 408–415}} In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 92–95}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 319}} By the 4th and 5th centuries, the [[Gupta Empire]] had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 89–91}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}} Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 98–99}} This renewal was reflected in a flowering of [[Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent|sculpture]] and [[Architecture of India|architecture]], which found patrons among an urban elite.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}} [[Sanskrit literature#Classical Sanskrit literature|Classical Sanskrit literature]] flowered as well, and [[History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|Indian science]], [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Ayurveda|medicine]], and [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]] made significant advances.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}}
== Government ==
[[File:New Delhi government block 03-2016 img3.jpg|thumb|left|Parliament of India.]]
India is the largest [[democracy]] in the world.<ref name="largestdem1">{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm
| title = Country profile: India
| accessdate= 2019-03-14
| date = 19 April 2012
| publisher = BBC
}}</ref>


=== Medieval India ===
India's government is divided into three parts: the Legislative (the one that makes the laws, the Parliament), the Executive (the government), and the Judiciary (the one that makes sure that the laws are obeyed, the supreme court).
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300
| align = left
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = India in 1022 Joppen.jpg
| caption1 = A map of India in {{CE|1022}}
| image2 = Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple..JPG
| caption2 = [[Brihadeshwara temple]], [[Thanjavur]], completed in {{CE|1010}}
}}
The Indian early medieval age, from {{CE|600 to 1200}}, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 132}} When [[Harsha]] of [[Kannauj]], who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from {{CE|606 to 647}}, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] ruler of the Deccan.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 119–120}} When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] king of [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 119–120}} When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]]s from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] and the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] from still farther south.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 119–120}} No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 132}} During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 121–122}} The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 121–122}}


In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first [[Bhakti|devotional hymns]] were created in the Tamil language.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 123}} They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all [[Languages of India|modern languages of the subcontinent]].{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 123}} Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 124}} Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 124}} By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Java]].{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 127–128}} Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 127–128}}
The legislative branch is made up of the [[Parliament]] of India, which is in [[New Delhi]], the capital of India. The Parliament of India is divided into two houses: the upper house, Rajya Sabha (Council of States); and the lower house, Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha has 250 members,<ref name="Parliament">{{cite web
{{multiple image
| url = http://www.india.gov.in/outerwin.htm?id=http://parliamentofindia.gov.in/
| perrow = 2
| title = ''Our Parliament'' A brief description of the Indian Parliament
| total_width = 300
| accessdate = 2007-06-16
| align = right
| publisher = parliamentofindia.gov.in
| image_style = border:none;
}}</ref> and the Lok Sabha has 552 members.<ref name="Parliament"/>
| title =
| image1 = India in 1398 Joppen.jpg
| caption1 = India in {{CE|1398}}, during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (labelled "Afghan empire")
| image2 = Qutb minar ruins.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Qutub Minar]], {{convert|73|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} tall, completed by the [[Sultan of Delhi]], [[Iltutmish]]
}}
After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using [[courser (horse)|swift-horse]] cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206.{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 68}} The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} By repeatedly repulsing [[Mongol Empire|Mongol raiders]] in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of [[Human migration|migration]] of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 67}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|pp = 50–51}} The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous [[Vijayanagara Empire]].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 53}} Embracing a strong [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 12}} and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 53}}


=== Early modern India ===
The executive branch is made up of the [[President]], [[Vice President]], [[Prime Minister]], and the Council of Ministers. The President of India is elected for a period of five years. The President can choose the Prime Minister, who has most of the power. The Council of Ministers, such as the Minister of Defence, helps the Prime Minister. Narendra Modi became the Prime Minister of India on May 16, 2014. He is the 19th Prime Minister of India. The president has less power than the prime minister.
{{multiple image|perrow=2/1|total_width=300
| align = left
| image_style = border:none;
| image1 = India in 1525 Joppen Hi Def.jpg
| caption1 = India in 1525 at the onset of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]]
| image2 = India in1605 Joppen Hi Def.jpg
| caption2 = India in 1605 during the rule of [[Akbar the Great|Akbar]]
| image3 = Agra Fort DistantTaj.JPG
| caption3 = A distant view of the [[Taj Mahal]] from the [[Agra Fort]]
}}
In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,{{sfn|Robb|2001|p = 80}} fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 164}} The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under [[Akbar]], the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 158}} and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 169}} caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} resulting in greater patronage of [[Mughal painting|painting]], literary forms, textiles, and [[Mughal architecture|architecture]].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 186}} Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], the [[Rajputs]], and the [[Sikh empire|Sikhs]], gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}} Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}} As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 256}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2/1|total_width=360
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| image1 = India in 1795 Joppen High Def.jpg
| caption1 = India in 1795
| image2 = India in 1848 Joppen.jpg
| caption2 = India in 1848
| image3=India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg
| caption3 = A two [[mohur]] Company gold coin, issued in 1835, the [[obverse and reverse|obverse]] inscribed "[[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV, King]]"
| header = India under British [[Company rule in India|East India Company rule]]
}}
By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English [[East India Company]], had established coastal outposts.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 286}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 44–49}} The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 98–100}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 286}}{{sfn|Ludden|2002|pp = 128–132}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 51–55}} Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annexe or subdue most of India by the 1820s.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 68–71}} India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the [[British Empire]] with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 286}} By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas like education, social reform, and culture.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 289}}


=== Modern India ===
The judicial branch is made up of the [[court]]s of India, including the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of India is the head of the Supreme Court. Supreme Court members have the power to stop a law being passed by Parliament if they think that the law is illegal and contradicts (opposes) the [[Constitution]] of India.<ref name="Manorama" /> In India, there are also 24 High Courts.
{{Main|History of the Republic of India}}
{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 360
| image_style = border:none;
| image1      = British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg
| caption1    = 1909 map of the British Indian Empire
}}
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in [[Europe]].{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 151–152}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 94–99}}{{sfn|Brown|1994|p = 83}}{{sfn|Peers|2006|p = 50}} However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 100–103}}{{sfn|Brown|1994|pp = 85–86}} Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the [[British Raj|direct administration of India]] by the British government. Proclaiming a [[unitary state]] and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 239}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 103–108}} In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1885.{{sfn|Robb|2001|p = 183}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1983|pp = 1–4}}{{sfn|Copland|2001|pp = ix–x}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 123}}
 
The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 260}} There was an increase in the number of large-scale [[Famine in India|famines]],{{sfn|Bose|Jalal|2011|p = 117}} and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 258}} There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 126}} The railway network provided critical famine relief,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 97}} notably reduced the cost of moving goods,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 97}} and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 126}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=200
|image_style = border:none;
|align    = left
|image1=Nehru gandhi.jpg|caption1=[[Jawaharlal Nehru]] sharing a light moment with [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], Mumbai, 6 July 1946
}}
After World War I, in which approximately [[Indian Army during World War I|one million Indians served]],{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 163}} a new period began. It was marked by [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms|British reforms]] but also [[Rowlatt act|repressive legislation]], by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a [[nonviolent]] movement of non-co-operation, of which [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] would become the leader and enduring symbol.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 167}} During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 195–197}} The next decade was beset with crises: [[India in World War II|Indian participation in World War&nbsp;II]], the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the [[partition of India]] into two states: India and Pakistan.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 203}}
 
Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 231}} It has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an active Supreme Court, and a largely independent press.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006 |pp=265–266}} Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into [[List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate|one of the world's fastest-growing economies]],<ref>{{citation|year=2009 |title=Briefing Rooms: India |work=[[Economic Research Service]] |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520002800/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}</ref> and increased its geopolitical clout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 265–266}} Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006 |pp=265–266}} by [[Religious violence in India|religious]] and [[Caste-related violence in India|caste-related violence]];{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 266–270}} by [[Naxalite|Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies]];{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 253}} and by [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir|separatism in Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[insurgency in Northeast India|in Northeast India]].{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 274}} It has unresolved territorial disputes with [[China–India relations#1960s|China]]{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 247–248}} and with [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|Pakistan]].{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 247–248}} India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 304}}
 
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of India}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2/1|total_width=360
| image_style = border:none;
| image1 = India Orographical Features Plate 4, Imperial Gazetteer of India, Atlas, 1909.jpg|caption1=India's [[orographic]]al features
| image2 = India southwest summer monsoon onset map en.svg|caption2=India's summer monsoon
}}
 
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], a part of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], began a north-eastward [[Plate tectonics|drift]] caused by [[seafloor spreading]] to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Simultaneously, the vast [[Tethys Ocean|Tethyan]] [[oceanic crust]], to its northeast, began to [[subduction|subduct]] under the [[Eurasian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], both created the [[Indian Ocean]] and caused the Indian [[continental crust]] eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the [[Himalayas]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast [[trough (geology)|trough]] that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 7}} and now constitutes the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Prakash et al.|2000}} Cut off from the plain by the ancient [[Aravalli Range]] lies the [[Thar Desert]].{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 11}}
 
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left
|image1=Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPG|caption1=The [[Tungabhadra river|Tungabhadra]], with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular [[Krishna river]].<ref name="McgrailBlue2003">{{citation|last1=Mcgrail|first1=Sean|last2=Blue|first2=Lucy|last3=Kentley|first3=Eric|last4=Palmer|first4=Colin|title=Boats of South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1eBAgAAQBAJ|date=2003|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-134-43130-4|page=257}}</ref>
|image2=Parked boats at Anjarle Creek.jpg|caption2=Fishing boats lashed together before a monsoon storm in a [[creek (tidal)|tidal creek]] in [[Anjarle]] village, Maharashtra.
}}
The original Indian Plate survives as [[South India|peninsular India]], the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the [[Satpura Range|Satpura]] and [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in Jharkhand in the east.{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 8}} To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the [[Deccan Plateau]], is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the [[Western Ghats|Western]] and [[Eastern Ghats]];{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|pp = 9–10}} the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude{{efn|The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed [[Siachen Glacier]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]; however, the [[Government of India]] regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.}} and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.{{sfn|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting|2007|p = 1}}


India's coastline measures {{Convert|7517|km|mi|-2}} in length; of this distance, {{Convert|5423|km|mi|-2}} belong to peninsular India and {{Convert|2094|km|mi|-2}} to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.{{sfn|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006}} According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% [[mudflat]]s or marshy shores.{{sfn|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006}}
== Geography and climate ==
[[File:Indiarivers.png|thumb|Rivers of India]]


<!---
India is the seventh biggest country in the world. It is the main part of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The [[Borders of the Republic of India|countries next to India]] are [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Myanmar]], [[China]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Nepal]]. It is also near [[Sri Lanka]], an [[island]] country.
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:KedarRange.jpg|thumb|left|The Kedar range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind the [[Kedarnath Temple]] in the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]]. Snow melt from the glaciers behind Kedarnath forms the [[Mandakini river]], one of the [[River source|headstreams]] of the [[Ganges river]].<ref name="Sen2019">{{citation|author=Sudipta Sen|title=Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FOV8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT47|year=2019|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-24267-6|page=47}} Quote: "The confluence of rivers, especially of the Ganges and its tributaries, is one of the most significant geographical spaces for the pilgrim, ... A common name for such a place in Sanskrit ... is prayaga, ... such as [[Rudraprayag]], situated at the meeting of two rivers: the Mandakini River, coming down from the steep glaciers beyond Kedarnath, and Alaknanda River, making its way from [[Badrinath]]."</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Agasthiyamalai]] range, constituting the southern end of the [[Western Ghats]], as seen from the [[rainshadow]] region of the [[southwest monsoon]] in [[Tirunelveli]], [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Oates1999">{{citation|last=Oates|first=John F.|title=Myth and Reality in the Rain Forest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0WFszVK5lQC&pg=PA35|year=1999|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-22252-6|page=35}} Quote: "The Agastyamalai are the most southerly portion of the Western Ghats. These wet and rugged hills are one of the last places in South India to support an extensive area of evergreen shola forest, and they are home to what may be the largest surviving population of lion-tailed macaques"</ref>]]
|2=[[File:Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPG|thumb|left|Flowing near [[Hampi]] is the [[Tungabhadra river]], the major right bank tributary of the [[Krishna river]], a peninsular river, which empties into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The [[coracle]]s, made of wicker, are traditionally covered with hide, their circular shape preventing them from overturning in rivers with rocky outcrops.<ref name="McgrailBlue2003">{{citation|last1=Mcgrail|first1=Sean|last2=Blue|first2=Lucy|last3=Kentley|first3=Eric|last4=Palmer|first4=Colin|title=Boats of South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1eBAgAAQBAJ|date=2003|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-134-43130-4|page=257}}</ref>]]
|3=[[File:Puvar 20080220-1.jpg|thumb|left|A beach off the [[Arabian Sea]] in [[Puvar]], [[Kerala]]. The Arabian Sea is the northwestern region of the Indian Ocean, bounded by the [[Arabian peninsula|Arabian]] and [[Indian peninsula|Indian]] peninsulas.]]
|4=[[File:Thar desert Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Thar desert]], 85% of which lies in the Indian state of [[Rajasthan]], spreads over an area of {{convert|2340000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.  It constitutes the northwestern limit of the [[southwest monsoon]].<ref name="Laity2009">{{citation|last=Laity|first=Julie J|title=Deserts and Desert Environments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtAbzLLTcwcC&pg=PA30|year=2009|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-1-4443-0074-1|page=30}}</ref>]]
|5=[[File:NDRF in Bihar Flood 2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kosi river]], shown here during a flood, rises in Nepal, rushes down with great force through its narrow Himalayan valley, and [[debouch]]es in a flat plain in [[Bihar]], India, where the river bed has risen so much from deposited silt that the river attempts to find a new course.<ref name="BasuSJ2017">{{citation|last1=Basu|first1=Mahua|last2=SJ|first2=Xavier Savarimuthu|title=Fundamentals of Environmental Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |date=2017|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-316-87051-8|page=78}}</ref>]]
|6=[[File:Andaman.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Andaman Islands]], in the [[Andaman Sea]], number over 200, and extend north by northeast to south by southwest. They rise up to {{convert|2400|ft|m}} and receive over {{convert|100|in|cm}} of rain annually.<ref name="SpateLearmonth2017">{{citation |last1=Spate|first1=O.H.K.|last2=Learmonth|first2=A.T.A.|title=India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-fDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1153|year=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-96898-0|page=1153</ref>]]
|7=[[File:Mt. Kanchenjunga.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kanchenjunga|Khangchendzonga]] [[massif]], shows Mount Khangchendzonga Central, in the middle, the world's third highest mountain at {{convert|28169|ft|m}} located on the border of India's [[Sikkim]] state and [[Nepal]].<ref name=unesco-kangchenjunga>{{citation|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|title=Khangchendzonda National Park|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820000450/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513|archive-date=20 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
}}-->
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the [[Ganges]] and the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], both of which drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 15}} Important tributaries of the Ganges include the [[Yamuna]] and the [[Kosi River|Kosi]]; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.{{sfn|Duff|1993|p = 353}}<ref name="BasuSJ2017-text">{{citation|last1=Basu|first1=Mahua|last2=SJ|first2=Xavier Savarimuthu|title=Fundamentals of Environmental Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |date=2017|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-316-87051-8|page=78}}</ref> Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], the [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], the [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]], and the [[Krishna River|Krishna]], which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 16}} and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and the [[Tapti River|Tapti]], which drain into the [[Arabian Sea]].{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 17}} Coastal features include the marshy [[Rann of Kutch]] of western India and the alluvial [[Sundarbans]] delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 12}} India has two [[archipelago]]s: the [[Lakshadweep]], [[Atoll|coral atolls]] off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the [[Andaman Sea]].{{sfn|Dikshit & Schwartzberg|p = 13}}


The [[Climate of India|Indian climate]] is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter [[monsoon]]s.{{sfn|Chang|1967|pp = 391–394}} The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian [[katabatic wind]]s from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.{{sfn|Posey|1994|p = 118}}{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = 4}} The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.{{sfn|Chang|1967|pp = 391–394}} Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: [[Climate of India#Tropical wet|tropical wet]], [[Climate of India#Tropical dry|tropical dry]], [[Climate of India#Subtropical humid|subtropical humid]], and [[Climate of India#Mountain|montane]].{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|p=97}}
India is a [[peninsula]], which means that it is surrounded on three sides by water. One of the seven wonders of the world is in Agra: the Taj Mahal. In the west is the [[Arabian Sea]], in the south is the [[Indian Ocean]], and in the east is the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The northern part of India has many mountains. The most famous mountain range in India is the [[Himalayas]], which have some of the tallest [[mountain]]s in the world. There are many rivers in India. The main rivers are the [[Ganges]], the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], the [[Yamuna]], the Godavari, the Kaveri, the Narmada, and the Krishna.


Temperatures in India have risen by {{convert|0.7|C-change|1|abbr=on}} between 1901 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sharma|first=Vibha|date=15 June 2020|title=Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583|access-date=2020-11-30|website=[[Tribune India]]}}</ref> [[Climate change in India]] is often thought to be the cause. The [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|retreat of Himalayan glaciers]] has adversely affected the [[Volumetric flow rate|flow rate]] of the major Himalayan rivers, including the [[Ganges]] and the [[Brahmaputra]].<ref name=":5">{{cite web|last1=Sethi|first1=Nitin|title=Global warming: Mumbai to face the heat|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/global-warming-mumbai-to-face-the-heat/articleshow/1556662.cms|date=2007-02-03|access-date=2021-03-11|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Vivek |last2=Jain |first2=Manoj Kumar |title=Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002216941830773X |journal=[[Journal of Hydrology]] |volume=567 |pages=489–509 |date=2018 |bibcode=2018JHyd..567..489G |s2cid=135053362 |issn=0022-1694 |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012}}</ref>
India has different climates.<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 4">{{cite book
|title = Concise Encyclopedia
|publisher = Dorling Kindersley Limited
|year = 1997
|pages = 333
|isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> In the South, the climate is mainly tropical, which means it can get very hot in summer and cool in winter.<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 4"/> The northern part, though, has a cooler climate, called sub-tropical, and even alpine in mountainous regions.<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 4"/> The [[Himalayas]], in the alpine climate region, can get extremely cold. There is very heavy [[rainfall]] along the west coast and in the Eastern Himalayan foothills. The west, though, is drier. Because of some of the [[desert]]s of India, all of India gets rain for four months of the year. That time is called the monsoon. That is because the deserts attract water-filled winds from the Indian Ocean, which give rain when they come into India. When the monsoon rains come late or not so heavily, [[drought]]s (when the land dries out because there is less rain) are possible. Monsoons normally come around July - August.


== Biodiversity ==
== Defence ==
{{main|Forestry in India|Wildlife of India}}
{{Main|Indian Armed Forces}}
{{multiple image
The '''Indian Armed Forces''' is the military of India. It is made up of an [[Indian Army|Army]], [[Indian Navy|Navy]] and [[Indian Air Force|Air Force]]. There are other parts like Paramilitary and Strategic Nuclear Command.
| perrow = 2/1
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| image1 = India Vegetation Features IGI 1909 Atlas.jpg
| caption1 = A 1909 map showing India's forests, bush and small wood, cultivated lands, steppe, and desert.
| image2 = 2010 India forest cover distribution map for its States and Union Territories.svg
| caption2 = A 2010 map showing India's forest cover averaged out for each state.
}}
India is a [[megadiverse country]], a term employed for 17 countries which display high [[biological diversity]] and contain many species exclusively [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]], or [[endemic]], to them.<ref>{{citation |publisher=Biodiversity A–Z, [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre|UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]|title=Megadiverse Countries|url=https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/megadiverse-countries |access-date=October 17, 2021}}</ref> India is a [[habitat]] for 8.6% of all [[mammal]] species, 13.7% of [[bird]] species, 7.9% of [[reptile]] species, 6% of [[amphibian]] species, 12.2% of [[fish]] species, and 6.0% of all [[flowering plant]] species.<ref>{{cite web |year=2012|title=Animal Discoveries 2011: New Species and New Records|publisher=[[Zoological Survey of India]] |url=http://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf |access-date=20 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116214754/http://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Puri>{{citation |last=Puri|first=S. K.|title=Biodiversity Profile of India |website=ces.iisc.ernet.in|url=http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html|access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121153614/http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html |archive-date=21 November 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.{{sfn|Basak|1983|p = 24}} India also contains four of the world's 34 [[biodiversity hotspot]]s,<ref name=IUCN-India/> or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.{{efn|A biodiversity hotspot is a [[biogeography|biogeographical]] region which has more than 1,500 [[vascular plant]] species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.<ref name="SivaperumanVenkataraman2018"/>}}<ref name="SivaperumanVenkataraman2018">{{citation|last1=Venkataraman|first1=Krishnamoorthy|last2=Sivaperuman |first2=Chandrakasan|editor=Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan |editor2=Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy |title=Indian Hotspots: Vertebrate Faunal Diversity, Conservation and Management|year=2018|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|isbn=978-981-10-6605-4|page=5|chapter=Biodiversity Hotspots in India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5}}</ref>


According to official statistics, India's [[forest cover]] is {{convert|713789|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which is 21.71% of the country's total land area.<ref name="ISFR">{{cite web|url=https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2021-details|title=India State of Forest Report, 2021|publisher=Forest Survey of India, [[National Informatics Centre]]|access-date=January 17, 2022}}</ref> It can be subdivided further into broad categories of ''canopy density'', or the proportion of the area of a forest covered by its [[tree canopy]].<ref name="Jha2018">{{citation|last=Jha|first=Raghbendra |year=2018|title=Facets of India's Economy and Her Society Volume II: Current State and Future Prospects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9n9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-349-95342-4|page=198}}</ref> ''Very dense forest'', whose ''canopy density'' is greater than 70%, occupies 3.02% of India's land area.<ref name="Jha2018"/><ref name="indiaforest">{{cite web|url=http://www.frienvis.nic.in/Database/Forest-Cover-in-States-UTs-2019_2478.aspx|title=Forest Cover in States/UTs in India in 2019|publisher=[[Forest Research Institute (India)|Forest Research Institute]] via [[National Informatics Centre]]|access-date=October 16, 2021}}</ref> It predominates in the [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest|tropical moist forest]] of the [[Andaman Islands]], the [[Western Ghats]], and [[Northeast India]].{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}} ''Moderately dense forest'', whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.<ref name="Jha2018"/><ref name="indiaforest"/> It predominates in the [[temperate coniferous forest]] of the [[Himalaya]]s, the moist deciduous ''[[Shorea robusta|sal]]'' forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous [[teak]] forest of central and southern India.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}} ''Open forest'', whose canopy density is between 10% and 40%, occupies 9.26% of India's land area,<ref name="Jha2018"/><ref name="indiaforest"/> and predominates in the [[Acacia nilotica|babul]]-dominated [[deserts and xeric shrublands|thorn forest]] of the central [[Deccan Plateau]] and the western [[Gangetic plain]].{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}}
The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief. However, it is managed by the Ministry of Defence. In 2010, the Indian Armed Forces had 1.32 million active personnel. This makes it one of the largest militaries in the world.<ref>IISS 2010, pp. 358</ref>


Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the [[astringent]] ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'', or ''neem'', which is widely used in rural Indian [[herbal medicine]],<ref name="Goyal2006">{{citation|last=Goyal|first=Anupam|title=The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295|year=2006|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-567710-2|page=295}} Quote: "The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal ''neem'' tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)"</ref> and the luxuriant ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'', or ''peepul'',<ref name="Hughes2013">{{citation|last=Hughes|first=Julie E.|title=Animal Kingdoms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106|year=2013|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-07480-4|page=106|quote=At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.}}</ref> which is displayed on the ancient seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]],<ref name="AmeriCostello2018">{{citation|last1=Ameri|first1=Marta|last2=Costello|first2=Sarah Kielt|last3=Jamison|first3=Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer|title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156|year=2018|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-108-17351-3|pages=156–157}} Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro."</ref> and under which [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] is recorded in the [[Pali canon]] to have sought enlightenment.<ref name="Gwynne2011">{{citation|author=Paul Gwynne|title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195|year=2011 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9|page=358|quote=The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (''[[Ficus religiosa]]'').}}</ref>
The Indian Army is becoming more modern by buying and making new weapons. It is also building defenses against missiles of other countries.<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/06/18/MNRR11AJK9.DTL&type=science India's army seeks military space program] ''San Francisco Chronicle''.</ref> In 2011, India imported more weapons than any other nation in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timearrows.com/solar-power-alternative-energy-farming/|title=Solar Power an Alternative Energy for Farming|date=24 May 2017}}</ref>


[[File:Panthera tigris tigris Tidoba 20150306.jpg|left|thumb|India has the majority of the world's wild tigers, nearly 3,000 in 2019.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49148174|work=[[BBC News]]|date=29 July 2019|title=India tiger census shows rapid population growth|access-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801021152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49148174|archive-date=1 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
From its independence in 1947, India fought four wars with Pakistan and a war with China.
Many Indian species have descended from those of [[Gondwana]], the southern [[supercontinent]] from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.{{sfn|Crame|Owen|2002|p = 142}} India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, [[Deccan Traps|volcanism]] and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.{{sfn|Karanth|2006}} Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two [[zoogeographical]] passes flanking the Himalayas.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}} This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.<ref name=Puri/>} Notable endemics are the vulnerable<ref>{{Cite journal | author = Singh, M. | author2 = Kumar, A. | author3 = Molur, S. | name-list-style = amp | title = Trachypithecus johnii | journal = [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume = 2008 | page = e.T44694A10927987 | date = 2008 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T44694A10927987.en }}</ref> [[Nilgiri Langur|hooded leaf monkey]]<ref name=itis>{{cite web|first=Johann|last=Fischer |author-link=Johann Baptist Fischer|title=Semnopithecus johnii|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null|publisher=[[ITIS]]|access-date=27 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829072131/https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null|archive-date=29 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and the threatened<ref name=IUCN>{{cite journal |author1=S.D. Biju |author2=Sushil Dutta |author3=M.S. Ravichandran Karthikeyan Vasudevan |author4=S.P. Vijayakumar |author5=Chelmala Srinivasulu |author6=Gajanan Dasaramji Bhuddhe |title=Duttaphrynus beddomii |journal=[[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |publisher=[[IUCN]] |volume=2004 |page=e.T54584A86543952 |date=2004 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54584A11155448.en}}</ref> [[Duttaphrynus beddomii|Beddom's toad]]<ref name=IUCN/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii |title=''Duttaphrynus beddomii'' (Günther, 1876) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2015 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]] |access-date=13 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721092639/http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii |archive-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> of the Western Ghats.


<!---{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
== Indian states ==
|0=[[File:Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) female head.jpg|thumb|left|The endangered [[Nilgiri tahr]] is endemic to the [[Western Ghats]]. Its population in 2008 was between 1,800 and 2,000 and decreasing.<ref name=nilgiri-tahr-IUCN>{{citation|last1=Alempath|first1=M.|last2=Rice|first2=C.| year=2008|title=Nilgiritragus hylocrius|journal=[[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T9917A13026736.en}}</ref>]]
For [[administration]] purposes, India has been divided into smaller pieces. Most of these pieces are called [[state]]s, some are called [[Union territory|union territories]]. States and union territories are different in the way they are represented. Most union territories are ruled by administrators (called Lieutenant Governors) sent by the central government. All the states, and the territories of Delhi, and Puducherry [[election|elect]] their local government themselves. In total, there are twenty-eight states and nine union territories.<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/>
|1=[[File:Banyan Tree at The Valley School , Bangalore.JPG|thumb|left|The ''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'', commonly known as the Indian banyan, or Indian fig, is indigenous to India, and is one of the largest trees by canopy coverage.  It has [[aerial roots]] which form new trunks once they reach the ground and propagate.<ref name="Corner2002">{{citation|last=Corner|first=E. J. H.|title=The Life of Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0VyqECPiuoC&pg=PA227|year=2002|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0-226-11615-0|page=227}}</ref>]]
|2=[[File:Clinotarsus curtipes-Aralam-2016-10-29-001.jpg|thumb|left|The vulnerable [[Malabar frog]] (''Clinotarsus curtipes'') is a species of frog [[Endemism|endemic]] in the [[Western Ghats]] of India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Ranidae/Clinotarsus/Clinotarsus-curtipes |title=''Clinotarsus curtipes'' (Jerdon, 1853) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2014 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]] |access-date=4 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504173141/http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Ranidae/Clinotarsus/Clinotarsus-curtipes |archive-date=4 May 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | author = Biju, S.D. | author2 = Dutta, Sushil | author3 = Inger, Robert | name-list-style = amp | title = ''Clinotarsus curtipes'' | journal = [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume = 2004 | page = e.T58583A11789937 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | date = 2004 | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58583/0 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T58583A11789937.en | access-date = 10 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171228054221/http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58583/0 | archive-date = 28 December 2017 | url-status = live }}</ref>]]
|3=[[File:Bank myna (Acridotheres ginginianus).jpg|thumb|left|The [[bank myna]] is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.]]
|4=[[File:North Sentinel Island.jpg|thumb|left|A [[NASA]] satellite image of [[North Sentinel Island]], a part of India's [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], which is covered by a ''very dense''{{efn|A forest cover is ''very dense'' if more than 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest|tropical moist forest]].{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}}]]
|5=[[File:Vultures in the nest, Orchha, MP, India edit.jpg|thumb|left|[[Indian vulture]]s, (''Gyps indicus''), in a nest on the tower of the [[Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)|Chaturbhuj Temple]], Orchha, Madhya Pradesh. The vulture became nearly extinct in India in the 1990s from having ingested the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-laced cattle.<ref name="LovetteFitzpatrick2016"/>]]
|6=[[File:Pahalgam Valley.jpg|thumb|left|The Pahalgam valley in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] is covered with a [[temperate coniferous forest]].{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}}]]
|7=[[File:Axis axis (Nagarhole, 2010).jpg|thumb|left|A [[Chital]] (''Axis axis'') stag attempts to browse in the [[Nagarhole National Park]] in a region covered by a ''moderately dense''{{efn|A forest cover is ''moderately dense'' if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} dry deciduous [[teak]] forest.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}}]]
}}-->
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Axis axis (Nagarhole, 2010).jpg|caption1=A [[Chital]] (''Axis axis'') stag attempts to browse in the [[Nagarhole National Park]] in a region covered by a ''moderately dense''{{efn|A forest cover is ''moderately dense'' if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} forest.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001}}}}
India contains 172 [[World Conservation Union|IUCN]]-designated [[List of endangered animals in India|threatened animal species]], or 2.9% of endangered forms.{{sfn|Mace|1994|p = 4}} These include the endangered [[Bengal tiger]] and the [[South Asian river dolphin|Ganges river dolphin]]. [[Critically endangered]] species include: the [[gharial]], a [[crocodilian]]; the [[great Indian bustard]]; and the [[Indian white-rumped vulture]], which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.<ref name="LovetteFitzpatrick2016">{{citation|last1=Lovette|first1=Irby J.|last2=Fitzpatrick|first2=John W.|title=Handbook of Bird Biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGyQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA599|year=2016|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-1-118-29105-4|page=599}}</ref> The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of [[National parks of India|national parks]] and [[protected areas of India|protected areas]], first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]]{{sfn|Ministry of Environments and Forests 1972}} and [[Project Tiger]] to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.{{sfn|Department of Environment and Forests|1988}} India hosts [[Wildlife sanctuaries of India|more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries]] and [[Biosphere reserves of India|thirteen{{Nbsp}}biosphere reserves]],{{sfn|Ministry of Environment and Forests}} four of which are part of the [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]; [[List of Ramsar Sites in India|twenty-five wetlands]] are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].{{sfn|Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands}}


== Politics and government ==
[[File:IndiaStatesByRTOcodes.png|300px|right|These are the states and territories of India, including 29 states and 7 union territories.]]
'''States:'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!States
!Capitals
!Code
|-
| [[Andhra Pradesh]] || Amaravati || AP
|-
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]] || Itanagar || AR
|-
| [[Assam]] || Dispur || AS
|-
| [[Bihar]] || Patna || BR
|-
| [[Chhattisgarh]] || Raipur || CT
|-
| [[Goa]] || Panaji || GA
|-
| [[Gujarat]] || Gandhi nagar || GJ
|-
| [[Haryana]] || Chandigarh || HR
|-
| [[Himachal Pradesh]] || Shimla || HP
|-
| [[Jharkhand]] || Ranchi || JH
|-
| [[Karnataka]] || Bangalore || KA
|-
| [[Kerala]] || Tiruvanananthapuram || KL
|-
| [[Madhya Pradesh]] || Bhopal || MP
|-
| [[Maharashtra]] || Mumbai || MH
|-
| [[Manipur]] || Imphal || MN
|-
| [[Meghalaya]] || Shillong || ML
|-
| [[Mizoram]] || Aizawl || MZ
|-
| [[Nagaland]] || Kohima || NL
|-
| [[Odisha]] || Bhubaneswar || OD
|-
| [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] || Chandigarh || PB
|-
| [[Rajasthan]] || Jaipur || RJ
|-
| [[Sikkim]] || Gangtok || SK
|-
| [[Tamil Nadu]] || Chennai || TN
|-
|[[Telangana]]|| Hyderabad || TS
|-
| [[Tripura]] || Agartala || TR
|-
| [[Uttar Pradesh]] || Lucknow || UP
|-
| [[Uttarakhand]] || Dehra Dun || UA/UK
|-
| [[West Bengal]] || Kolkata || WB
|}


=== Politics ===
'''Union territories:'''
{{main|Politics of India}}
{| class="wikitable"
{{multiple image
!Union territory
| perrow = 1
!Capital
| total_width = 220
|-
| image_style = border:none;
|Andaman and Nicobar Islands
| align = right
|Port Blair
| image1 = Rajagopal speaking to 25,000 people, Janadesh 2007, India.jpg
|-
| caption1 = [[Social movement]]s have long been a part of [[democracy in India]].  The picture shows a section of 25,000 [[landless]] people in the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]] listening to [[Rajagopal P. V.]] before their {{cvt|350|km}} march, [[Janadesh 2007]], from [[Gwalior]] to [[New Delhi]] to publicise their demand for further [[land reform in India]].<ref name="Johnston2019">{{citation|last=Johnston|first=Hank|title=Social Movements, Nonviolent Resistance, and the State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hSiFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT83|year=2019|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-429-88566-2|page=83}}</ref>
|Chandigarh
| direction =
|Chandigarh
| alt1 =  
|-
}}
|Dadra and Nagar Haveli
|Silvassa
|-
|Daman and Diu
|Daman
|-
|Delhi
|Delhi
|-
|Ladakh
|Leh
|-
|Lakshadweep
|Kavaratti
|-
|Puducherry
|Puducherry
|-
|Jammu and Kashmir
|Srinagar (summer capital) and Jammu (winter capital)
|-
|}
<ol type="A">
<li>
</ol>


India is the world's most populous [[democracy]].{{sfn|United Nations Population Division}} A [[parliamentary republic]] with a [[multi-party system]],{{sfn|Burnell|Calvert|1999|p = 125}} it has eight{{Nbsp}}recognised [[List of recognised political parties in India#National|national parties]], including the [[Indian National Congress]] and the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), and more than 40{{Nbsp}}[[List of recognised political parties in India#State|regional parties]].{{sfn|Election Commission of India}} The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian [[political culture]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sáez |first1=Lawrence |last2=Sinha |first2=Aseema |title=Political cycles, political institutions and public expenditure in India, 1980–2000 |journal=[[British Journal of Political Science]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=91–113 |year=2010 |doi=10.1017/s0007123409990226 |s2cid=154767259}}</ref> and the BJP [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]].{{sfn|Malik|Singh|1992|pp=318–336}}{{sfn|Banerjee|2005|p=3118}}<ref>{{cite news |first=Samar |last=Halarnkar |title=Narendra Modi makes his move |work=[[BBC News]] |date=13 June 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-18352532 |quote=The right-wing Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), India's primary opposition party}}</ref> For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,{{sfn|Sarkar|2007|p=84}} as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party [[coalition government]]s at the centre.{{sfn|Chander|2004|p=117}}
== Trouble with the borders ==
There are [[wikt:dispute|disputes]] about certain parts of the Indian borders. Countries do not agree on where the borders are.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/05/indian_pakistani_and_chinese_border_disputes |title=Fantasy frontiers |date=8 February 2012 |website= |publisher=The Economist Newspaper Limited |accessdate=6 November 2016}}</ref> [[Pakistan]] and [[China]] do not recognise the disputed territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name=ipbdMOI>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/jammu-kashmir/india-pakistan-border-dispute.html |title=India - Pakistan Border Dispute |website= |publisher=Maps of India |accessdate=6 November 2016}}</ref> The Indian government claims it as an Indian state.<ref name=ipbdMOI/> Similarly, the Republic of India does not recognise the Pakistani and Chinese parts of Kashmir.<ref name=ipbdMOI/>


In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Nehru's daughter [[Indira Gandhi]], who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the [[The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]] she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new [[Janata Party]], which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over two years. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son [[Rajiv Gandhi]], who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a [[National Front (India)|National Front]] coalition, led by the newly formed [[Janata Dal]] in alliance with the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|Left Front]], won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years.{{sfn|Bhambhri|1992|pp=118, 143}} Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a [[minority government]] led by [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]].<ref>{{cite news|date=24 December 2004|title=Narasimha Rao Passes Away|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/24/stories/2004122408870100.htm|access-date=2 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213181659/http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/24/stories/2004122408870100.htm|archive-date=13 February 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 1914, [[British India]] and [[Tibet]] agreed on the [[McMahon Line]], as part of the [[Simla Accord (1914)|Simla Accord]].<ref name=simlaCFR>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/tibet/convention-between-great-britain-china-tibet-simla-accord/p16007 |title=Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet (Simla Accord) |website= |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |accessdate=6 November 2016 |archive-date=8 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008210826/http://www.cfr.org/tibet/convention-between-great-britain-china-tibet-simla-accord/p16007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In July 1914, China withdrew from the agreement.<ref name=simlaCFR/> Indians and Tibetans see this line as the official border. China does not agree, and both mainland China and [[Taiwan]] do not recognize that Arunachal Pradesh belongs to India. According to them, it is a part of [[South Tibet]], which belongs to China.<ref>{{cite web
 
|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/china/2005/china-050405-irna01.htm
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align  =left |image1=Barack Obama at Parliament of India in New Delhi addressing Joint session of both houses 2010.jpg|caption1=At the [[Parliament of India]] in New Delhi, US president [[Barack Obama]] is shown here addressing the [[Member of Parliament (India)|members of Parliament]] of both houses, the lower, [[Lok Sabha]], and the upper, [[Rajya Sabha]], in a joint session, 8 November 2010.}}
|title=China revives claims on Indian territory
 
|agency=Islamic Republic News Agency
A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting [[United Front (India)|United Front]] coalitions, which depended on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA). Led by [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], the NDA became the first non-Congress, [[coalition government]] to complete a five-year term.{{sfn|Dunleavy|Diwakar|Dunleavy|2007}} Again in the [[2004 Indian general election]]s, no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the [[2009 Indian general election|2009 general election]] with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from [[Socialism in India|India's communist parties]].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 384}} That year, [[Manmohan Singh]] became the first prime minister since [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] in [[1957 Indian general election|1957]] and [[1962 Indian general election|1962]] to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.{{sfn|Business Standard|2009}} In the [[2014 Indian general election|2014 general election]], the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties.<ref>{{cite news|title=BJP first party since 1984 to win parliamentary majority on its own|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-bjp-first-party-since-1984-to-win-parliamentary-majority-on-its-own-1988981|access-date=20 May 2014|newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]]|date=16 May 2014|agency=IANS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521032413/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-bjp-first-party-since-1984-to-win-parliamentary-majority-on-its-own-1988981|archive-date=21 May 2014}}</ref> The incumbent prime minister is [[Narendra Modi]], a former [[Chief minister (India)|chief minister]] of [[Gujarat]]. On 20 July 2017, [[Ram Nath Kovind]] was elected India's 14th president and took the oath of office on 25 July 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/Result_20072017.pdf|title=Return of Election to the Office of the President of India|date=21 July 2017|website=eci.nic.in|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811012217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/Result_20072017.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Nikhil|last=Agarwal|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/ram-nath-kovind-elected-india-14th-president/1/1006696.html|title=Ram Nath Kovind elected India's 14th President, to take oath on July 25|website=[[India Today]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721045522/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/ram-nath-kovind-elected-india-14th-president/1/1006696.html|date=20 July 2017|archive-date=21 July 2017|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Highlights: Ram Nath Kovind takes oath as India's 14th President |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/ram-nath-kovind-swearing-in-live-updates-india-14th-president-rashtrapati-bhawan-pranab-mukherjee-narendra-modi-4765871/ |date=25 July 2017 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811010120/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/ram-nath-kovind-swearing-in-live-updates-india-14th-president-rashtrapati-bhawan-pranab-mukherjee-narendra-modi-4765871/ |archive-date=11 August 2017 }}</ref>
|accessdate=2007-08-26
 
}}</ref><ref name="IPCS">{{cite web|url=http://www.ipcs.org/article_details.php?articleNo=2322|title=IPCS - Institute Of Peace & Conflict Studies|website=ipcs.org}}</ref>
=== Government ===
{{Main|Government of India|Constitution of India}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Rashtrapati Bhavan Wide New Delhi India.jpg|caption1=[[Rashtrapati Bhavan]], the official residence of the [[President of India]], was designed by British architects [[Edwin Lutyens]] and [[Herbert Baker]] for the [[Viceroy of India]], and constructed between 1911 and 1931 during the [[British Raj]].<ref name="Bremner2016">{{citation|last=Bremner|first=G. A. |title=Architecture and Urbanism in the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjRADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA117|year=2016|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-102232-6|page=117}}</ref>}}
India is a [[federation]] with a [[parliamentary system]] governed under the [[Constitution of India]]—the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic and [[representative democracy]], in which "[[majority rule]] is tempered by [[minority rights]] protected by [[Law of India|law]]". [[Federalism in India]] defines the power distribution between the union and the [[States and territories of India|states]]. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,{{sfn|Pylee|2003a|p = 4}} originally stated India to be a "[[Sovereignty|sovereign]], [[liberal democracy|democratic]] [[republic]];" this characterisation was amended in 1971 to "a sovereign, socialist, [[Secularism|secular]], democratic republic".{{sfn|Dutt|1998|p = 421}} India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,{{sfn|Wheare|1980|p = 28}} has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.{{sfn|Echeverri-Gent|2002|pp = 19–20}}{{sfn|Sinha|2004|p = 25}}
{{Infobox place symbols
| region_type = National
| title      = [[National symbols of India|National symbols]]{{sfn|National Informatics Centre|2005}}
| flag        = [[Flag of India|Tiranga]] (Tricolour)
| emblem      = [[State Emblem of India|Sarnath Lion Capital]]
| anthem      = ''[[Jana Gana Mana]]''
| song        = "[[Vande Mataram]]"
| language    = None<ref name="Times News Network">{{cite news|last=Khan|first=Saeed|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|access-date=5 May 2014|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=25 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318040319/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|archive-date=18 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="NoneNtl">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Learning-with-the-Times-India-doesnt-have-any-national-language/articleshow/5234047.cms|title=Learning with the Times: India doesn't have any 'national language'|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010085454/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Learning-with-the-Times-India-doesnt-have-any-national-language/articleshow/5234047.cms|archive-date=10 October 2017|date=16 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="Press Trust of India">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece|title=Hindi, not a national language: Court|newspaper=[[Press Trust of India]] via [[The Hindu]]|access-date=23 December 2014|date=25 January 2010|location=Ahmedabad|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704084339/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece|archive-date=4 July 2014}}</ref>
| currency    = [[Indian rupee sign|₹]] ([[Indian rupee]])
| calendar    = [[Indian national calendar|Saka]]
| animal      = {{plainlist|
* [[Bengal tiger]]
* [[South Asian river dolphin|River dolphin]]
* [[Indian peafowl]]
}}
| flower      = [[Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]]
| fruit      = [[Mango]]
| tree        = [[Banyan]]
| river      = [[Ganges]]
}}
 
The [[Government of India]] comprises three branches:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/COI-updated-as-31072018.pdf |title=The Constitution of India |website=legislature.gov.in | access-date=16 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416044642/http://www.legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/COI-updated-as-31072018.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Executive (government)|Executive]]: The [[President of India]] is the ceremonial [[head of state]],{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 31}} who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an [[Electoral College (India)|electoral college]] comprising members of national and state legislatures.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 138}}{{sfn|Gledhill|1970|p = 112}} The [[Prime Minister of India]] is the [[head of government]] and exercises most [[executive (government)|executive power]].{{sfn|Sharma|1950}} Appointed by the president,{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 162}} the prime minister is by convention supported by the [[political party|party]] or [[political alliance]] having a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.{{sfn|Sharma|1950}} The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the [[Vice President of India|vice president]], and the [[Union Council of Ministers]]—with the [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]] being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 31}} In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. [[Civil Services of India|Civil servants]] act as permanent executives and all decisions of the [[Executive (government)|executive]] are implemented by them.{{sfn|Mathew|2003|p = 524}}
* [[Legislature]]: The legislature of India is the [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Parliament of India|parliament]]. Operating under a [[Westminster system|Westminster-style]] parliamentary system, it comprises an upper house called the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and a lower house called the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People).{{sfn|Gledhill|1970|p = 127}} The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245{{Nbsp}}members who serve staggered six-year{{Nbsp}}terms.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 161}} Most are elected indirectly by the [[States and union territories of India|state and union territorial]] legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 162}} All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545{{Nbsp}}members are elected directly by popular vote; they represent [[Single-member constituency|single-member constituencies]] for five-year{{Nbsp}}terms.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 143}} Two seats of parliament, reserved for [[Anglo-Indian]] in the article 331, have been scrapped.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/india/seats-reserved-for-anglo-indians-in-parliament-to-be-scrapped-after-cabinet-approval|title=Cabinet approves scrapping of 2 seats reserved for Anglo-Indians in Parliament|date=5 December 2019|access-date=17 October 2021|website=[[National Herald]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first1=Abantika|last1=Ghosh|first2=Pradeep|last2=Kaushal|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/anglo-indian-quota-history-mps-6164232/|title=Explained: Anglo-Indian quota, its history, MPs|date=2 January 2020|access-date=17 October 2021|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>
* [[Judiciary]]: India has a three-tier{{Nbsp}}unitary [[Judicial independence|independent judiciary]]{{sfn|Neuborne|2003|p = 478}} comprising the [[Supreme Court of India|supreme court]], headed by the [[Chief Justice of India]], 25{{Nbsp}}[[High courts of India|high courts]], and a large number of trial courts.{{sfn|Neuborne|2003|p = 478}} The supreme court has [[original jurisdiction]] over cases involving [[Fundamental rights in India|fundamental rights]] and over disputes between states and the centre and has [[appellate jurisdiction]] over the high courts.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp = 238, 255}} It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution,{{sfn|Sripati|1998|pp = 423–424}} and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.{{sfn|Pylee|2003b|p = 314}}
{{clear}}
 
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of India}}
{{See also|Political integration of India}}
 
India is a federal union comprising 28 [[States and union territories of India|states]] and 8 [[Union territory|union territories]] (listed below as 1{{ndash}}28 and A{{ndash}}H, respectively).{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} All states, as well as the union territories of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and the [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]], have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system of governance. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|States Reorganisation Act]], states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 49}} There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-asia/india/|title=India|website=[[Commonwealth Local Government Forum]]|access-date=7 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715203036/http://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-asia/india/|archive-date=15 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Indian states and territories image map|image-width=330}}
{{columns-list |colwidth=18em|
# [[Andhra Pradesh]]
# [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
# [[Assam]]
# [[Bihar]]
# [[Chhattisgarh]]
# [[Goa]]
# [[Gujarat]]
# [[Haryana]]
# [[Himachal Pradesh]]
# [[Jharkhand]]
# [[Karnataka]]
# [[Kerala]]
# [[Madhya Pradesh]]
# [[Maharashtra]]
# [[Manipur]]
# [[Meghalaya]]
# [[Mizoram]]
# [[Nagaland]]
# [[Odisha]]<!--Do not change this per [[BP:COMMONNAME]].-->
# [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
# [[Rajasthan]]
# [[Sikkim]]
# [[Tamil Nadu]]
# [[Telangana]]
# [[Tripura]]
# [[Uttar Pradesh]]
# [[Uttarakhand]]
# [[West Bengal]]
{{ordered list |type=upper-alpha
| [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
| [[Chandigarh]]
| [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]]
| [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| [[Ladakh]]
| [[Lakshadweep]]
| [[Delhi|National Capital Territory of Delhi]]
| [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]
}}
}}
{{clear}}
 
== Foreign, economic and strategic relations ==
{{Main|Foreign relations of India|Indian Armed Forces}}
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|image1=Jawaharlal Nehru, Nasser and Tito at the Conference of Non-Aligned Nations held in Belgrade.jpg|caption1=During the 1950s and 60s, India played a pivotal role in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].<ref name="Dinkel2018">{{cite book|last=Dinkel|first=Jürgen|title=The Non-Aligned Movement: Genesis, Organization and Politics (1927–1992)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqOODwAAQBAJ|date=3 December 2018|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]]|isbn=978-90-04-33613-1|pages=92–93}}</ref> From left to right: [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] of [[United Arab Republic]] (now Egypt), [[Josip Broz Tito]] of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] in Belgrade, September 1961.
}}
In the 1950s, India strongly supported decolonisation in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] and [[India and the Non-Aligned Movement|played a leading role]] in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].{{sfn|Rothermund|2000|pp = 48, 227}} After initially cordial relations with neighbouring China, India went to [[Sino-Indian War|war with China in 1962]], and was widely thought to have been humiliated.<ref name=62-humiliation>(a) {{citation|last=Guyot-Rechard|first=Berenice |title=Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910&ndash;1962|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbktDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA235|year=2017|isbn=9781107176799|quote= By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin. It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition. }}
<br/>(b) {{citation|last=Chubb|first=Andrew|chapter=The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism|title=Crisis|editor1-last=Golley|editor1-first=Jane|editor2-last=Jaivan|editor2-first=Linda|editor3-last=Strange|editor3-first=Sharon|publisher=Australian National University Press|year=2021|pages=231&ndash;232|isbn=9781760464394|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1crEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|quote=The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong’s troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war’s several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA’s decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India’s popular consciousness.}}
<br/>(c) {{citation|last=Lintner|first=Bertil|title=China's India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-909163-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-L9DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT106|quote=&nbsp;And that became a reality after the victory over India in 1962. Two years later, Nehru died, humiliated by the Chinese, a broken man. Brigadier Dalvi noted this in his account of the 1962 War and its aftermath, ‘Without a Nehru India ceased to be the moral leader of the non-aligned world. Whereas prior to 1962 she wielded immense power and influence despite her poverty and lack of military power, after the Chinese attack she was "cut to size" in the words of one unfriendly critic of Nehru.'}}
<br/>(d) {{citation|last=Medcalf|first=Rory|title=Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world's pivotal|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781526150776 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT81|quote=From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of cooperation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru.}}
<br/>(e) {{citation|last=Ganguly|first=Sumit|title=The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace|publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press|year=1997|page=44 |isbn=9780521655668 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi66mjIqR1IC&pg=PA44|quote=In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA).  The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru's foreign and defence policies.}}
<br/>(f) {{citation|last=Raghavan|first=Srinath|chapter=A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960|title=India and the Cold War|editor-last=Bhagavan|editor-first=Manu|publisher=University of North Carolina Press |page=121|year=2019|isbn=9781469651170|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-yoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121|quote=&nbsp;The 'forward policy' adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow's stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India.  These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India's humiliating defeat in the war of Octover&ndash;November 1962.}}</ref> India has had [[Indo-Pakistani relations|tense relations]] with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], and [[Kargil War|1999]]. Three of these wars were fought over the [[Kashmir conflict|disputed territory of Kashmir]], while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India's support for the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|independence of Bangladesh]].{{sfn|Gilbert|2002|pp = 486–487}} In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of the host country: a [[Indian Peace Keeping Force|peace-keeping operation]] in [[Sri Lanka]] between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a [[1988 Maldives coup d'état|1988 coup d'état attempt]] in the Maldives. After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and economic [[India-Soviet Union relations|ties with the Soviet Union]]; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.{{sfn|Sharma|1999|p=56}}
 
Aside from ongoing its [[India–Russia relations|special relationship with Russia]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/will-not-develop-relations-with-pakistan-at-cost-of-india-ties-with-new-delhi-long-term-russia-narendra-modi-vladimir-putin/298009|title=No ties with Pakistan at India's cost, relations with New Delhi long-term: Russia|website=[[Times Now|timesnownews.com]] |date=11 October 2018 |access-date=14 October 2018|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014204131/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/will-not-develop-relations-with-pakistan-at-cost-of-india-ties-with-new-delhi-long-term-russia-narendra-modi-vladimir-putin/298009|archive-date=14 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> India has wide-ranging [[India–Israel relations|defence relations with Israel]] and [[France–India relations|France]]. In recent years, it has played key roles in the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] and the [[World Trade Organization]]. The nation has provided 100,000 [[Indian Armed Forces|military]] and [[Law enforcement in India|police]] personnel to serve in 35 [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping operations]] across four continents. It participates in the [[East Asia Summit]], the [[G8+5]], and other multilateral forums.{{sfn|Alford|2008}} India has close economic ties with countries in [[South America]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americasquarterly.org/india-latin-america|title=The Other BRIC in Latin America: India|author=Jorge Heine|author2=R. Viswanathan|date=Spring 2011|work=[[Americas Quarterly]]|access-date=19 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115121/http://www.americasquarterly.org/india-latin-america|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref> Asia, and Africa; it pursues a [[Look East policy (India)|"Look East" policy]] that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]] nations, [[India–Japan relations|Japan]], and [[India–South Korea relations|South Korea]] that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.{{sfn|Ghosh|2009|pp = 282–289}}{{sfn|Sisodia|Naidu|2005|pp = 1–8}}
 
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| image1      = Indian Air Force contingent as a part of the Bastille Day Parade of France, in Paris on July 14, 2009.jpg
| caption1    = The [[Indian Air Force]] contingent marching at the 221st [[Bastille Day military parade]] in Paris, on 14 July 2009. The parade at which India was the foreign guest was led by the India's oldest regiment, the [[Maratha Light Infantry]], founded in 1768.<ref name=guardian-muir-diary-maratha>{{citation|last=Muir|first=Hugh|title=Diary|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=13 July 2009|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jul/14/bbc-peter-salmon-trevor-mcdonald|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019165743/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jul/14/bbc-peter-salmon-trevor-mcdonald|archive-date=October 19, 2014|quote="Members of the Indian armed forces have the plum job of leading off the great morning parade for Bastille Day. Only after units and bands from India's navy and air force have followed the Maratha Light Infantry will the parade be entirely given over to ... France's armed services."|access-date=October 17, 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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China's [[596 (nuclear test)|nuclear test of 1964]], as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.{{sfn|Perkovich|2001|pp = 60–86, 106–125}} India conducted its [[Smiling Buddha|first nuclear weapons test]] in 1974 and carried out [[Pokhran-II|additional underground testing]] in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] nor the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.{{sfn|Kumar|2010}} India maintains a "[[no first use]]" nuclear policy and is developing a [[nuclear triad]] capability as a part of its "[[Minimum Credible Deterrence]]" doctrine.{{sfn|Nair|2007}}{{sfn|Pandit|2009}} It is developing a [[Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program|ballistic missile defence shield]] and, a [[HAL AMCA|fifth-generation fighter jet]].<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite news|last1=Pandit|first1=Rajat|title=Make-in-India: Plan to develop 5th-generation fighter aircraft|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Make-in-India-Plan-to-develop-5th-generation-fighter-aircraft/articleshow/45802270.cms|work=[[The Times of India]]|agency=TNN|date=8 January 2015|access-date=October 17, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dhqxnzzajv69c.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/IssueBrief_105.pdf|title=The Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft:A Technical Analysis|first1=Abhijit|last1=Iyer-Mitra|first2=Pushan|last2=Das|work=[[Observer Research Foundation]]|access-date=October 17, 2021}}</ref> Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of [[Vikrant class aircraft carrier|''Vikrant''-class aircraft carriers]] and [[Arihant class submarine|''Arihant''-class nuclear submarines]].<ref name="Hindu 2011">{{cite news|date=5 October 2011|title=India, Russia Review Defence Ties|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2514142.ece|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007183650/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2514142.ece|archive-date=7 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Since the end of the [[Cold War]], India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the [[India–United States relations|United States]] and the [[India–European Union relations|European Union]].{{sfn|Europa 2008}} In 2008, a [[U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Agreement|civilian nuclear agreement]] was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] and the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]], ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.{{sfn|The Times of India 2008}} India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving [[Nuclear power in India|civilian nuclear energy]] with Russia,{{sfn|British Broadcasting Corporation 2009}} France,{{sfn|Rediff 2008 a}} the [[India–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]],{{sfn|Reuters|2010}} and [[Canada–India relations|Canada]].{{sfn|Curry|2010}}
 
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||image1=Modi Nieto Mexico June 2016.jpg|caption1=Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] of India (left, background) in talks with President [[Enrique Peña Nieto]] of Mexico during a visit to Mexico, 2016
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The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.45&nbsp;million active troops, they compose the [[List of countries by number of troops|world's second-largest military]]. It comprises the [[Indian Army]], the [[Indian Navy]], the [[Indian Air Force]], and the [[Indian Coast Guard]].{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} The official Indian [[List of countries by military expenditures|defence budget]] for 2011 was US$36.03&nbsp;billion, or 1.83% of GDP.{{sfn|Behera|2011}} For the fiscal year spanning 2012–2013, US$40.44&nbsp;billion was budgeted.{{sfn|Behera|2012}} According to a 2008 [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI) report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7&nbsp;billion.{{sfn|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2008|p = 178}} In 2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%,{{sfn|Miglani|2011}} although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government.{{sfn|Shukla|2011}} {{As of|2012}}, India is the world's largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent on international arms purchases.{{sfn|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2012}} Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.{{sfn|Miglani|2011}} In May 2017, the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] launched the [[South Asia Satellite]], a gift from India to its neighbouring [[SAARC]] countries.<ref name="Deccan Herald">{{cite news |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/452938/isro-saarc-satellite-communication-vehicle.html |title=Isro-Saarc satellite to be a communication vehicle |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |agency=Deccan Herald News Service |date=12 January 2015 |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628084201/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/452938/isro-saarc-satellite-communication-vehicle.html |archive-date=28 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2018, India signed a US$5.43&nbsp;billion (over {{INR|link=yes}}400&nbsp;billion) agreement with [[Russia]] to procure four [[S-400 Triumf]] surface-to-air missile defence systems, Russia's most advanced long-range [[missile defence]] system.<ref>{{cite news |title=India Russia S-400 missile deal: All you need to know |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/india-russia-s-400-missile-deal-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/66066460.cms |date=4 October 2018 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=9 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005130114/https://m.timesofindia.com/india/india-russia-s-400-missile-deal-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/66066460.cms |archive-date=5 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>


== Economy ==
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of India}}
{{main|Economy of India}}
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| caption1    = A farmer in northwestern [[Karnataka]] ploughs his field with a tractor even as another in a field beyond does the same with a pair of oxen.  In 2018, 44% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.<ref name=worldbank-ilo-total-agriculture>{{citation |title=Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=false&view=map |year=2019 |access-date=22 August 2019 |website=[[The World Bank]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822193854/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS%3Fmost_recent_value_desc%3Dfalse%26view%3Dmap |archive-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image3      = Women at work, Gujarat (cropped).jpg
| caption3    = Women tend to a recently planted rice field in [[Junagadh]] district in Gujarat. 57% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2018.<ref name=worldbank-ilo-female-agriculture>{{citation |title=Employment in agriculture, female (% of female employment) (modeled ILO estimate) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.FE.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=false&view=map |year=2019 |access-date=22 August 2019 |website=[[The World Bank]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822193855/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.FE.ZS%3Fmost_recent_value_desc%3Dfalse%26view%3Dmap |archive-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image2      = ILRI, Stevie Mann - Villager and calf share milk from cow in Rajasthan, India.jpg
| caption2    = India is the world's largest producer of milk, with the largest population of cattle.  In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.<ref name=milk-sourcing>{{citation|work=[[Business Line]]|last=Kapoor|first=Rana|title=Growth in organised dairy sector, a boost for rural livelihood|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/growth-in-organised-dairy-sector-a-boost-for-rural-livelihood/article7810689.ece#|date=27 October 2015|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720215652/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/growth-in-organised-dairy-sector-a-boost-for-rural-livelihood/article7810689.ece|archive-date=20 July 2019|url-status=live|quote="Nearly 80 per cent of India's milk production is contributed by small and marginal farmers, with an average herd size of one to two milching animals."}}</ref>
}}
According to the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), the Indian economy in 2020 was nominally worth $2.7&nbsp;trillion; it is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|sixth-largest economy]] by market exchange rates, and is around $8.9&nbsp;trillion, the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|third-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="GDP IMF">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/weo-report?c=512,914,612,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2021&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database: April 2021 |date=April 2021 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=6 April 2021}}</ref> With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,{{sfn|International Monetary Fund 2011a|p = 2}} India is one of the [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|world's fastest-growing economies]].{{sfn|Nayak|Goldar|Agrawal|2010|p = xxv}} However, the country ranks 139th in the world in [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|nominal GDP per capita]] and 118th in [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at PPP]].{{sfn|International Monetary Fund}} Until 1991, all Indian governments followed [[protectionism|protectionist]] policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread [[Licence Raj|state intervention and regulation]] largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute [[1991 India economic crisis|balance of payments crisis in 1991]] forced the nation to [[Economic liberalisation in India|liberalise its economy]];{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = xiv}} since then it has moved slowly towards a free-market system{{sfn|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}}{{sfn|Gargan|1992}} by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.{{sfn|Alamgir|2008|pp = 23, 97}} India has been a member of [[WTO]] since 1 January 1995.{{sfn|WTO 1995}}
 
The 522-million-worker [[Labour in India|Indian labour force]] is the [[List of countries by labour force|world's second-largest]], {{As of|2017|lc=y}}.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances of US$70&nbsp;billion in 2014, the largest in the world, were contributed to its economy by 25 million Indians working in foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1176411|title=Pakistan's remittances|first=Sakib|last=Sherani|website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|dawn.com]]|access-date=17 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216104527/http://www.dawn.com/news/1176411|archive-date=16 December 2015|date=17 April 2015}}</ref> Major agricultural products include: rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} Major industries include: textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.{{sfn|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}} In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;<ref>{{citation|date=28 August 2009|title=Exporters Get Wider Market Reach|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Exporters-get-wider-market-reach/articleshow/4942892.cms?referral=PM|access-date=23 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912002353/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Exporters-get-wider-market-reach/articleshow/4942892.cms?referral=PM|archive-date=12 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2011, India was the world's [[List of countries by imports|tenth-largest importer]] and the [[List of countries by exports|nineteenth-largest exporter]].{{sfn|World Trade Organization 2010}} Major exports include: petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and manufactured leather goods.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} Major imports include: crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.{{sfn|Economist 2011}} India was the world's second largest textile exporter after [[China]] in the 2013 calendar year.<ref>{{cite web|title=India world's second largest textiles exporter: UN Comtrade|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/garments-/-textiles/india-worlds-second-largest-textiles-exporter-un-comtrade/articleshow/35958852.cms?from=mdr|work=[[The Economic Times]] |access-date=17 October 2021|date=2 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605121831/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-06-02/news/50272849_1_textiles-exports-india-calender-year|archive-date=5 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,{{sfn|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}} India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.{{sfn|Bonner|2010}} Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580&nbsp;million by 2030.{{sfn|Farrell|Beinhocker|2007}} Though ranking 51st in [[Global Competitiveness Report|global competitiveness]], {{As of|2010|lc=y}}, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.{{sfn|Schwab|2010}} With seven of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, {{As of|2009|lc=y}}, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States.{{sfn|Sheth|2009}} India was ranked 48th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2020, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2015, where it was 81st.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902233315/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|archive-date=2020-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu|publisher=[[European Union]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=[[INSEAD]] Knowledge}}</ref> India's consumer market, the world's [[List of largest consumer markets|eleventh-largest]], is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.{{sfn|Farrell|Beinhocker|2007}}
 
Driven by growth, India's nominal [[GDP per capita]] increased steadily from US$329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, to an estimated US$1,723 in 2016. It is expected to grow to US$2,191 by 2021.<ref name=imf/> However, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.
 
{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 500
| align      = left
| image_style = border:none;
| image1      = Bangalore Panorama edit1.jpg
| caption1    = A panorama of [[Bangalore]], the centre of India's software development economy.  In the 1980s, when the first [[multinational corporation]]s began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.<ref name="ScottGarofoli2007">{{citation|last1=Scott|first1=Allen J.|last2=Garofoli|first2=Gioacchino|title=Development on the Ground: Clusters, Networks and Regions in Emerging Economies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUCUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|year=2007|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-98422-9|page=208}}</ref>
}}
According to a 2011 [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.{{sfn|Hawksworth|Tiwari|2011}} During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.{{sfn|Hawksworth|Tiwari|2011}} The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle-class.{{sfn|Hawksworth|Tiwari|2011}} The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, [[Transport in India|transport infrastructure]], agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, [[Education in India|education]], [[Energy policy of India|energy security]], and [[Healthcare in India|public health]] and nutrition.<ref>{{citation|date=September 2010|title=India Country Overview September 2010|publisher=[[World Bank]]|url=http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html|access-date=23 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522115104/http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html|archive-date=22 May 2011}}</ref>
 
According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report 2017 released by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] (EIU) which was created by comparing more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services, four of the cheapest cities were in India: [[Bangalore]] (3rd), [[Mumbai]] (5th), [[Chennai]] (5th) and [[New Delhi]] (8th).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/03/daily-chart-13|title=Measuring the cost of living worldwide|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|access-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525140627/http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/03/daily-chart-13|archive-date=25 May 2017|date=21 March 2017}}</ref>
 
=== Industries ===
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Cherry Resort inside Temi Tea Garden, Namchi, Sikkim.jpg|caption1=A tea garden in Sikkim.  India, the world's second largest-producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output.}}
<!---{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:Bombay Stock Exchange 3.jpg|thumb|alt=Street-level view looking up at a modern 30-story building.|The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]], founded in 1875, is Asia's oldest stock exchange.<ref name="Armijo1999">{{cite book|last=Echeverri-Gent|first=John|editor=L. Armijo|title=Financial Globalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOEYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211|year=1999|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan UK]]|isbn=978-0-333-99489-4|pages=211–232, 211|chapter=India: Financial Globalization, Liberal Norms, and the Ambiguities of Democracy}}</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Infosys Leadership Institute.jpg|thumb|Infosys Leadership Institute in [[Mysuru]] built by India's [[information technology]] giant [[Infosys]].]]
|2=[[File:DelhiMetroBlueLineBombardier.jpg|thumb|Coaches of the [[Delhi Metro]] Blue Line, manufactured by [[Bombardier Transportation]], Canada.]]
|3=[[File:A photo on power loom.JPG|thumb|Power Loom used inside a house in a village near [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. The [[Power loom]] accounts for more than 60% of [[Textile industry in India|textile production in India]].]]
|4=[[File:Computerlabxaviers.jpg|thumb|A computer lab being conducted at [[St. Xavier's College, Kolkata]], September 2012]]
|5=[[File:Colourful vegetables.jpg|thumb|A vegetable retailer in the state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. Almost all the [[Retailing in India|retail industry]] in India, which accounts for 10% of India's GDP, and 8% of its employment, belongs to the unorganised sector of individual and family-owned businesses.<ref name="BartlettBeamish2018">{{citation|last1=Bartlett|first1=Christopher A.|last2=Beamish|first2=Paul W.|title=Transnational Management: Text and Cases in Cross-Border Management|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAxMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA393|year=2018|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-108-52744-6|page=393}}</ref>]]
|6=[[File:Small Hydroelectric Dam on Ganges Canal at Nagla Kabir UP.jpg|thumb|A small hydro-electric dam on the [[Ganges Canal]] at Nagla Kabir, UP. The [[electricity sector in India]] has an installed capacity of 205.34 [[Gigawatt]] (GW), the world's fifth largest. Coal-fired plants account for 56% of India's electricity capacity, renewal [[hydropower]] for 19%.]]
|7=[[File:Cargo Ship leaving Diamong Harbour West Bengal.jpg|thumb|A [[feeder ship]] in Diamond Harbour, [[West Bengal]]. [[International trade]] accounted for 14% of India's GDP in 1988, 24% in 1998, and 53% in 2008. ]]
}}-->


India's [[Telecommunications in India|telecommunication industry]] is the [[List of mobile network operators|second-largest in the world]] with over 1.2 billion subscribers. It contributes 6.5% to India's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian Telecom Industry - Telecom Sector, FDI, Opportunities|url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/telecom|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518111147/https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/telecom|archive-date=18 May 2021|website=www.investindia.gov.in}}</ref> After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to become the second largest smartphone market in the world after China.<ref>{{cite news|first=Danish|last=Khan|title=Indian smartphone market grows 23% to overtake US in Q3; Samsung, Xiaomi drive shipments|url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/indian-smartphone-market-grows-23-to-overtake-us-in-q3-samsung-xiaomi-drive-shipments/61255184|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=28 October 2017|access-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031155522/https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/indian-smartphone-market-grows-23-to-overtake-us-in-q3-samsung-xiaomi-drive-shipments/61255184|archive-date=31 October 2017}}</ref>
The economy of the country is among the world's fastest growing. It is the 7th largest in the world with a nominal [[GDP]] of [[Dollar|$]]2,250 billion ([[United States dollar|USD]]), and in terms of [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]], the economy is 3rd largest (worth $8.720 trillion USD).<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Countries by Projected GDP|url=http://statisticstimes.com/economy/countries-by-projected-gdp.php|work=Statistics Times|date=21 Oct 2016|accessdate=30 March 2017}}</ref> The growth rate is 8.25% for fiscal 2010. However, that is still $3678 (considering PPP) per person per year. India's economy is based mainly on:
* [[Service sector]]: 43%
* [[Industries]]: 41%
* [[Information technology]]: 7%
* [[Farming]]: 7%
* [[Outsourcing]]: 2%.


The [[Automotive industry in India|Indian automotive industry]], the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,{{sfn|Business Line 2010}} and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.{{sfn|Express India 2009}} At the end of 2011, the [[Information technology in India|Indian IT industry]] employed 2.8&nbsp;million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100&nbsp;billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.{{sfn|Nasscom 2011–2012}}
India's economy is diverse. Major industries include [[automobile]]s, [[cement]], [[chemical]]s, [[consumer electronics]], [[food processing]], [[machinery]], [[mining]], [[petroleum]], [[pharmaceuticals]], [[steel]], [[transportation]] equipment, and [[textiles]].<ref name="CIA"/>


The [[pharmaceutical industry in India]] emerged as a global player. As of 2021, with 3000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50%—60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to {{USD}}24.44&nbsp;billions in exports and India's local pharmacutical market is estimated up to {{USD}}42&nbsp;billion.<ref name="Phamra1">{{cite news|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/health/indian-pharma-a-strategic-sector-from-make-in-india-to-make-and-develop-in-india/2331377/|title=Indian Pharma: a strategic sector from 'Make in India' to 'Make and Develop in India'|work=[[The Financial Express (India)]]|date=16 September 2021|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Pharma2">{{cite web|url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/pharmaceutical-india.aspx|title=Indian Pharmaceutical Industry|work=[[India Brand Equity Foundation]]|date=12 October 2021|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.<ref>Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Sector in India: sector briefing by the UK Trade and Investment 2011, utki.gov.uk</ref>{{sfn|Yep|2011}} The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from {{INR}}204.4&nbsp;billion ([[Indian rupee]]s) to {{INR}}235.24&nbsp;billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.differding.com/page/biotechnology_in_india_2013_biospectrum_able_survey/f1.html |title=Biotechnology in India – 2013 "biospectrum-able" Survey |publisher=Differding.com |date=24 June 2013|access-date=4 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223203715/http://www.differding.com/page/biotechnology_in_india_2013_biospectrum_able_survey/f1.html |archive-date=23 February 2014}}</ref>
However, despite economic growth, India continues to suffer from [[Poverty in India|poverty]]. 27.5% of the population was living in poverty in 2004–2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/news/prmar07.pdf|title=Poverty estimates for 2004-05|publisher=Planning Commission,Government of India|accessdate=2009-08-12|archive-date=2008-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914014726/http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/news/prmar07.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition, 80.4% of the population live on less than USD $2 a day,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/24.html|title=Human Development Report 2007/2008 - Population living below $2 a day (%)|accessdate=2009-08-12|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|archive-date=2009-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221190342/http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/24.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> which was lowered to 68% by 2009.<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2046.html FIELD LISTING: POPULATION BELOW POVERTY LINE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221103537/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2046.html |date=2016-12-21 }}</ref>


=== Energy ===
== People ==
{{main|Energy in India|Energy policy of India}}
[[File:India population density map en.svg|thumb|This is a map of the [[population density]] of India.]]
India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is [[Renewable energy in India|renewable]].<ref name="Par">{{cite web|title=India's Total Power Generation Capacity Crosses 300 GW Mark|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-total-power-generation-capacity-crosses-300-gw-mark-1438906|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616181350/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-total-power-generation-capacity-crosses-300-gw-mark-1438906|archive-date=16 June 2017|date=August 1, 2016|access-date=October 17, 2021|website=[[NDTV India|NDTV]]}}</ref> [[Coal in India|The country's usage of coal]] is a major cause of [[Climate change in India#Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions by India]] but its [[Renewable energy in India|renewable energy]] is competing strongly.<ref>{{cite news|first=Justin|last=Rowlatt|date=12 May 2020|title=India's carbon emissions fall for first time in four decades|language=en-GB|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-52614770|access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref> India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons of [[carbon dioxide]] per person per year, which is half the world average.<ref name="USAID2018">{{cite web|last=USAID|date=September 2018|title=Greenhouse Gas Emissions in India |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/India%20GHG%20Emissions%20Factsheet%20FINAL.pdf |access-date=10 June 2021|website=}}</ref><ref name="UNEP2019">{{cite web|last=UN Environment Programme |date=2019 |title=Emissions Gap Report 2019|url=http://www.unenvironment.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2019|access-date=10 June 2021|website=UNEP - [[UN Environment Programme]]}}</ref> Increasing [[Electrification|access to electricity]] and [[clean cooking]] with [[liquefied petroleum gas]] have been priorities for [[energy in India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=India 2020 – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/india-2020|access-date=3 December 2020|website=[[International Energy Agency]]|language=en-GB}}</ref>
There are 1.21 billion people living in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-top-ten/world-top-ten-most-populated-countries-map.html|title=Most populated countries|accessdate=2009-08-11|publisher=Compare Infobase Limited}}</ref> India is the second largest country by the number of people living in it, with China being the first. Experts think that by the year 2030, India will be the first.<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 2">{{cite book
|title = Concise Encyclopedia
|publisher = Dorling Kindersly Limited
|year = 1997
|pages = 332
|isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> About 65% of Indians live in [[rural area]]s, or land set aside for farming.<ref name="Census">{{cite web|title=Census of India 2001|work=Census of India|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/index.html|accessdate=April 12, 2007|archive-date=April 9, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070409015114/http://www.censusindia.net/results/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The largest [[city|cities]] in India are [[Mumbai]], [[Kolkata]], [[Delhi]], [[Chennai]], [[Bangalore]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], and [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name="LOC PROFILE">{{cite web
|title = Country Profile: India
|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf
|accessdate = 2007-06-24
|publisher = Library of Congress - Federal Research Division
|date = December 2004
}}</ref> India has 23 official languages.<ref name="languagesofInd">{{cite web |title=Languages of India |work=India image |url=http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm |accessdate=August 14, 2005 |archive-date=November 7, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107200105/http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Altogether, 1,625 languages are spoken in India.<ref name="Manorama">{{cite book |first=K.M. |last=Matthew |title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 |publisher=Malayala Manorama |year=2006 |isbn= 81-89004-07-7}}</ref>


=== Socio-economic challenges ===
== Languages ==
{{multiple image
There are many different languages and [[culture]]s in India. The only geographical place with more different languages and cultures is the [[Africa|African continent]].<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> There are two main language families in India, the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] and the [[Dravidian languages]]. About 69% of Indians speak an Indo-Arayan language, about 26% speak a Dravidian language. Other languages spoken in India come from the [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]] group. Around 5% of the people speak a [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] language.
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| caption1= Health workers about to begin another day of immunisation against infectious diseases in 2006.  Eight years later, and three years after India's last case of polio, the [[World Health Organization]] declared India to be polio-free.<ref name=who-chan-14-feb-2014>{{citation|last1=Chan|first1=Margaret |title=Address at the "India celebrates triumph over polio" event|location=New Delhi, India|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=11 February 2014|url=https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-celebrates-polio-free-india|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref>
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Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the [[poverty in India|largest number]] of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.<ref>{{citation|date=29 May 2006|title=Inclusive Growth and Service Delivery: Building on India's Success|publisher=[[World Bank]]|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf|access-date=7 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514143037/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.<ref>{{citation|title=New Global Poverty Estimates – What It Means for India|publisher=[[World Bank]]|url=http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21880725~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html|access-date=23 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506043711/http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21880725~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html|archive-date=6 May 2012}}</ref> Under the World Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.{{efn|In 2015, the World Bank raised its international poverty line to $1.90 per day.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kenny|first1=Charles|last2=Sandefur|first2=Justin|title=Why the World Bank is changing the definition of the word "poor"|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/10/7/9465999/world-bank-poverty-line|publisher=[[Vox Media|Vox]]|access-date=26 February 2017|date=7 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114175442/http://www.vox.com/2015/10/7/9465999/world-bank-poverty-line|archive-date=14 January 2017}}</ref>}}<ref name="WB2015">{{cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=IN|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=26 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215021227/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=IN|archive-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> 30.7% of India's children under the age of five are underweight.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's rank improves to 55th position on global hunger index|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indias-rank-improves-to-55th-position-on-global-hunger-index/articleshow/44802193.cms|date=13 October 2014|website=[[The Economic Times]]|access-date=18 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019030848/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-10-13/news/54970880_1_nutrition-mission-india-ghi|archive-date=19 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] report in 2015, 15% of the population is undernourished.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-is-home-to-194-million-hungry-people-un/article7255937.ece|title=India is home to 194 million hungry people: UN|author=Internet Desk|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202044027/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-is-home-to-194-million-hungry-people-un/article7255937.ece|archive-date=2 December 2016|date=28 May 2015|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1184959/india-home-to-worlds-largest-number-of-hungry-people-report|title=India home to world's largest number of hungry people: report|website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|dawn.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529132938/http://www.dawn.com/news/1184959/india-home-to-worlds-largest-number-of-hungry-people-report|archive-date=29 May 2015|date=29 May 2015|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref> The [[Mid-Day Meal Scheme]] attempts to lower these rates.{{sfn|Drèze|Goyal|2008|p = 46}}


According to a 2016 [[Walk Free Foundation]] report there were an estimated 18.3&nbsp;million people in India, or 1.4% of the population, living in the forms of [[modern slavery]], such as [[bonded labour]], [[child labour]], human trafficking, and forced begging, among others.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/india/|title=India – Global Slavery Index 2016|access-date=21 November 2017|publisher=[[Walk Free Foundation]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503143524/http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/india/|archive-date=3 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Faizan|last=Haider|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-has-the-largest-population-of-modern-day-slaves/story-PVP1mAQlFqLwOXFtE9EsII.html|title=Bonded labourers, sex workers, forced beggars: India leads world in slavery|date=31 May 2016|website=[[hindustantimes.com]] | access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001212900/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-has-the-largest-population-of-modern-day-slaves/story-PVP1mAQlFqLwOXFtE9EsII.html|archive-date=1 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Rakhi|last=Mazumdar|title=India ranks fourth in global slavery survey|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/india-ranks-fourth-in-global-slavery-survey/articleshow/52528778.cms|date=1 June 2016| access-date=21 November 2017|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001170950/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/india-ranks-fourth-in-global-slavery-survey/articleshow/52528778.cms|archive-date=1 October 2017}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1&nbsp;million child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6&nbsp;million from 12.6&nbsp;million in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/publication/wcms_557089.pdf|title=Child labour in India|publisher=[[International Labour Organization]]|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201030715/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/publication/wcms_557089.pdf|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref>
[[Hindi]] is the official language in India with the largest number of speakers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Languages by number of speakers according to 1991 census|publisher=Central Institute of Indian Languages|url=http://www.ciil.org/Main/Languages/map4.htm|accessdate=August 2, 2007|archive-date=April 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429185839/http://www.ciil.org/Main/languages/map4.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is the official language of the union.<ref>Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), [http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India], [http://www.languageinindia.com/index.html ''Language in India''], Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940.</ref> Native speakers of Hindi represent about 41% of the Indian population (2001 Indian census). English is also used, mostly for business and in administration. It has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'.<ref name=English-subsidiary>{{cite web|title=Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L. (Ministry of Home Affairs), dated 27 April, 1960|url=http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/preseng.htm|accessdate=July 4, 2007|archive-date=October 6, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006230547/http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/preseng.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The constitution also recognises 21 other languages. Either many people speak those languages, or they have been recognized to be very important for Indian culture. The number of [[wikt:dialect|dialect]]s in India is as high as 1,652.<ref name="Manorama"/>


Since 1991, [[List of Indian states by GDP|economic inequality]] between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita [[Net domestic product|net state domestic product]] of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.{{sfn|Pal|Ghosh|2007}} [[Corruption in India]] is perceived to have decreased. According to the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]], India ranked 78th out of 180 countries in 2018 with a score of 41 out of 100, an improvement from 85th in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|first=Vidya|last=Ram|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-improves-its-ranking-on-corruption-index/article8159155.ece|title=India improves its ranking on corruption index|date=27 January 2016|work=[[Business Line]]|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820162154/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-improves-its-ranking-on-corruption-index/article8159155.ece|archive-date=20 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/files/content/pages/CPI_2018_Executive_Summary_EN.pdf |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2018 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |website=transparency.org |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421141719/https://www.transparency.org/files/content/pages/CPI_2018_Executive_Summary_EN.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In the south of India, many people speak [[Kannada]], [[Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam]]. In the north, many people speak [[Chhattisgarh]]i, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], and [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Odia]], and [[Bihar]]i.<ref name="pandit1977">Prabodh Bechardas Pandit, "Language in a Plural Society", Dev Raj Chanana Memorial Committee, 1977.</ref><ref name="britannica1993">Robert McHenry, "The New Encyclopaedia Britannica", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1993.</ref>


== Demographics, languages, and religion ==
India has 27 official languages. Its constitution lists the name of the country in each of the languages.<ref>{{cite web
{{Main|Demographics of India|Languages of India|Religion in India}}
|title = Eighth Schedule
{{See also|South Asian ethnic groups}}
|url = http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/EIGHTH-SCHEDULE.pdf
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 440
|accessdate = 2007-06-26
| align  = right
|publisher = [[National Informatics Centre]] (NIC)
| title  = India by population density, religion, language
|year = 2007
| image1 = India Population Density 1909.jpg|caption1 = The population density of India by natural divisions, based on the Indian census of 1901
|archive-date = 2018-12-25
| image2 = 2011 Census India population density map, states and union territories.svg|caption2 = Population density of India by each state, based on the Indian census of 2011
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181225052119/http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/EIGHTH-SCHEDULE.pdf%0A
| image3 = Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|caption3 = The prevailing religions of South Asia based on district-wise majorities in the 1901 census
|url-status = dead
| image4 = South Asian Language Families.png|caption4 = The language families of South Asia
}}</ref> [[Hindi]] and [[English language|English]] (listed in boldface) are the "official languages of the union" (Union meaning the Federal Government in [[Delhi]]);<ref>{{cite web
}}
|title =The Union: Official Language
|url = http://india.gov.in/knowindia/official_language.php
|accessdate = 2007-06-24
|publisher = [[National Informatics Centre]] (NIC)
|year = 2007}}</ref> [[Tamil language|Tamil]],[[Sanskrit]], [[Telugu]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Odia]] are officially the "[[Classical language#Classical languages of India|classical languages of India]]."


With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the [[2011 Census of India|2011 provisional census report]],{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=160}} India is the world's second-most populous country. Its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=165}} compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=165}} The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=160}} The median age was 28.7 {{as of|2020|lc=on}}.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf|title=Population Of India (1951- 2001)|website=[[Census of India]]|publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812042806/http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf|archive-date=12 August 2011|access-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "[[Green Revolution in India|Green Revolution]]" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.{{sfn|Rorabacher|2010|pp = 35–39}}
{| class = "wikitable"
 
!Language||Long form||English Pronunciation || Short form
The average life expectancy in India is at 68 years—69.6 years for women, 67.3 years for men.<ref>{{cite news|first=Janani|last=Sampath|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Life-expectancy-in-India-goes-up-by-5-years-in-a-decade/articleshow/29513964.cms|title=Life expectancy in India goes up by 5 years in a decade|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921151041/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Life-expectancy-in-India-goes-up-by-5-years-in-a-decade/articleshow/29513964.cms|date=29 January 2014|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=21 September 2014}}</ref> There are around 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians.{{sfn|Dev|Rao|2009|p = 329}} Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.{{sfn|Garg|2005}} Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.{{sfn|Dyson|Visaria|2005|pp = 115–129}}{{sfn|Ratna|2007|pp = 271–272}} The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.{{sfn|Chandramouli|2011}} According to the 2011 census, there are 53 [[List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India|million-plus urban agglomerations in India]]; among them [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]], [[Chennai]], [[Bangalore]], [[Hyderabad]] and [[Ahmedabad]], in decreasing order by population.<ref name="censusindia 2011">{{cite web | url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title=Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above | publisher=[[Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner]], India | access-date=12 May 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017153124/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | archive-date=17 October 2013}}</ref> The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=163}} The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.{{sfn|Chandramouli|2011}} [[Kerala]] is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while [[Bihar]] the least with 63.82%.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=163}}
|-
 
|'''[[Assamese language|Assamese]]''' || {{lang|as|ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য}} || ''Bhārôt Gôṇôrājÿô''|| ভাৰত ''Bharot''
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Interior of San Thome Basilica.jpg|caption1=The interior of [[San Thome Basilica]], [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]].  Christianity is believed to have been introduced to India by the late 2nd century by [[Christianity in India#Early Christianity in India|Syriac-speaking Christians]].}}
|-
<!---
|'''[[Bengali language|Bengali]]''' || {{lang|bn|ভারত গণরাজ্য}} || Bʰārôt Gôṇôrājÿô|| ভারত ''Bharot''
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 6}}
|-
|0=[[File:Coal Miner 1980.JPG|thumb|upright|left|upright=1.2|A coal miner in [[Bachra]] [[colliery]] [[township]] in [[Jharkhand]] state. The [[disability adjusted life year|number of years]] lost per 100,000 population attributable to particulate matter pollution in Jharkhand is 1093,<ref name="BalakrishnanDey2019">{{cite journal|last1=Balakrishnan|first1=Kalpana|last2=Dey|first2=Sagnik|last3=Gupta|first3=Tarun|last4=Dhaliwal|first4=R S|last5=Brauer|first5=Michael|last6=Cohen|first6=Aaron J|last7=Stanaway|first7=Jeffrey D|last8=Beig|first8=Gufran|last9=Joshi|first9=Tushar K|last10=Aggarwal|first10=Ashutosh N|last11=Sabde|first11=Yogesh|last12=Sadhu|first12=Harsiddha|last13=Frostad|first13=Joseph|last14=Causey|first14=Kate|last15=Godwin|first15=William|last16=Shukla|first16=D K|last17=Kumar|first17=G Anil|last18=Varghese|first18=Chris M|last19=Muraleedharan|first19=Pallavi|last20=Agrawal|first20=Anurag|last21=Anjana|first21=R M|last22=Bhansali|first22=Anil|last23=Bhardwaj|first23=Deeksha|last24=Burkart|first24=Katrin|last25=Cercy|first25=Kelly|last26=Chakma|first26=Joy K|last27=Chowdhury|first27=Sourangsu|last28=Christopher|first28=D J|last29=Dutta|first29=Eliza|last30=Furtado|first30=Melissa|last31=Ghosh|first31=Santu|last32=Ghoshal|first32=Aloke G|last33=Glenn|first33=Scott D|last34=Guleria|first34=Randeep|last35=Gupta|first35=Rajeev|last36=Jeemon|first36=Panniyammakal|last37=Kant|first37=Rajni|last38=Kant|first38=Surya|last39=Kaur|first39=Tanvir|last40=Koul|first40=Parvaiz A|last41=Krish|first41=Varsha|last42=Krishna|first42=Bhargav|last43=Larson|first43=Samantha L|last44=Madhipatla|first44=Kishore|last45=Mahesh|first45=P A|last46=Mohan|first46=Viswanathan|last47=Mukhopadhyay|first47=Satinath|last48=Mutreja|first48=Parul|last49=Naik|first49=Nitish|last50=Nair|first50=Sanjeev|last51=Nguyen|first51=Grant|last52=Odell|first52=Christopher M|last53=Pandian|first53=Jeyaraj D|last54=Prabhakaran|first54=Dorairaj|last55=Prabhakaran|first55=Poornima|last56=Roy|first56=Ambuj|last57=Salvi|first57=Sundeep|last58=Sambandam|first58=Sankar|last59=Saraf|first59=Deepika|last60=Sharma|first60=Meenakshi|last61=Shrivastava|first61=Aakash|last62=Singh|first62=Virendra|last63=Tandon|first63=Nikhil|last64=Thomas|first64=Nihal J|last65=Torre|first65=Anna|last66=Xavier|first66=Denis|last67=Yadav|first67=Geetika|last68=Singh|first68=Sujeet|last69=Shekhar|first69=Chander|last70=Vos|first70=Theo|last71=Dandona|first71=Rakhi|last72=Reddy|first72=K Srinath|last73=Lim|first73=Stephen S|last74=Murray|first74=Christopher J L|last75=Venkatesh|first75=S|last76=Dandona|first76=Lalit|display-authors=5|title=The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017|journal=[[The Lancet Planetary Health]]|volume=3|issue=1|year=2019|pages=e26–e39|issn=2542-5196|doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4|pmid=30528905|pmc=6358127}}</ref> adding to India's public health burden.<ref name="BalakrishnanDey2019"/>]]
|'''[[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]''' || {{lang|bho|भोजपुरी}} || Bʰārôt Gôṇôrājÿô|| ভারত ''Bharot''
|1=[[File:Cropped Tripuri.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Tripuri people|Tripuri]] children prepare for a dance in India's northeastern [[Tripura]] state.  The Tripuri, an ethnic group which speaks a [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman language]], forms 30% of the state's population.<ref name="Kumāra2007">{{cite book|last=Kumāra|first=Braja Bihārī|title=Problems of ethnicity in the North-East India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTCJTIBHJHEC|access-date=11 July 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-464-6|pages=68–69|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514231036/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTCJTIBHJHEC|archive-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> ]]
|-
|2=[[File:Handicrafts seller.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Although [[Hindi]] is the official language of India, [[Telugu language|Telugu]] is the official language of the state of [[Telangana]], with [[Urdu]] its second official language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|title=Urdu is Telangana's second official language|date=16 November 2017|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=27 February 2018|language=en-IN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227094158/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|archive-date=27 February 2018}}</ref> Shown here is a handicraft seller in [[Hyderabad]], Telangana]]
|'''[[Bodo language|Bodo]]''' || || ||
|3=[[File:Inde bondo8658a.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[Bonda people|Bondo]] woman walks to a weekly market in Chhattisgarh. The Bondo, among the [[Adivasi]], or the [[indigenous peoples]] of India, speak a [[Munda languages|Munda language]] within the family of [[Austroasiatic languages]].<ref name="Berger2015">{{citation|last=Berger|first=Peter|title=Feeding, Sharing, and Devouring: Ritual and Society in Highland Odisha, India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfReCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|date=17 February 2015|publisher=[[De Gruyter]]|isbn=978-1-61451-975-1|page=25}}</ref>]]
|-
|4=[[File:Lady in Bundi, Rajasthan.JPG|thumb|upright|left|A woman from [[Bundi district]] in [[Rajasthan]]. The human sex ratio in India, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=160}}]]
|'''[[Dogri language|Dogri]]''' || || ||
|5=[[File:Sadhu Vârânasî .jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[Hindu]] ascetic in [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Uttar Pradesh has the highest numbers of both Hindus and Muslims among all states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/497347/muslim-population-grew-faster-census.html|title=Muslim population grew faster: Census|website=deccanherald.com | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827035701/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/497347/muslim-population-grew-faster-census.html|archive-date=27 August 2015}}</ref> The population by religion in 2011 was Hindus 79.73%, Muslims 19.26%, others 1.01%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW09C-01%20MDDS.XLS|title=C1 – Population by religious community, Uttar Pradesh|work=2011 Census Data|publisher=[[Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner]], India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927145844/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW09C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=27 September 2015|access-date=10 September 2011}}</ref> ]]
|-
}}-->
|'''[[English language|English]]'''<ref name="CIA">{{cite web
India is home to [[Languages of India|two major language families]]: [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] (spoken by about 74% of the population) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] (spoken by 24% of the population). Other languages spoken in India come from the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language families. India has no national language.{{sfn|Dharwadker|2010|pp = 168–194, 186}} [[Hindi]], with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.{{sfn|Ottenheimer|2008|p = 303}}{{sfn|Mallikarjun|2004}} [[English language|English]] is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";{{sfn|Ministry of Home Affairs 1960}} it is important in [[Education in India|education]], especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".
|title = CIA Factbook: India
 
|publisher = CIA
The 2011 census reported the [[religion in India]] with the largest number of followers was [[Hinduism in India|Hinduism]] (79.80% of the population), followed by [[Islam in India|Islam]] (14.23%); the remaining were [[Christianity in India|Christianity]] (2.30%), [[Sikhism in India|Sikhism]] (1.72%), [[History of Buddhism in India|Buddhism]] (0.70%), [[Statistics of Jainism|Jainism]] (0.36%) and others{{efn|name=remaining religions}} (0.9%).<ref name="Census2011religion">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=C −1 Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=[[Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> India has the [[List of countries by Muslim population#List|third-largest]] Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/global-muslim-population-estimated-at-157-billion/article30568.ece|title=Global Muslim population estimated at 1.57&nbsp;billion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601012428/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/global-muslim-population-estimated-at-157-billion/article30568.ece|archive-date=1 June 2013|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=8 October 2009|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/2012ARChapters/india%202012%20two-pager.pdf|title=India Chapter Summary 2012|publisher=[[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407100620/http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/2012ARChapters/india%202012%20two-pager.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2014|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref>
|url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html
|accessdate = 2007-03-10
|archive-date = 2008-06-11
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080611033144/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> || Republic of India || || India
|-
|'''[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]''' || {{lang|gu|ભારતીય પ્રજાસત્તાક}} || ''Bhartiya Prajasattak'' || ભારત.
|-
|'''[[Hindi]]''' || {{lang|hi|भारत गणराज्य}} || ''Bhārat Gaṇarājya'' || भारत ''Bhārat''
|-
|'''[[Kannada language|Kannada]]''' || {{lang|kn|ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ}} || ''Bhārata Gaṇarājya'' || ಭಾರತ ''Bhārata''
|-
|'''[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]''' || {{lang|ks|ہِندوستان}} || ''Hindustān'' ||
|-
|'''[[Konkani language|Konkani]]''' || भारोत गोणराज || || भारोत
|-
|'''[[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]]''' || {{lang|lbj|ལ་དྭགས་སྐད་}} || ''Hindustān'' ||
|-
|'''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]''' || {{lang|lep|ᰛᰩᰵᰛᰧᰵᰶ་}} || ''Hindustān'' ||
|-
|'''[[Limbu language|Limbu]]''' || {{lang|lif|ᤕᤠᤰᤌᤢᤱ ᤐᤠᤴ་}} || ''Hindustān'' ||
|-
|'''[[Magahi language|Magahi]]''' || {{lang|mag|ᤕमगही/मगधी}} || ''Hindustān'' ||
|-
|'''[[Maithili language|Maithili]]''' || || ||
|-
|'''[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]''' || {{lang|ml|ഭാരതം}} || ''Bhāratam''|| ഭാരതം ''Bhāratam''
|-
|'''[[Meitei language|Manipuri]]''' (also Meitei or Meithei) || ভারত গণরাজ্য || || ভারত
|-
|'''[[Marathi language|Marathi]]''' || {{lang|mr|भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक}} || ''Bhartiya Prajasattak''|| भारत ''Bhārat''
|-
|'''[[Nepali language|Nepali]]''' || {{lang|ne|भारत गणराज्य}} || ''Bʰārat Gaṇarādzya'' || भारत ''Bʰārat''
|-
|'''[[Odia language|Odia]]''' || {{lang|or|ଭାରତ}} || ''Bharata'' || ''Bharata''
|-
|'''[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]''' || {{lang|pa|ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਤੰਤਰ}} || ''{{IAST|Bhārat Gantantar}}''|| ਭਾਰਤ ''{{IAST|Bhārat}}''
|-
|'''[[Sanskrit]]''' || {{lang|sa|भारत गणराज्यम्}} || ''{{IAST|Bhārata Gaṇarājyam}}'' || भारत ''{{IAST|Bhārata}}''
|-
|'''[[Santali language|Santhali]]''' || ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ
| ||ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ
|-
|'''[[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]''' || ڀارت، هندستانڀارت،  || || ڀارت،
|-
|'''[[Tamil language|Tamil]]''' || {{lang|ta|இந்தியக் குடியரசு}} || ''Indiyak-Kudiyarasu''|| இந்தியா ''India/Bharadham''
|-
|'''[[Telugu language|Telugu]]''' || {{lang|te|భారత గణరాజ్యము}} || ''Bʰārata Gaṇa Rājyamu'' || భారత్ ''Bhārath''
|-
|'''[[Urdu]]''' || {{lang|ur|جمہوریہ بھارت}} || ''Jumhūrīyat-e Bhārat'' || بھارت ''Bhārat''
|}


== Culture ==
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of India}}
{{bar box
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;|align = right |image1=Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar, India.jpg|caption1=A Sikh pilgrim at the [[Harmandir Sahib]], or Golden Temple, in [[Amritsar]], Punjab }}
|title=Religion in India<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/religion.aspx|title=Census of India : Religious Composition|website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>
 
|titlebar=#ddd
<!---{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 7}}
|left1=Religion
|0=[[File:A Warli painting by Jivya Soma Mashe, Thane district.jpg|thumb|A [[Warli]] tribal painting by [[Jivya Soma Mashe]] from [[Thane district|Thane]], Maharashtra]]
|right1=Percent
|1=[[File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|thumb|Seated Buddha; {{circa|{{CE|475}}}}; sandstone; [[Sarnath Museum]] (India). The Buddha's hands in the ''dharmachakra mudra'', a gesture of teaching, refer to his first sermon at [[Sarnath]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], where in 1905 the statue was rediscovered buried.]]
|float=right
|2=[[File:Goswami Tulsidas Awadhi Hindi Poet.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] Hindi poet [[Tulsidas]] composed the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'', which is one of the best-known vernacular versions of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.]]
|bars=
|3=[[File:Hampi Royal Area, Vijayanagara Empire, Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Hampi]], seat of the Vijayanagara Empire]]
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|#FF4500|79.80}}
|4=[[File:Mahabodhi Temple Bodh Gaya Bihar India.jpg|thumb|upright=.70|The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], Bihar commemorates the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.]]
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|#009000|14.23}}
|5=[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|upright|A Chola bronze depicting [[Nataraja]], who is seen as a cosmic "Lord of the Dance" and representative of [[Shiva]]]]
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|#9955BB|2.30}}
|6=[[File:Toda Hut.JPG|thumb|A [[Toda people|Toda]] tribal hut exemplifies [[Indian vernacular architecture]].]]
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]|#FFDF00|1.72}}
}}-->
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|#013220|0.70}}
Indian cultural history spans more than {{nowrap|4,500 years}}.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 15}} During the [[Vedic period]] ({{Circa|{{BCE|1700}}|{{BCE|500}}}}), the foundations of [[Hindu philosophy]], [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], [[Hindu theology|theology]] and [[Hindu texts|literature]] were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as ''[[Dharma|dhárma]]'', ''[[Karma|kárma]]'', ''[[yoga|yóga]]'', and ''[[moksha|mokṣa]]'', were established.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}} India is notable for its [[Indian religions|religious diversity]], with [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], and [[Jainism]] among the nation's major religions.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the ''[[Upanishads]]'',{{sfn|Deutsch|1969|pp = 3, 78}} the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', the [[Bhakti|''Bhakti'' movement]],{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} and by [[Buddhist philosophy]].{{sfn|Nakamura|1999}}
{{bar percent|[[Jainism]]|#F4C430|0.37}}
 
{{bar percent|Others|black|0.9}}
===Visual art===
{{main|Indian art}}
South Asia has an ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged influences with the parts of [[Eurasia]]. [[Indus Valley Civilisation#Seals|Seals]] from the third millennium BCE [[Indus Valley Civilization]] of [[Pakistan]] and northern India have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The [["Pashupati" seal]], excavated in [[Mohenjo-daro]], Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=14–16}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}} After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=46–47}} Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious [[Indian sculpture|sculpture]] in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India [[Mauryan art]] is the first imperial movement.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=35–46}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=67–70}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=22–24}} In the first millennium CE, [[Buddhist art]] spread with Indian religions to [[Central Asia|Central]], [[East Asia|East]] and [[South-East Asia]], the last also greatly influenced by [[Hindu art]].{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=185–198, 252, 385–466}} Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than [[ancient Greek sculpture]] but showing smoothly-flowing forms expressing ''prana'' ("breath" or life-force).{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=22, 88}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=35, 99–100}} This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the [[Ardhanarishvara]] form of Shiva and [[Parvati]].{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=18–19}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=151}}
 
Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist [[stupa]]s such as [[Sanchi]], [[Sarnath]] and [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]],{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=32–38}} or is rock-cut [[relief]]s at sites such as [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], [[Karla Caves|Karla]] and [[Ellora]]. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=43–55}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=113–119}} In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=10–11}} [[Gupta art]], at its peak {{circa|{{CE|300}}|{{CE|500}}}}, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the [[Elephanta Caves]].{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=111–121}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=44–70}} Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after {{circa|{{CE|800}}}}, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=212–216}} But in the South, under the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola dynasties]], sculpture in both stone and bronze had a [[Chola art and architecture#Sculpture and bronzes|sustained period of great achievement]]; the large bronzes with Shiva as [[Nataraja]] have become an iconic symbol of India.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=152–160}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=225–227}}
 
Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the [[Ajanta Caves]] are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=356–361}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=242–251}} Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=361–370}} The Persian-derived [[Deccan painting]], starting just before the [[Mughal miniature]], between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=202–208}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=372–382, 400–406}} The style spread to Hindu courts, especially [[Rajput painting|among the Rajputs]], and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as [[Nihâl Chand]] and [[Nainsukh]].{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=222–243}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=384–397, 407–420}} As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by [[Company painting]] by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|p=243}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|p=210}} In the 19th century, cheap [[Kalighat painting]]s of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban [[folk art]] from [[Calcutta]], which later saw the [[Bengal School of Art]], reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in [[modern Indian painting]].{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=210–211}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=211}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg|[[Bhutesvara Yakshis]], Buddhist reliefs from [[Mathura]], {{CE|2nd century}}
File:MET DT5237 (cropped).jpg|[[Gupta art|Gupta]] [[terracotta]] relief, [[Krishna]] Killing the [[Keshi (demon)|Horse Demon Keshi]], 5th century
File:Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Elephanta Caves]], triple-[[bust (sculpture)|bust]] (''trimurti'') of Shiva, {{convert|18|ft|m}} tall, {{circa|550}}
File:Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja).jpg|[[Chola bronze]] of [[Shiva]] as [[Nataraja]] ("Lord of Dance"), [[Tamil Nadu]], 10th or 11th century.
File:Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign.jpg|''[[Jahangir]] Receives [[Shah Jahan|Prince Khurram]] at [[Ajmer]] on His Return from the [[Mewar]] Campaign'', Balchand,  {{circa|1635}}
File:Unknown, Kangra, India - Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids - Google Art Project.jpg|''Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids'', [[Kangra painting]], 1775–1785
</gallery>
 
===Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of India}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=250|image_style = border:none;|align = left |image1=Taj Mahal from the sky.jpg|caption1=The Taj Mahal showing the [[Yamuna river]] behind and the [[Mughal garden]] in front}}
Much of [[Architecture of India|Indian architecture]], including the [[Taj Mahal]], other works of [[Mughal architecture]], and [[Dravidian architecture|South Indian architecture]], blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|pp = 296–329}} [[Indian vernacular architecture|Vernacular architecture]] is also regional in its flavours. ''[[Vastu shastra]]'', literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to [[Mamuni Mayan]],{{sfn|Silverman|2007|p = 20}} explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;{{sfn|Kumar|2000|p=5}} it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.{{sfn|Roberts|2004|p=73}} As applied in [[Hindu temple architecture]], it is influenced by the ''[[Shilpa Shastras]]'', a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the ''Vastu-Purusha mandala'', a square that embodied the "[[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute]]".{{sfn|Lang|Moleski|2010|pp = 151–152}} The Taj Mahal, built in [[Agra]] between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor [[Shah Jahan]] in memory of his wife, has been described in the [[UNESCO World Heritage List]] as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".{{sfn|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation}} [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture]], developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on [[Indo-Islamic architecture]].{{sfn|Chopra|2011|p = 46}}
 
===Literature===
{{main|Indian literature}}
The earliest literature in India, composed between {{BCE|1500}} and {{CE|1200}}, was in the [[Sanskrit]] language.{{sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000}} Major works of [[Sanskrit literature]] include the ''[[Rigveda]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|1500}}|{{BCE|1200}}}}), the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]]: ''[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'' ( {{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|400}}}}) and the ''[[Ramayana]]'' ( {{circa|{{BCE|300}}}} and later); ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (''[[The Recognition of Śakuntalā]]'', and other dramas of [[Kālidāsa]] ( {{circa|{{CE|5th century}}}}) and ''[[Sanskrit Classical poetry|Mahākāvya]]'' poetry.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}}{{sfn|MacDonell|2004|pp = 1–40}}{{sfn|Kālidāsa|Johnson|2001}} In [[Tamil literature]], the [[Sangam literature]] ({{circa|{{BCE|600}}|{{BCE|300}}}}) consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1997|p = 12}}{{sfn|Hart|1975}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1985|pp=ix–x}}<ref>{{citation|title=Tamil Literature|year=2008|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9071111/Tamil-literature|access-date=24 July 2011<!--|quote=Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been dated to the 3rd century BC, but [[Tamil literature]] proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the ''sangam'', or literary academy (see Sangam literature).-->}}</ref> From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of [[Bhakti movement|devotional poets]] like [[Kabir|Kabīr]], [[Tulsidas|Tulsīdās]], and [[Guru Nanak|Guru Nānak]]. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.{{sfn|Das|2005}} In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the [[Works of Rabindranath Tagore|works]] of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher [[Rabindranath Tagore]],{{sfn|Datta|2006}} who was a recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].
 
=== Performing arts and media ===
{{Main|Music of India|Dance in India|Cinema of India|Television in India}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=200|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|caption1=India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Performance Arts]] has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Kuchipudi]] shown here. }}
<!---
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:Flickr - dalbera - Bimbavati Devi (Manipuri) (5).jpg|thumb|upright|left|India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Performing Arts]], has recognised eight dance styles as ''classical''.  One such is [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Odissi]]; (e) [[Kuchipudi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Mohiniyattam]].]]
|1=[[File:Kathak Rounds (10)2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Kathak]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathakali]]; (c) [[Sattriya]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]]
|2=[[File:Kathakali IMG 0289 by Joseph Lazercropped.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Kathakali]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Sattriya]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]]
|3=[[File:Sattriya Dancer Krishnakshi Kashyap2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Sattriya]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]]
|4=[[File:Rekha Raju DS 2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Mohiniyattam]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]]
|5=[[File:Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Kuchipudi]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Mohiniyattam]].]]
|6=[[File:Odissi Performance DS.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Odissi]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Kuchipudi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Mohiniyattam]].]]
|7=[[File:Bharata Natyam Performance DS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is [[Bharatanatyam]] shown here.  The others are: (a) [[Kathak]]; (b) [[Kathakali]]; (c) [[Sattriya]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]]
}}-->
[[Music of India|Indian music]] ranges over various traditions and regional styles. [[Indian classical music|Classical music]] encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] and southern [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] schools.{{sfn|Massey|Massey|1998}} Regionalised popular forms include [[filmi]] and [[Indian folk music|folk music]]; the [[Syncretism|syncretic]] tradition of the ''[[baul]]s'' is a well-known form of the latter. [[Dance in India|Indian dance]] also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known [[List of Indian folk dances|folk dances]] are: the ''[[Bhangra (dance)|bhangra]]'' of Punjab, the ''[[bihu dance|bihu]]'' of Assam, the ''[[Jhumair]]'' and ''[[Chhau dance|chhau]]'' of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, ''[[Garba (dance)|garba]]'' and ''[[Dandiya Raas|dandiya]]'' of Gujarat, ''[[ghoomar]]'' of Rajasthan, and the ''[[lavani]]'' of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded [[Classical Indian dance|classical dance status]] by India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama]]. These are: ''[[Bharata Natyam|bharatanatyam]]'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, ''[[kathak]]'' of Uttar Pradesh, ''[[kathakali]]'' and ''[[mohiniyattam]]'' of Kerala, ''[[kuchipudi]]'' of Andhra Pradesh, ''[[Manipuri dance|manipuri]]'' of Manipur, ''[[odissi]]'' of Odisha<!--Do not change this per [[BP:COMMONNAME]].-->, and the ''[[sattriya]]'' of Assam.<ref>{{citation|title=South Asian Arts: Indian Dance|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65246/Indian-dance |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref>
 
[[Theatre in India]] melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.{{sfn|Lal|2004|pp = 23, 30, 235}} Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes: the ''[[bhavai]]'' of Gujarat, the ''[[Jatra (Bengal)|jatra]]'' of West Bengal, the ''[[nautanki]]'' and ''[[ramlila]]'' of North India, ''[[tamasha]]'' of Maharashtra, ''[[burrakatha]]'' of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, ''[[terukkuttu]]'' of Tamil Nadu, and the ''[[yakshagana]]'' of Karnataka.{{sfn|Karanth|2002|p = 26}} India has a theatre training institute the [[National School of Drama]] (NSD) that is situated at [[New Delhi]] It is an autonomous organisation under the [[Ministry of Culture (India)|Ministry of Culture]], [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm|title=In step with the times: Chaman Ahuja on how the National School of Drama has evolved over the past 50 years|website=[[Tribune India]]|date=15 March 2009|access-date=4 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010083957/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref>
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{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 5}}
|0=[[File:Flickr - dalbera - Sudheshna Bhattacharya (musée Guimet, Paris) (1).jpg|thumb|[[Sarod]] performance at the Musée Guimet, Paris]]
|1=[[File:Ravikiran 25 A.jpg|thumb|upright=1.55|South Indian ([[Carnatic music|Carnatic]]) musical performance. From left to right: Guruvayur Dorai, [[mridangam]]; Ravi Balasubramanian, [[ghatam]]; Ravikiran, electric [[chitraveena]]; and Akkarai S. Subhalakshmi, [[violin]]]]
|2=[[File:India - Actors - 0258.jpg|thumb|Actors at the [[avant-garde]] theatre [[Koothu-P-Pattarai]] in [[Chennai]] apply make up to each other in preparation for a performance.<ref name="hindu">{{cite news| last =Santhanam| first =Kausalya| title =Master of avant-garde theatre| newspaper =[[The Hindu]]| url =http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/11/28/stories/2008112850610300.htm| access-date =1 February 2009| date =21 September 2005| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121103201109/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/11/28/stories/2008112850610300.htm| archive-date =3 November 2012| url-status =dead}}</ref>]]
|3=[[File:Plucked string instruments (5) Indian string instruments, Sarod, Sitar, Iktara - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|upright|Three plucked string instruments of Indian music, L to R, [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], which are used in [[North Indian classical music]] and the [[Iktara]], lit. "one string instrument," commonly used in [[Indian folk music]].]]
|4=[[File:Satyajit Ray with Ravi Sankar recording for Pather Panchali.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Film director [[Satyajit Ray]] (left) and sitar maestro [[Ravi Shankar]] discussing the musical score of the movie ''[[Pather Panchali]]'', which was to win Ray the ''Best Human Document'' award at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 1956,<ref name="Cooper2000">{{citation|last=Cooper|first=Darius|title=The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zCgk3ld8EMkC&pg=PA4|year=2000|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-62980-5|page=4}}</ref> and set in motion a career that led to an [[Academy Honorary Award]] in 1992.<ref name="Ganguly2010">{{citation|last=Ganguly|first=Keya|title=Cinema, Emergence, and the Films of Satyajit Ray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEOSyjLc4L8C&pg=PA26|year=2010|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-26216-4|page=26}}</ref> ]]
}}-->
The [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]] produces the world's most-watched cinema.{{sfn|Dissanayake|Gokulsing|2004}} Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the [[Cinema of Assam|Assamese]], [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali]], [[Bhojpuri cinema|Bhojpuri]], [[Bollywood|Hindi]], [[Cinema of Karnataka|Kannada]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], [[Cinema of Punjab|Punjabi]], [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati]], [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]], [[Cinema of Odisha|Odia]], [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], and [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] languages.{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1999|page = 652}} The Hindi language film industry (''Bollywood'') is the largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the [[Cinema of South India|South India]]n Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36% combined.<ref name="deloitte">{{cite web|url=http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/in-tmt-economic-contribution-of-motion-picture-and-television-industry-noexp.pdf|title=Economic Contribution of the Indian Motion Picture and Television Industry|publisher=[[Deloitte]]|date=March 2014|access-date=21 April 2014}}</ref>
 
Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded slowly for more than two decades.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sunetra Sen Narayan |title=Globalization and Television: A Study of the Indian Experience, 1990–2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qj0sjwEACAAJ|year=2015|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0198092360}}</ref>{{sfn|Kaminsky|Long|2011|pp = 684–692}} The [[Doordarshan|state monopoly]] on television broadcast ended in the 1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.{{sfn|Mehta|2008|pp = 1–10}} Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that {{As of|2012|lc=y}} there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462&nbsp;million with satellite or cable connections compared to other forms of mass media such as the press (350&nbsp;million), radio (156&nbsp;million) or internet (37&nbsp;million).{{sfn|Media Research Users Council 2012}}
 
=== Society ===
{{Main|Culture of India}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Muslims praying in mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir.jpg|caption1=Muslims offer ''[[Salah|namaz]]'' at a mosque in [[Srinagar]], Jammu and Kashmir.}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=200|image_style = border:none;|align = left |image1=Gomateswara, Shravanabelagola.jpg|caption1=A Jain woman washes the feet of [[Bahubali]] Gomateswara at [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Karnataka]]. }}
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The [[Caste system in India|Indian caste system]] embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of [[endogamous]] hereditary groups, often termed as ''[[jāti]]s'', or "castes".{{sfn|Schwartzberg|2011}} India declared [[untouchability]] to be illegal<ref>{{cite book|author=Boyd C. Purcell |title=Spiritual Terrorism: Spiritual Abuse from the Womb to the Tomb|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spwHeS3Rxl0C|year=2008|page=391|publisher=[[AuthorHouse]]|isbn=978-1434378880}}</ref> in 1947 and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.
 
[[Family values]] are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational [[patrilineal]] [[joint family|joint families]] have been the norm in India, though [[nuclear family|nuclear families]] are becoming common in urban areas.{{sfn|Makar|2007}} An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have [[Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent|their marriages arranged]] by their parents or other family elders.{{sfn|Medora|2003}} Marriage is thought to be for life,{{sfn|Medora|2003}} and the divorce rate is extremely low,{{sfn|Jones|Ramdas|2005|p = 111}} with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-37481054|title=What divorce and separation tell us about modern India|first=Soutik|last=Biswas|date=29 September 2016|access-date=18 October 2021|work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[Child marriage]]s are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.{{sfn|Cullen-Dupont|2009|p = 96}} [[Female infanticide in India]], and lately [[female foeticide in India|female foeticide]], have created skewed gender ratios; the number of [[missing women]] in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period, and constituting 20 percent of India's female electorate.<ref name="The Hindu_November_17_2019c">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/indias-missing-women/article5670801.ece |title=India's missing women|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=10 February 2014|last1=Kapoor|first1=Mudit|last2=Shamika|first2=Ravi |access-date= 17 November 2019 |quote=In the last 50 years of Indian democracy, the absolute number of missing women has increased fourfold from 15 million to 68 million. This is not merely a reflection of the growth in the overall population, but, rather, of the fact that this dangerous trend has worsened with time. As a percentage of the female electorate, missing women have gone up significantly — from 13 per cent to approximately 20 per cent}}</ref> Accord to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.<ref name="The_Guardian_November_17_2019c">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/30/more-than-63-million-women-missing-in-india-statistics-show |title=More than 63 million women 'missing' in India, statistics show |newspaper=[[The Associated Press]] via [[The Guardian]] |date= 30 January 2018  |author= |access-date= November 17, 2019}} Quote: "More than 63 million women are “missing” statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government’s annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that “families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born”.</ref> Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.<ref name="Foreign_Policy_November_17_2019c">{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/15/a-generation-of-girls-is-missing-in-india/ |title=A Generation of Girls Is Missing in India – Sex-selective abortion fuels a cycle of patriarchy and abuse.|newspaper=[[Foreign Policy]] |first=Ira|last=Trivedi |date=August 15, 2019 |access-date= 17 November 2019}} Quote: "Although it has been illegal nationwide for doctors to disclose the sex of a fetus since the 1994 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, the ease of ordering cheap and portable ultrasound machines, especially online, has kept the practice of sex-selective abortions alive."</ref> The payment of [[Dowry system in India|dowry]], although [[Dowry law in India|illegal]], remains widespread across class lines.<ref>{{cite news|first=Dean|last=Nelson|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html|title=Woman killed over dowry 'every hour' in India|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|access-date=10 February 2014|date=2 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323074436/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html|archive-date=23 March 2014}}</ref> [[Dowry deaths|Deaths resulting from dowry]], mostly from [[bride burning]], are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece|title=Rising number of dowry deaths in India: NCRB|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=10 February 2014|first=Ignatius |last=Pereira|date=6 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207050439/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece|archive-date=7 February 2014}}</ref>
 
Many [[Public holidays in India|Indian festivals]] are religious in origin. The best known include: [[Diwali]], [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[Thai Pongal]], [[Holi]], [[Durga Puja]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Bakr-Id]], [[Christmas worldwide#India|Christmas]], and [[Vaisakhi]].<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|title=Indian Festivals|website=sscnet.ucla.edu|publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]] |access-date=14 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701222430/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|archive-date=1 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Popular India Festivals |url=http://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |website=festivals.indobase.com |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728120656/http://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref>
 
===Education===
{{main|Education in India|Literacy in India|History of education in the Indian subcontinent}}
[[File:47 Raika School - eating together (3384824242).jpg|thumb|right|280px|Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat.  The salutation ''[[Jai Bhim]]'' written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and [[Dalit]] leader [[B. R. Ambedkar]].]]
In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Rajni|last=Pathania|title=Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality|url=http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf|volume=17|website=www.bangladeshsociology.org|publisher=Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology|date=January 2020|issue=1|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Dandapani|last=Natarajan|title=Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy|url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/366/1/26501_1971_CEN.pdf|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]]|year=1971|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Latika|last=Chaudhary|title=Determinants of primary schooling in British India|journal=Journal of Economic History|date=March 2009|volume=69|pages=269–302|number=1|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231178962|doi=10.1017/S0022050709000400|s2cid=21620741}}</ref>
 
The education system of India is the world's second-largest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.studyinindia.gov.in/whyindiaeducation|title=Study in India|website=www.studyinindia.gov.in|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges<ref name="highered1">{{cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms |title=HRD to increase nearly 25 pc seats in varsities to implement 10 pc quota for poor in gen category |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |date=15 January 2019|access-date=October 18, 2021}}</ref> and 1.5 million schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in/#/home|title=UDISE+ Dashboard|website=dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Education (India)|Ministry of Education]]|access-date=October 18, 2021}}</ref> In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under [[Reservation in India|affirmative action]] policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its [[economic development in India|economic development]].<ref name=Sify>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=1475704|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220170624/http://www.sify.com/finance/india-achieves-27-decline-in-poverty-news-news-jegxaXgfcab.html|title=India achieves 27% decline in poverty|work=[[Press Trust of India]] via [[Sify.com]]|date=12 September 2008|archive-date=20 February 2014|access-date=October 18, 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=N. Jayapalan|title=History of Education in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC|year=2005|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-7156-922-9}}</ref>
 
===Clothing===
{{main|Clothing in India}}
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 500
| align      = right
| image_style = border:none;
| image1      = India School.jpg
| caption1    = Women in [[sari]] at an adult literacy class in [[Tamil Nadu]]
| image2      = Water pump, Varanasi (15563170660) Cropped.jpg
| caption2    = A man in [[dhoti]] and wearing a woollen shawl, in [[Varanasi]]
}}
From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India  was draped.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26">{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|p=26}}</ref> For women it took the form of a [[sari]], a single piece of cloth many yards long.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian [[Petticoat#Asian petticoats|petticoat]], and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian [[blouse]], or [[choli]], which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—serving to cover the midriff and obscure the upper body's contours.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the [[dhoti]], has served as a lower-body garment.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26-28">{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|pp=26–28}}</ref>
{{multiple image|perrow = 2/2|total_width = 440
| align      = left
| image_style = border:none;
| image1      = Strolling_Shoppers_in_Paltan_Bazaar.jpg
| caption1    = Women (from left to right) in [[churidar]]s and [[kameez]] (with back to the camera), jeans and sweater, and pink [[Shalwar kameez]]; <!-- a boy in [[kurta]] with [[chikan (embroidery)|chikan]] embroidery;-->
| image2      = Girls in Kargil.jpg
| caption2    = Girls in the [[Kashmir]] region in embroidered [[hijab]]
| image3      = Happy Tailor (5274603493).jpg
| caption3    = A tailor in [[pagri (turban)|pagri]] and [[kameez]] working outside a fabric shop
}}
}}
[[Cave painting]]s from the [[Stone Age]] are found across India. They show [[dance]]s and [[ritual]]s and suggest there was a [[history|prehistoric]] religion. During the Epic and [[Purana|Puranic]] periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' were written from about 500–100 BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Goldman|2007|p=23}}.</ref> although these were [[wikt:oral|orally]] [[wikt:transmission|transmitted]] for centuries before this period.<ref name="Rine28">{{harvnb|Rinehart|2004|p=28}}.</ref> Other [[South Asia]]n Stone Age sites apart from [[Pakistan]] are in modern India, such as the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] in central [[Madhya Pradesh]] and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art showing religious rites and evidence of possible [[ritual]]ised music.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=19 March 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref>
[[File:Golden Temple India.jpg|left|thumb|175px|The Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple of the [[Sikh]]s.]]
Several modern religions are linked to India,<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38030/classification-of-religions Classification of religions: Geographical], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2007</ref> namely modern [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Sikhism]]. All of these religions have different ''schools'' (ways of thinking) and [[tradition]]s that are related. As a group they are called the [[Eastern religions]]. The Indian religions are similar to one another in many ways: The basic beliefs, the way [[worship]] is done and several religious practices are very similar. These similarities mainly come from the fact that these religions have a common history and common origins. They also influenced each other.


The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the [[Delhi sultanate]] (ca 1300 CE) and then continued by the [[Mughal Empire]] (ca 1525 CE).<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002">{{citation |last=Alkazi |first=Roshen |editor=Rahman, Abdur |title=India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-565789-0 |pages=464–484 |chapter=Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times}}</ref> Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the [[shalwar]]s and [[pyjama]]s, both styles of trousers, and the tunics [[kurta]] and [[kameez]].<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002"/> In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002"/>
The religion of [[Hinduism]] is the main faith followed by 79.80% of people in the Republic of India; [[Islam]] – 14.23%; [[Christianity]] – 2.30%; Sikhism – 1.72%; [[Buddhism]] – 0.70% and [[Jainism]] – 0.37%.<ref name="CensusRel">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2001, Data on Religion |work=Census of India |url=http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ |accessdate=April 12, 2007 |archive-date=August 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070812011525/http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>


Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.<ref name="StevensonWaite2011">{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1272|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=3 September 2019|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=1272}}</ref> The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the [[Grain (textile)#Bias|bias]], in which case they are called [[churidar]]s. When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic,<ref name="StevensonWaite2011-b">{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA774|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=774}}</ref> its side seams left open below the waist-line.<ref>{{citation|url=https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|author=Platts, John T. (John Thompson)|title=A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English|location=London|page=418|publisher=[[W. H. Allen & Co.]]|year= 1884}} (online; updated February 2015)</ref>  The [[kurta]] is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as [[chikan (embroidery)|chikan]]; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.<ref name="Shukla2015">{{citation|last=Shukla|first=Pravina|title=The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlObCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|year=2015|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=978-0-253-02121-2|page=71}}</ref>
It's the first time ever since independence that the Hindu population percentage fell below 80%.


In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.<ref name="Dwyer2014">{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|title=Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqwBBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244|year=2014|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|isbn=978-1-78023-304-8|pages=244–245}}</ref> The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.<ref name="Dwyer2014"/>  In white-collar office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.<ref name="Dwyer2014"/> For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear [[bandgala]], or short [[Nehru jackets]], with pants, with the groom and his [[groomsmen]] sporting [[sherwani]]s and churidars.<ref name="Dwyer2014"/> The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven [[khadi]] allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,<ref name="BruzziGibson2013">{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|editor=Stella Bruzzi, Pamela Church Gibson|title=Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYGMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA178|year=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-136-29537-9|pages=178–189|chapter=Bombay Ishtyle}}</ref>
== Technology ==
is seldom seen in the cities.<ref name="Dwyer2014"/>
India sent a spacecraft to [[Mars]] for the first time in 2014. That made it the third country and only Asian country to do so, successfully. India is the only country to be successful in its very first attempt to orbit Mars. It was called the Mars Orbiter Mission.


===Cuisine===
[[Indian Space Research Organization|ISRO]] launched 104 satellites in a single mission to create a world record. India became the first nation in the world to have launched over a hundred satellites in one mission. That was more than the 2014 Russian record of 37 satellites in a single launch.
{{main|Indian cuisine}}
{{multiple image|perrow = 2/2/2|total_width = 440
| align      = right
| image_style = border:none;
| image4      = Vindalho.jpg
| caption4    = Pork [[vindaloo]] from [[Goa]]
| image3      = Hyderabadi Chicken Biryani.jpg
| caption3    = Chicken [[Hyderabadi biryani|biryani from Hyderabad]]
| image6      = Odia Mutton Curry (Mansha Tarkari) Rotated.jpg
| caption6    = [[Mutton curry|Railway mutton curry]] from [[Odisha]]
| image2      = Assamese Thali.jpg
| caption2    = An [[Assam]]ese thali
| image1      = South Indian Thali Cropped.jpg
| caption1    = South Indian vegetarian [[thali]], or platter
| image5      = Tiffin wallah lunch.jpg
| caption5    = Home-cooked lunch delivered to the workplace by the [[Dabbawala]].
}}
The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=409}}</ref> The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; [[chapati]], a thin unleavened bread made from wheat flour, or occasionally cornmeal, and griddle-cooked dry;<ref name="Davidson2014-p161">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=161|quote=Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.}}</ref> the [[idli]], a steamed breakfast cake, or  [[dosa]], a griddled pancake, both leavened and made from a batter of rice- and [[Vigna mungo|gram]] meal.<ref name=tamang-yeast-idlidosa>{{citation|last1=Tamang|first1=J. P.|last2=Fleet|first2=G. H.|editor1-last=Satyanarayana|editor1-first=T.|editor2-last=Kunze|editor2-first=G.|chapter=Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages|title=Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications|publisher=Springer|page=180|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&pg=PA180|year=2009|isbn=9781402082924|quote=Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.}}</ref>  The savoury dishes might include [[lentil]]s, [[pulses]] and vegetables commonly spiced with [[ginger root|ginger]] and [[garlic]], but also with a combination of spices that may include [[coriander]], [[cumin]], [[turmeric]], [[cinnamon]], [[cardamon]] and others as informed by culinary conventions.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409"/> They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed during the process of cooking.<ref name=jhala-princely-biryani>{{citation|last=Jhala|first=Angma Day|title=Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India|publisher=Routledge|page=70|year=2015|isbn=9781317316572|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70|quote=With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, 'architecture and cuisine' were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan),  and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.}}</ref>


A platter, or [[thali]], used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments, which are often served in small bowls. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner.  This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or  folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables or lentils.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409"/>
== Pop culture ==
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 220
India has the largest movie industry in the world. It is based in Bombay which is now known as [[Bombay|Mumbai]], the industry is also known as [[Bollywood]]. It makes 1,000 movies a year, about twice as many as Hollywood.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ibtimes.com/bollywood-100-how-big-indias-mammoth-film-industry-1236299|title = Bollywood at 100: How Big is India's Mammoth Film Industry|work = International Business Times|date = 3 May 2013}}</ref>
| align      = left
| image_style = border:none;
| image1      = Making Khameeri Roti in Tandoor in Turkman Gate Old Delhi.webm
| caption1    = A tandoor chef in the [[Turkman Gate]], [[Old Delhi]], makes Khameeri [[roti]] (a Muslim-influenced style of [[Bread#Leavening|leavened bread]]).<ref name="Panjabi1995">{{citation|last=Panjabi|first=Camellia|title=The Great Curries of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYCFJMLZ_-4C&pg=PA158|year=1995|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|isbn=978-0-684-80383-8|pages=158–|quote=The Muslim influenced breads of India are leavened, like ''naan'', ''Khamiri roti'', ...}}</ref>
}}
India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA410|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=410}}</ref> The appearance of ''[[ahimsa]]'', or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially [[Upanishads|Upanishadic Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the [[Hindi]]-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410"/>  Although meat is eaten widely in India,  the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.<ref name="SahakianSaloma2016-50">{{citation|last1=Sahakian|first1=Marlyne|last2=Saloma|first2=Czarina|last3=Erkman|first3=Suren|title=Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBIxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|year=2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-31050-1|page=50}}</ref> Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.<ref name="OECDNations2018">{{citation|author1=OECD|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JuBiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2018|publisher=[[OECD Publishing]]|isbn=978-92-64-06203-0|page=21}}</ref>
 
The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the [[Mughal Empire]]. Dishes such as the [[pilaf]],<ref name=roger-cambridge-2000>{{citation|last=Roger|first=Delphine |editor=Kiple, Kenneth F. |editor2=Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè |title=The Cambridge World History of Food|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&pg=PA1140|volume=2|year=2000|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge and New York|isbn=978-0-521-40215-6|pages=1140–1150|chapter=The Middle East and South Asia (in Chapter: History and Culture of Food and Drink in Asia)}}</ref> developed in the [[Abbasid caliphate]],<ref name=sengupta-74>{{citation|last=Sengupta|first=Jayanta |editor=Freedman, Paul |editor2=Chaplin, Joyce E. |editor3=Albala, Ken |title=Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNQkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|year=2014|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-27745-8|page=74|chapter=India}}</ref> and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007">{{citation|last=Collingham|first=Elizabeth M.|title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pH88DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|year=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-532001-5|page=25}}</ref>  In the food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of [[Punjabi cuisine]]. The popularity of [[tandoori chicken]]—cooked in the [[tandoor]] oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from [[Central Asia]]—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 [[partition of India]].<ref name="Davidson2014-p410"/>
 
=== Sports and recreation ===
{{Main|Sport in India}}
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| image1 = Sachin Tendulkar about to score 14000th run in test cricket.jpg
| caption1 = Indian [[cricket]]er [[Sachin Tendulkar]] about to score a record 14,000 runs in [[test cricket]] while playing against Australia in [[Bangalore]], 2010.
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[[Cricket]] is the most popular sport in India.<ref>{{citation|last=Shores|first=Lori|title=Teens in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC|access-date=24 July 2011|date=15 February 2007|publisher=[[Compass Point Books]]|isbn=978-0-7565-2063-2|page=78|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617050252/https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC|archive-date=17 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Major domestic competitions include the [[Indian Premier League]], which is the most-watched cricket league in the world and ranks sixth among all sports leagues.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/slideshow/top-10-most-watched-sports-leagues-world|title=Top 10 most watched sports leagues in the world|date=11 January 2016|website=www.sportskeeda.com|access-date=14 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407092643/https://www.sportskeeda.com/slideshow/top-10-most-watched-sports-leagues-world|archive-date=7 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Other professional leagues include the [[Indian Super League|pro football]] and the [[Pro Kabaddi League|pro Kabaddi]] leagues.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-09-26|title=From IPL to ISL, sports leagues in India to watch out for|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/sports/from-ipl-to-isl-sports-leagues-in-india-to-watch-out-for/2337628/|access-date=2021-12-03|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Super League: Odisha president says sacking Stuart Baxter was 'the only course of action'|url=https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11995/12207157/indian-super-league-odisha-president-says-sacking-stuart-baxter-was-the-only-course-of-action|access-date=2021-12-03|publisher=Sky Sports}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2014-08-06|title=Kabaddi gets the IPL treatment|language=en-GB|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-28660432|access-date=2021-12-03}}</ref>
India has won two [[One Day International|ODI]] [[Cricket World Cup|Cricket world cups]], the [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983  edition]] and the  [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011 edition]] and has eight field hockey gold medals in the [[Field hockey at the Summer Olympics|summer olympics]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/sports/other-sports/story/independence-day-india-at-70-cricket-football-hockey-kabaddi-1029624-2017-08-14|title=What India was crazy about: Hockey first, Cricket later, Football, Kabaddi now?}}</ref>
[[File:Kasparov-10.jpg|thumb|left|Viswanathan Anand faced [[Garry Kasparov]] for the world championship in 1995 at the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].]]
 
Several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, such as ''[[kabaddi]]'', ''[[kho kho]]'', ''[[pehlwani]]'' and ''[[gilli-danda]]''. Some of the earliest forms of Asian [[Indian martial arts|martial arts]], such as ''[[Kalarippayattu]]'', ''[[musti yuddha]]'',{{Dubious|date=December 2021}} ''[[silambam]]'', and ''[[marma adi]]'', originated in India. [[Chess]], commonly held to have [[History of chess#India|originated in India]] as ''[[chaturanga|chaturaṅga]]'', is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian [[Grandmaster (chess)|grandmasters]].{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = 2}}{{sfn|Rediff 2008 b}} [[Viswanathan Anand]] became the [[World Chess Championship 2007|Undisputed Chess World Champion]] in 2007 and held the status until 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |title=Candidates' R13: Anand Draws, Clinches Rematch with Carlsen |access-date=14 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111220728/http://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |archive-date=11 January 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> ''[[Pachisi]]'', from which [[parcheesi]] derives, was played on a giant marble court by [[Akbar]].{{sfn|Binmore|2007|p = 98}}
 
The improved results garnered by the [[India Davis Cup team|Indian Davis Cup team]] and other [[:Category:Indian tennis players|Indian tennis players]] in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.{{sfn|The Wall Street Journal 2009}} India has a [[:Category:Indian sport shooters|comparatively strong presence]] in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the [[Olympic Games|Olympics]], the [[ISSF World Shooting Championships|World Shooting Championships]], and the Commonwealth Games.{{sfn|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 b}}{{sfn|The Times of India 2010}} Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include [[badminton]]{{sfn|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 a}} ([[Saina Nehwal]] and [[P. V. Sindhu|P V Sindhu]] are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world), boxing,{{sfn|Mint 2010}} and wrestling.{{sfn|Xavier|2010}} [[Football in India|Football]] is popular in [[West Bengal]], [[Goa]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], and the [[Seven Sister States|north-eastern states]].{{sfn|Majumdar|Bandyopadhyay|2006|pp = 1–5}}
 
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpg
| caption1 = Girls play [[hopscotch]] in [[Jaora]], Madhya Pradesh.  Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.<ref name="SrinivasanJermyn2001">{{citation|last1=Srinivasan|first1=Radhika|last2=Jermyn|first2=Leslie|last3=Lek|first3=Hui Hui|title=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoVby4OJWhYC&pg=PA109|year=2001|publisher=Times Books International|isbn=978-981-232-184-8|page=109}} Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."</ref>
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<!---
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpg|thumb|left|Girls play [[hopscotch]] in [[Juara]], Madhya Pradesh.  Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.}}<ref name="SrinivasanJermyn2001">{{citation|last1=Srinivasan|first1=Radhika|last2=Jermyn|first2=Leslie|last3=Lek|first3=Hui Hui|title=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoVby4OJWhYC&pg=PA109|year=2001|publisher=Times Books International|isbn=978-981-232-184-8|page=109}} Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Indian-Hockey-Team-Berlin-1936.jpg|thumb|left|Indian hockey team, captained by [[Dhyan Chand]] (standing second from left), after winning the finals at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds.]]
|2=[[File:Sania Mirza during her first round match with Virginie Razzano, Day 2 of Wimbledon 2011.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sania Mirza]] is an Indian professional tennis player, a former [[List of WTA number 1 ranked players|world No. 1]] in doubles, who has won six [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam titles]] in her career.}}<ref name=No1ranking>{{cite news|title=Hingis and Mirza win. Mirza becomes No. 1|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/4634188/title/hingis-mirza-win-mirza-becomes-no1|access-date=19 April 2015|publisher=[[Women's Tennis Association]]|date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415000115/http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/4634188/title/hingis-mirza-win-mirza-becomes-no1|archive-date=15 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> She is shown here at Wimbledon, 2011.]]
|3=[[File:Kabaddi in Bagepalli Karnataka.jpg|thumb|left|A game of ''kabaddi'' in [[Bagepalli]], Karnataka]]
|4= [[File:Joueursindienspushkar.jpg|thumb|left|A street-corner game of ''pachisi'' in [[Pushkar]], Rajasthan]]
|5=[[File:Street Cricket Batter India.jpg|thumb|left|Cricket is the most popular sport in India.<ref name="HongMangan2005">{{citation|last1=Hong|first1=Fan|last2=Mangan|first2=J.A.|title=Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0iQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA306|year=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-76043-4|page=306}}</ref> Shown here is an example of [[street cricket]].]]
|6=[[File:Viswanathan Anand 08 14 2005.jpg|thumb|left|Indian chess grandmaster and former world champion [[Vishwanathan Anand]] competes at a chess tournament in 2005. Chess is commonly believed to have originated in India in the 5th century CE.]]
|7=[[File:XIX Commonwealth Games-2010 Delhi Indian shuttler Saina Nehwal in action against her Barbados opponent during their match in the preliminary round of badminton event, at Sirifort Sports Complex, in New Delhi.jpg|left|thumb|[[Saina Nehwal]] is the only Indian female to have become world number one in [[badminton]]]]
}}-->


India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the [[1951 Asian Games|1951]] and [[1982 Asian Games]]; the [[1987 Cricket World Cup|1987]], [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]], and [[2011 Cricket World Cup]] tournaments; the [[2003 Afro-Asian Games]]; the [[2006 ICC Champions Trophy]]; the [[2009 BWF World Championships|2009 World Badminton Championships]]; the [[2010 Men's Hockey World Cup|2010 Hockey World Cup]]; the [[2010 Commonwealth Games]]; and the [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]]. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the [[Maharashtra Open]], the [[Mumbai Marathon]], the [[Delhi Half Marathon]], and the [[Indian Masters]]. The first [[Formula One|Formula 1]] [[Indian Grand Prix]] featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014.{{sfn|Dehejia|2011}} India has traditionally been the dominant country at the [[South Asian Games]]. An example of this dominance is the [[Basketball at the South Asian Games|basketball competition]] where the [[India national basketball team|Indian team]] won three out of four tournaments to date.<ref>{{cite news |title=Basketball team named for 11th South Asian Games |url=https://nation.com.pk/02-Jan-2010/basketball-team-named-for-11th-south-asian-games |access-date=23 November 2019 |work=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]] |publisher=Nawaiwaqt Group |date=2 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202035448/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/lahore/02-Jan-2010/Basketball-team-named-for-11th-South-Asian-Games |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== Sports ==


{{Clear}}
[[File:IPL T20 Chennai vs Kolkata.JPG|thumb|alt=Cricketers in a game in front of nearly-full stands.|A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders]]
{{main|Sports in India}}
Indians have excelled in Hockey. They have also won eight gold, one silver, and two bronze medals at the [[Olympic games]]. However, [[cricket]] is the most popular sport in India. The Indian cricket team won the 1983 and [[2011 Cricket World Cup]] and the [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]]. They [[wikt:share|shared]] the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with [[Sri Lanka]] and won the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Cricket in India is controlled by the Board of Control for Cricket in India or BCCI. Domestic tournaments are the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the Challenger Series. There is also the Indian cricket league and Indian premier league Twenty20 competitions.


== See also ==
[[Tennis]] has become popular due to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. [[Association football]] is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala.<ref name = Soccer>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|Bandyopadhyay|2006|pp=1–5}}</ref> The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup many times. [[Chess]], which comes from India, is also becoming popular. This is with the increase in the number of Indian Grandmasters.<ref name="Anand crowned World champion">{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm|title= Anand crowned World champion|date=2008-10-29|publisher=Rediff|accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref> Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played throughout India.
{{Portal|India|Asia}}
* [[Outline of India]]
{{Clear}}


== Notes ==
== Notes ==
{{notes|refs={{efn|name=remaining religions|Besides specific religions, the last two categories in the 2011 Census were "Other religions and persuasions" (0.65%) and "Religion not stated" (0.23%).}}|33em}}
{{Notelist}}


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|2}}


== Bibliography ==
== Other websites ==
'''Overview'''
{{sisterlinks|India|voy=India}}
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|title=India|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|access-date=10 July 2021|ref={{sfnRef|Central Intelligence Agency}}}}
* {{citation|date=December 2004|title=Country Profile: India|edition=5th|work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|publisher=[[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]]|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927131058/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2011|access-date=30 September 2011|url-status=dead|ref={{sfnRef|Library of Congress|2004}}}}
* {{citation|last1=Heitzman|first1=James|last2=Worden|first2=Robert L.|date=August 1996|title=India: A Country Study|series=Area Handbook Series|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|place=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-8444-0833-0|url=https://archive.org/details/indiacountrystud0000unse}}
* {{citation|title=India|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=534&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=88&pr1.y=9|access-date=14 October 2011|ref={{sfnRef|International Monetary Fund}}}}
* {{citation|title=Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner]]|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html|lay-url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/indiaatglance.html|ref={{sfnRef|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India}}|access-date=18 October 2021}}
* Robinson, Francis, ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives'' (1989)
* {{citation|date=24 January 1950|title=Constituent Assembly of India – Volume XII|work=Constituent Assembly of India: Debates|publisher=[[National Informatics Centre]], [[Government of India]]|url=http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm|access-date=17 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Constituent Assembly of India|1950}}|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721173243/http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm|archive-date=21 July 2011}}
{{refend}}


'''Etymology'''
; Government
{{refbegin|33em}}
* [http://india.gov.in/ Official entry portal] of the Government of India
* {{citation |date=1 December 2007 |title=The Constitution of India |publisher=[[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)|Ministry of Law and Justice]] |url=http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |access-date=3 March 2012 |quote=Article 1(1): "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States." |ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Law and Justice 2007}} |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909230437/http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf}}
* [http://www.nic.in Official directory] of Indian Government websites
{{refend}}


'''History'''
; Official
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{CIA World Factbook link|in|India}}
* {{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C.|year=2006|title=India Before Europe |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-80904-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC}}
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] entry on [http://www.britannica.com/nations/India India]
* {{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C.|year=2008|title=India Before Europe |edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8}}
* BBC country profile of [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm India]
* {{citation|last1=Bose|first1=S.|last2=Jalal|first2=A.|author1-link=Sugata Bose|author2-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=2011|title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy|edition=3rd|publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-77942-5}}
* Library of Congress Country Studies entry on [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India]
* {{citation|last=Brown|first=J. M.|author-link=Judith M. Brown|year=1994|title=Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy|edition=2nd|series=[[The Short Oxford History of the Modern World]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-873113-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaKdsF8WzbcC}}
*[https://www.gairegaurav.com.np/2021/06/india-facts.html Quick Refresher About India]
* {{citation|last1=Coningham|first1=Robin|last2=Young|first2=Ruth|title=The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-84697-4}}
* {{citation|last=Copland|first=I.|year=2001|title=India 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire|edition=1st |publisher=[[Longman]]|isbn=978-0-582-38173-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw1uAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{citation|last1=Kulke|first1=H.|last2=Rothermund|first2=D.|author1-link=Hermann Kulke|year=2004|title=A History of India|series=4th|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC}}
* {{citation|last=Ludden|first=D.|year=2002|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]]|isbn=978-1-85168-237-9}}
* {{citation|last=Ludden|first=D.|year=2014|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]]|isbn=978-1-85168-936-1|edition=2nd, revised|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ}}<!--ISBN and year from book pages-->
* {{citation|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|author1-link=Barbara Metcalf |author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf|year=2006|title=A Concise History of Modern India|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-68225-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C}}
* {{citation|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|year=2012|title=A Concise History of Modern India|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-02649-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC}}
* {{citation|last=Peers|first=D. M.|year=2006|title=India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885|edition=1st |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson Longman]]|isbn=978-0-582-31738-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Peers|first=D. M.|year=2013|title=India Under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-317-88286-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyQuAgAAQBAJ|access-date=13 August 2019}}
* {{citation|last1=Petraglia|first1=Michael D. |last2=Allchin|first2=Bridget |author-link2=Bridget Allchin|editor=Michael Petraglia |editor2=Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA6|year=2007|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1| chapter=Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent}}
* {{citation|last=Possehl|first=G.|author-link=Gregory Possehl|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|year=2003|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Rowman Altamira]]|isbn=978-0-7591-0172-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC}}
* {{citation|last=Robb|first=P.|title=A History of India|year=2001|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave]] |isbn=978-0-333-69129-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete}}
* {{citation|last=Robb|first=P.|title=A History of India|year=2011|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-34549-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC}}
* {{citation|last=Sarkar|first=S.|year=1983|title=Modern India: 1885–1947|place=Delhi|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0-333-90425-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVxuAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Singh|first=Upinder|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|year=2009|publisher=[[Longman]]|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC}}
* {{citation|last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=Political Violence in Ancient India|year=2017|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-98128-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Sripati|first=V.|year=1998|title=Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950–2000)|journal=[[American University International Law Review]] |volume=14 |issue=2|pages=413–496}}
* {{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|year=1998|title=A History of India|edition=1st |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-20546-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC}}
* {{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|year=2010 |title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}
* {{citation|last=Witzel|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Witzel|editor=Gavin D. Flood|title=The Blackwell companion to Hinduism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C|access-date=15 March 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|chapter=Vedas and Upanișads}}
* {{citation|last=Wolpert|first=S.|author-link=Stanley Wolpert|year=2003|title=A New History of India|edition=7th|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-516678-1}}
{{refend}}


'''Geography'''
{{Authority control}}
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last1=Ali|first1=J. R.|last2=Aitchison|first2=J. C.|year=2005|title=Greater India|journal=[[Earth-Science Reviews]]|volume=72|issue=3–4|pages=170–173|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005ESRv...72..169A}}
* {{citation|last=Chang|first=J. H.|year=1967|title=The Indian Summer Monsoon|periodical=[[Geographical Review]]|volume=57|issue=3|pages=373–396|doi=10.2307/212640|jstor=212640|publisher=[[American Geographical Society]], Wiley}}
* {{citation|year=1988 |title=Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 with Amendments Made in 1988 |publisher=Department of Environment and Forests, Government of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands |url=http://forest.and.nic.in/fca1980.pdf |access-date=25 July 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Department of Environment and Forests|1988}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721163118/http://forest.and.nic.in/fca1980.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Dikshit|first1=K. R.|last2=Schwartzberg|first2=Joseph E.|author2-link=Joseph E. Schwartzberg|title=India: Land|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|pages=1–29|ref={{sfnRef|Dikshit & Schwartzberg}}}}
* {{citation|last=Duff|first=D.|author-link = Donald Duff (geologist and author)|year=1993|title=Holmes Principles of Physical Geology|edition=4th|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-7487-4381-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT353}}
* {{citation|last1=Kumar|first1=V. Sanil|last2=Pathak|first2=K. C.|last3=Pednekar|first3=P.|last4=Raju|first4=N. S. N.|last5=Gowthaman|first5=R.|year=2006|title=Coastal processes along the Indian coastline|periodical=[[Current Science]]|volume=91|issue=4|pages=530–536|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908141613/http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf|archive-date=8 September 2009}}
* {{citation|year=2007|title=India Yearbook 2007|publisher=Publications Division, [[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]], [[Government of India]]|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-230-1423-4|ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting|2007}}}}
* {{citation|last=Posey|first=C. A.|date=1 November 1994|title=The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather|publisher=[[Reader's Digest Association|Reader's Digest]]|isbn=978-0-89577-625-9|url=https://archive.org/details/livingearthbooko00pose}}
* {{citation|last1=Prakash|first1=B.|last2=Kumar|first2=S.|last3=Rao|first3=M. S.|last4=Giri|first4=S. C.|year=2000|title=Holocene Tectonic Movements and Stress Field in the Western Gangetic Plains|journal=[[Current Science]]|volume=79|issue=4|pages=438–449|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf|ref={{sfnRef|Prakash et al.|2000}}}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Biodiversity'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Basak|first=R. K.|year=1983|title=Botanical Survey of India: Account of Its Establishment, Development, and Activities|publisher=India. [[Department of Environment]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXAVcgAACAAJ|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Crame|first1=J. A.|last2=Owen|first2=A. W.|date=1 August 2002|title=Palaeobiogeography and Biodiversity Change: The Ordovician and Mesozoic–Cenozoic Radiations|series=Geological Society Special Publication|issue=194|publisher=[[Geological Society of London]]|isbn=978-1-86239-106-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YswVy5YolYsC&pg=PA142|access-date=8 December 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Karanth|first=K. P.|year=2006|title=Out-of-India Gondwanan Origin of Some Tropical Asian Biota|journal=[[Current Science]]|volume=90|issue=6|pages=789–792|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf|access-date=18 May 2011|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411223533/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Mace|first=G. M.|date=March 1994|title=1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals|work=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]|isbn=978-2-8317-0194-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyy0HilL9ecC&pg=PR4}}
* {{citation|title=Biosphere Reserves of India|work=C. P. R. Environment Education Centre|publisher=[[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment and Forests]], [[Government of India]]|url=http://www.cpreec.org/pubbook-biosphere.htm|access-date=17 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Environment and Forests}}|archive-date=21 August 2011|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6174UGghb?url=http://www.cpreec.org/pubbook-biosphere.htm|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|date=9 September 1972|title=Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972|publisher=[[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment and Forests]], [[Government of India]]|url=http://envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlife1.html|access-date=25 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Environments and Forests 1972}}}}
* {{citation|date=4 June 2007|title=The List of Wetlands of International Importance|publisher=The Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands|page=18|url=http://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf|access-date=20 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621011113/http://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2007|ref={{sfnRef|Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands}}}}
* {{citation|last=Tritsch|first=M. F.|year=2001|title=Wildlife of India|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|place=London|isbn=978-0-00-711062-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNRQAAAACAAJ}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Politics'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Banerjee|first1=Sumanta|title=Civilising the BJP|journal=[[Economic & Political Weekly]]|date=22 July 2005|volume=40|issue=29|pages=3116–3119|jstor=4416896}}
* {{citation|last=Bhambhri|first=C. P.|year=1992|title=Politics in India, 1991–1992|publisher=Shipra |isbn=978-81-85402-17-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pf5HAAAAMAAJ|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Burnell|first1=P. J.|last2=Calvert|first2=P.|year=1999|title=The Resilience of Democracy: Persistent Practice, Durable Idea|edition=1st|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-0-7146-8026-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hv6TkML5_HAC&pg=PA271|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|author=Press Trust of India|date=16 May 2009|title=Second UPA Win, A Crowning Glory for Sonia's Ascendancy|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/second-upa-wincrowning-glory-for-sonia%5Cs-ascendancy/61892/on |access-date=13 June 2009 |ref={{sfnRef|Business Standard|2009}}|newspaper=[[Business Standard]] India}}
* {{citation|last=Chander|first=N. J.|year=2004|title=Coalition Politics: The Indian Experience|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-092-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_QtMGIczhMC&pg=PA117|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Dunleavy|first1=P.|last2=Diwakar|first2=R.|last3=Dunleavy|first3=C.|year=2007|title=The Effective Space of Party Competition|issue=5|publisher=[[London School of Economics]] and Political Science |url=http://www2.lse.ac.uk/government/research/resgroups/PSPE/pdf/PSPE_WP5_07.pdf|access-date=27 September 2011|archive-date=28 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028005708/http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/government/PSPE/pdf/PSPE_WP5_07.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Dutt|first=S.|year=1998|title=Identities and the Indian State: An Overview|journal=[[Third World Quarterly]]|volume=19|issue=3|pages=411–434|doi=10.1080/01436599814325}}
* {{citation|last=Echeverri-Gent|first=J.|editor-last=Ayres|editor-first=A.|editor2-last=Oldenburg|editor2-first=P.|date=January 2002|title=Quickening the Pace of Change|chapter=Politics in India's Decentred Polity|series=India Briefing|publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]]|place=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiabriefingqui0000unse/page/19 19–53]|isbn=978-0-7656-0812-3|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/indiabriefingqui0000unse/page/19}}
* {{citation|date=14 March 2009|title=Current Recognised Parties|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/Symbols_Sep_2009.pdf|access-date=5 July 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Election Commission of India}}}}
* {{citation|last=Gledhill|first=A.|year=1970|title=The Republic of India: The Development of its Laws and Constitution|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]]|isbn=978-0-8371-2813-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHAjPQAACAAJ|access-date=21 July 2011}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Malik|first1=Yogendra K.|last2=Singh|first2=V. B.|title=Bharatiya Janata Party: An Alternative to the Congress (I)?|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|date=April 1992|volume=32|issue=4|pages=318–336 |jstor=2645149 |doi=10.2307/2645149}}
* {{citation|last=Mathew|first=K. M.|year=2003|title=Manorama Yearbook|publisher=[[Malayala Manorama]] |isbn=978-81-900461-8-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jDaLQwAACAAJ|access-date=21 July 2011}}
* {{citation|title=National Symbols|work=Know India|publisher=[[National Informatics Centre]], [[Government of India]]|url=https://www.india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols|access-date=18 April 2021|ref={{sfnRef|National Informatics Centre|2005}}|url-status=live|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418054958/https://www.india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols}}
* {{citation|last=Neuborne|first=Burt|year=2003|title=The Supreme Court of India|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=1|issue=3|pages=476–510|doi=10.1093/icon/1.3.476|doi-access=free}}
* {{citation|last=Pylee|first=M. V.|year=2003a|title=Constitutional Government in India|chapter=The Longest Constitutional Document|edition=2nd|publisher=[[S. Chand]]|isbn=978-81-219-2203-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C}}
* {{citation|last=Pylee|first=M. V.|year=2003b|title=Constitutional Government in India|chapter=The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court|edition=2nd|publisher=[[S. Chand]]|isbn=978-81-219-2203-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&pg=PA314|access-date=2 November 2007}}
* {{citation|last=Sarkar|first=N. I.|title=Sonia Gandhi: Tryst with India|year=2007|publisher=[[Atlantic Books|Atlantic]]|isbn=978-81-269-0744-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=26flsWUf8fkC|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Sharma|first=R.|year=1950|title=Cabinet Government in India|journal=[[Parliamentary Affairs]]|volume=4|issue=1|pages=116–126|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pa.a052755}}
* {{citation|last=Sharma|first=B. K.|date=August 2007|title=Introduction to the Constitution of India|edition=4th|publisher=[[Prentice Hall]]|isbn=978-81-203-3246-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC&pg=PA161}}
* {{citation|last=Sinha|first=A.|year=2004|title=The Changing Political Economy of Federalism in India|journal=[[India Review]]|volume=3|issue=1|pages=25–63|doi=10.1080/14736480490443085|s2cid=154543286}}
* {{citation|title=World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day|publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|United Nations]] [[Commission on Population and Development|Population Division]] |ref={{sfnRef|United Nations Population Division}} |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/pubsarchive/india/ind1bil.htm|access-date=5 October 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Wheare|first=K. C.|date=June 1980|title=Federal Government|edition=4th|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-313-22702-8|url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen00whearich}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Foreign relations and military'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Alford|first=P.|date=7 July 2008|title=G8 Plus 5 Equals Power Shift|publisher=[[The Australian]]|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/g8-plus-5-equals-power-shift/story-e6frg6t6-1111116838759|access-date=21 November 2009}}
* {{citation|last=Behera|first=L. K.|date=7 March 2011|title=Budgeting for India's Defence: An Analysis of Defence Budget 2011–2012|publisher=[[Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses]]|url=http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/BudgetingforIndiasDefence2010-11_lkbehera_030310.html|access-date=4 April 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Behera|first=L. K.|date=20 March 2012|title=India's Defence Budget 2012–13|publisher=[[Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses]]|url=http://www.defencereviewasia.com/articles/169/India-s-Defence-Budget-2012-13|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215014403/http://www.defencereviewasia.com/articles/169/India-s-Defence-Budget-2012-13|archive-date=15 December 2012|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|date=11 February 2009|title=Russia Agrees India Nuclear Deal|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7883223.stm|access-date=22 August 2010|ref={{sfnRef|British Broadcasting Corporation 2009}}}}
* {{citation|last=Curry|first=B.|date=27 June 2010|title=Canada Signs Nuclear Deal with India|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/g8-g20/news/canada-signs-nuclear-deal-with-india/article1620801/|access-date=13 May 2011|archive-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115702/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/g8-g20/news/canada-signs-nuclear-deal-with-india/article1620801/|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|date=8 April 2008|title=India, Europe Strategic Relations|work=Europa: Summaries of EU Legislation|publisher=[[European Union]]|url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/relations_with_third_countries/asia/r14100_en.htm|access-date=14 January 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Europa 2008}}}}
* {{citation|last=Ghosh|first=A.|title=India's Foreign Policy|date=1 September 2009|publisher=[[Pearson PLC|Pearson]]|isbn=978-81-317-1025-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y32u4JMroQgC}}
* {{citation|last=Gilbert|first=M.|date=17 December 2002|title=A History of the Twentieth Century|publisher=[[William Morrow and Company|William Morrow]]|isbn=978-0-06-050594-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhwY1j8Ao3kC&pg=PA486|access-date=22 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Kumar|first=A. V.|date=1 May 2010|title=Reforming the NPT to Include India|work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]|url=http://thebulletin.org/reforming-npt-include-india|access-date=1 November 2010}}
* {{citation|last=Miglani|first=S.|date=28 February 2011|title=With An Eye on China, India Steps Up Defence Spending|newspaper=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-budget-military-idUSSGE71R02Y20110228|access-date=6 July 2011|archive-date=2 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110502153348/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/28/india-budget-military-idUSSGE71R02Y20110228|url-status=live}}
* {{citation|last=Nair|first=V. K.|year=2007|title=No More Ambiguity: India's Nuclear Policy|website=afsa.org|url=http://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf|access-date=7 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041401/http://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}
* {{citation|last=Pandit|first=R.|date=27 July 2009|title=N-Submarine to Give India Crucial Third Leg of Nuke Triad|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-27/india/28212143_1_nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arihant-nuclear-submarine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811144548/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-27/india/28212143_1_nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arihant-nuclear-submarine|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 August 2011|access-date=10 March 2010}}
* {{citation|last=Perkovich|first=G.|date=5 November 2001|title=India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDA9dUryS8EC|access-date=22 July 2011}}
* {{citation|date=25 January 2008|title=India, France Agree on Civil Nuclear Cooperation|publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]]|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jan/25france.htm|access-date=22 August 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Rediff 2008 a}}}}
* {{citation|date=13 February 2010|title=UK, India Sign Civil Nuclear Accord|newspaper=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-britain-nuclear-idUSTRE61C21E20100213?type=politicsNews|access-date=22 August 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Reuters|2010}}|archive-date=12 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512181522/http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/13/us-india-britain-nuclear-idUSTRE61C21E20100213?type=politicsNews|url-status=live}}
* {{citation|last=Rothermund|first=D.|date=17 October 2000|title=The Routledge Companion to Decolonization|edition=1st|series=Routledge Companions to History|publisher=[[Routledge]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ez37H0UPt_YC|isbn=978-0-415-35632-9}}
* {{citation|last=Sharma|first=S. R.|date=1 January 1999|title=India–USSR Relations 1947–1971: From Ambivalence to Steadfastness|volume=1|publisher=Discovery|isbn=978-81-7141-486-4<!--8171414869-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTEge1JWK8oC}}
* {{citation|last=Shukla|first=A.|date=5 March 2011|title=China Matches India's Expansion in Military Spending|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/china-matches-india%5Cs-expansion-in-military-spending/427365/|access-date=6 July 2011|newspaper=[[Business Standard]] India}}
* {{citation|last1=Sisodia|first1=N. S.|last2=Naidu|first2=G. V. C.|year=2005|title=Changing Security Dynamic in Eastern Asia: Focus on Japan|publisher=Promilla|isbn=978-81-86019-52-8<!--8186019529-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSgfLG3Ib9wC}}
* {{citation|date=8 August 2008|title=SIPRI Yearbook 2008: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security|work=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-954895-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAyQ9KCJE2gC&pg=PA178|access-date=22 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2008}}}}
* {{citation|date=19 March 2012|title=Rise in international arms transfers is driven by Asian demand, says SIPRI|work=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]|url=http://www.sipri.org/media/pressreleases/2012/rise-in-international-arms-transfers-is-driven-by-asian-demand-says-sipri|access-date=5 April 2016|ref={{sfnRef|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2012}}}}
* {{citation|date=11 October 2008|title=India, US Sign 123 Agreement|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-11/india/27905286_1_indian-nuclear-market-sign-landmark-civil-nuclear-field|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107021602/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-11/india/27905286_1_indian-nuclear-market-sign-landmark-civil-nuclear-field|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 November 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|The Times of India 2008}}}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Economy'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Alamgir|first=J.|date=24 December 2008|title=India's Open-Economy Policy: Globalism, Rivalry, Continuity|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-0-415-77684-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JL7QfWJ5Yk0C|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Bonner|first=B|date=20 March 2010|title=Make Way, World. India Is on the Move|journal=[[Christian Science Monitor]]|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Business/The-Daily-Reckoning/2010/0320/Make-way-world.-India-is-on-the-move|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Farrell|first1=D.|last2=Beinhocker|first2=E.|date=19 May 2007|title=Next Big Spenders: India's Middle Class|publisher=[[McKinsey & Company]]|url=http://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/In_the_news/Next_big_spenders_Indian_middle_class|access-date=17 September 2011|archive-date=5 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205035707/http://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/In_the_news/Next_big_spenders_Indian_middle_class|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Gargan|first=E. A.|date=15 August 1992|title=India Stumbles in Rush to a Free Market Economy|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/15/world/india-stumbles-in-rush-to-a-free-market-economy.html|access-date=22 July 2011}}
* {{citation|date=January 2011|title=The World in 2050: The Accelerating Shift of Global Economic Power: Challenges and Opportunities|first1=John|last1=Hawksworth|first2=Anmol|last2=Tiwari|publisher=[[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]|url=http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/psrc/pdf/world_in_2050_jan2011.pdf|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Nayak|first1=P. B.|last2=Goldar|first2=B.|last3=Agrawal|first3=P.|date=10 November 2010|title=India's Economy and Growth: Essays in Honour of V. K. R. V. Rao|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1Ho2SGXUHwC|isbn=978-81-321-0452-0}}
* {{citation|last1=Pal|first1=P.|last2=Ghosh|first2=J|title=Inequality in India: A Survey of Recent Trends|work=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|Economic and Social Affairs]]: DESA Working Paper No. 45|date=July 2007|publisher=[[United Nations]]|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2007/wp45_2007.pdf|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Schwab|first=K.|year=2010|title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf|access-date=10 May 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Sheth|first=N.|date=28 May 2009|title=Outlook for Outsourcing Spending Brightens|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124344190542659025#articleTabs_comments%3D%26articleTabs%3Darticle|access-date=3 October 2010}}
* {{citation|last=Yep|first=E.|date=27 September 2011|title=ReNew Wind Power Gets $201 Million Goldman Investment|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204422404576595972728958728|access-date=27 September 2011|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}
* {{citation|date=10 April 2010|title=India Second Fastest Growing Auto Market After China|work=[[Business Line]]|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/article988689.ece|access-date=23 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Business Line 2010}}}}
* {{citation|date=8 October 2011|title=India's Economy: Not Just Rubies and Polyester Shirts|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21531527|access-date=9 October 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Economist 2011}}}}
* {{citation|date=13 October 2009|title=Indian Car Exports Surge 36%|work=[[Express India]]|url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/karnatakapoll08/story_page.php?id=528633|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428102326/http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/karnatakapoll08/story_page.php?id=528633|archive-date=28 April 2016|access-date=5 April 2016|url-status=dead|ref={{sfnRef|Express India 2009}}}}
* {{citation |date=October 2007 |title=Economic Survey of India 2007: Policy Brief |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/52/39452196.pdf |access-date=22 July 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606112149/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/52/39452196.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2011 }}
* {{citation|date=April 2011|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=25&pr.y=15&sy=1991&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C558%2C513%2C564%2C566%2C524%2C534%2C578%2C536%2C548&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=|access-date=23 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|International Monetary Fund 2011b}}}}
* {{citation |date=6 April 2011 |title=Information Note to the Press (Press Release No.29 /2011) |publisher=[[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India]] |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/816/Press_release_feb%20-11.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516025431/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/816/Press_release_feb%20-11.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2011 |access-date=23 July 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Telecom Regulatory Authority 2011}} |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation|title=India: Undernourished Children – A Call for Reform and Action|publisher=[[World Bank]]|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20916955~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|access-date=23 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507071806/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20916955~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|archive-date=7 May 2012}}
* {{citation|date=26 March 2010|title=Trade to Expand by 9.5% in 2010 After a Dismal 2009, WTO Reports|publisher=[[World Trade Organization]]|url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres10_e/pr598_e.htm|access-date=23 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|World Trade Organization 2010}}}}
* {{citation|year=2011–2012|title=Indian IT-BPO Industry|publisher=[[NASSCOM]]|url=http://www.nasscom.org/indian-itbpo-industry|access-date=22 June 2012|ref={{sfnRef|Nasscom 2011–2012}}|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509061653/http://nasscom.org/indian-itbpo-industry|archive-date=9 May 2012}}
* {{citation |year=1995 |title=Understanding the WTO: The Organization Members and Observers |publisher=[[WTO]] |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm |access-date=23 June 2012 |ref={{sfnRef|WTO 1995}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229021759/http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm |archive-date=29 December 2009 }}
* {{citation|date=June 2011|title=World Economic Outlook Update|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C548%2C558%2C564%2C566%2C524%2C578%2C534%2C536&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=60&pr.y=17|access-date=22 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|International Monetary Fund 2011a}}}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Demographics'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Chandramouli|first=C.|date=15 July 2011|title=Rural Urban Distribution of Population|publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)]]|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india/Rural_Urban_2011.pdf|access-date=24 January 2015}}
* {{citation|last1=Dev|first1=S. M.|last2=Rao|first2=N. C.|year=2009|title=India: Perspectives on Equitable Development|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-685-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=adhKjRoTjcIC}}
* {{citation|last=Dharwadker|first=A.|editor1-last=Canning|editor1-first=C. M.|editor2-last=Postlewait|editor2-first=T.|date=28 October 2010|title=Representing the Past: Essays in Performance Historiography|chapter=Representing India's Pasts: Time, Culture, and Problems of Performance Historiography|publisher=[[University of Iowa Press]]|isbn=978-1-58729-905-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rgf0gbml2ocC|access-date=24 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Drèze|first1=J.|last2=Goyal|first2=A.|editor-last=Baru|editor-first=R. V.|date=9 February 2009|title=School Health Services in India: The Social and Economic Contexts|chapter=The Future of Mid-Day Meals|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|isbn=978-81-7829-873-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQ39RO9OET4C&pg=PA46|ref={{sfnRef|Drèze|Goyal|2008}}}}
* {{citation|last1=Dyson|first1=T.|last2=Visaria|first2=P.|editor-last=Dyson|editor-first=T.|editor2-last=Casses|editor2-first=R.|editor3-last=Visaria|editor3-first=L.|date=7 July 2005|title=Twenty-First Century India: Population, Economy, Human Development, and the Environment|chapter=Migration and Urbanisation: Retrospect and Prospects|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-928382-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bqU9T5c0wlYC |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/twentyfirstcentu0000unse_v0c4}}
* {{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|year=2018|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|year=2018|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Garg|first=S. C.|date=19 April 2005|title=Mobilizing Urban Infrastructure Finance in India|publisher=[[World Bank]]|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMF/Resources/339747-1105651852282/Garg.pdf|access-date=27 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090824063911/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMF/Resources/339747-1105651852282/Garg.pdf|archive-date=24 August 2009|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Mallikarjun|first=B|date=November 2004|title=Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi – The Official Language of India|journal=Language in India|volume=4|issue=11|issn=1930-2940|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html|access-date=24 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Ottenheimer|first=H. J.|year=2008|title=The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology|publisher=[[Cengage]]|isbn=978-0-495-50884-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4QHsORbZs4C}}
* {{citation|last=Ratna|first=U.|editor-last=Dutt|editor-first=A. K.|editor2-last=Thakur|editor2-first=B|year=2007|title=City, Society, and Planning|chapter=Interface Between Urban and Rural Development in India|volume=1|publisher=Concept|isbn=978-81-8069-459-2|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDmZeW1H37IC}}
* {{citation|last=Rorabacher|first=J. A.|year=2010|title=Hunger and Poverty in South Asia|publisher=Gyan|isbn=978-81-212-1027-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6hriMcSsE4C}}
* {{citation|date=27 April 1960 |title=Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L |publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]] |url=http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=Mzc%3d |access-date=13 May 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Home Affairs 1960}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001005409/http://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=Mzc%3D |archive-date=1 October 2014}}
* {{citation|title=Census Data 2001|work=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner]]|publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]]|date=2010–2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/National_Summary/National_Summary_DataPage.aspx|access-date=22 July 2011}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Art'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Blurton|first=T. Richard|title=Hindu Art|date=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&q=Hindu+Art,+1994,+British+Museum+Press|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5}}
* {{citation|last=Craven|first=Roy C|title=Indian art: a concise history|date=1997|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/indian-art-a-concise-history/oclc/37895110&referer=brief_results|location=New York City|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]|isbn=978-0-500-20302-6|oclc=37895110|author-link=Roy C. Craven}}
* {{citation|last=Harle|first=James C.|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC|year=1994|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5}}
* {{citation|last=Michell|first=George|title=Hindu Art and Architecture|date=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVl2QgAACAAJ|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]|isbn=978-0-500-20337-8}}
* {{citation|last=Rowland|first=Benjamin|title=The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain|date=1970|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6L2fAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Art+and+Architecture+of+India:+Buddhist,+Hindu,+Jain|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]}}
{{refend}}
 
'''Culture'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Binmore|first=K. G.|date=27 March 2007|title=Playing for Real: A Text on Game Theory|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-530057-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eY0YhSk9ujsC&pg=PA98}}
* {{citation|date=1 August 2010|title=Saina Nehwal: India's Badminton Star and "New Woman"|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10725584|access-date=5 October 2010|ref={{sfnRef|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 a}}}}
* {{citation|date=7 October 2010|title=Commonwealth Games 2010: India Dominate Shooting Medals|work=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9068886.stm|access-date=3 June 2011|ref={{sfnRef|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 b}}}}
* {{citation|last=Chopra|first=P.|date=18 March 2011|title=A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay|publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]]|isbn=978-0-8166-7037-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhTiCnh6RqAC&pg=PA46}}
* {{citation|last=Cullen-Dupont|first=K.|date=July 2009|title=Human Trafficking|edition=1st|publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-8160-7545-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2GeSNXy5CoC}}
* {{citation|last=Das|first=S. K.|date=1 January 2005|title=A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular|publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]]|isbn=978-81-260-2171-0}}
* {{citation|last=Datta|first=A.|year=2006|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature|volume=2|publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]]|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0}}
* {{citation|last=Dehejia|first=R. S.|date=7 November 2011|title=Indian Grand Prix Vs. Encephalitis?|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2011/11/07/economics-journal-indian-grand-prix-vs-encephalitis/|access-date=20 December 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Deutsch|first=E.|date=30 April 1969|title=Advaita Vedānta: A Philosophical Reconstruction|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-0271-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C}}
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* {{citation|editor-last=Kuiper|editor-first=K.|year=2010|title=The Culture of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiqloV4JnNUC|access-date=24 July 2011|publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-61530-203-1}}
* {{citation|last=Kumar|first=V.|title=Vastushastra|edition=2nd|series=All You Wanted to Know About Series|date=January 2000|publisher=[[Sterling Publishing]]|isbn=978-81-207-2199-9}}
* {{citation|last=Lal|first=A.|title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 July 2011|year=2004|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
* {{citation|last1=Lang|first1=J.|last2=Moleski|first2=W.|date=1 December 2010|title=Functionalism Revisited|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4094-0701-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOCaSn8-ZboC&pg=PA151}}
* {{citation|last=MacDonell|first=A. A.|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=A History of Sanskrit Literature|year=2004|publisher=[[Kessinger Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4179-0619-2|title-link=s:A History of Sanskrit Literature}}
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* {{citation|last=Makar|first=E. M.|year=2007|title=An American's Guide to Doing Business in India|publisher=Adams|isbn=978-1-59869-211-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujYmdNVIr7QC}}
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* {{citation|last=Medora|first=N.|editor1-last=Hamon|editor1-first=R. R.|editor2-last=Ingoldsby|editor2-first=B. B.|year=2003|title=Mate Selection Across Cultures|chapter=Mate Selection in Contemporary India: Love Marriages Versus Arranged Marriages|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|pages=209–230|isbn=978-0-7619-2592-7}}
* {{cite web|url=http://mruc.net/irs2012q1-topline-findings.pdf |title=Indian Readership Survey 2012 Q1 : Topline Findings |at=Growth: Literacy & Media Consumption |publisher=Media Research Users Council |access-date=12 September 2012 |ref={{sfnRef|Media Research Users Council 2012}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407092737/http://mruc.net/irs2012q1-topline-findings.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014 }}
* {{citation|last=Mehta|first=Nalin|title=Television in India: Satellites, Politics and Cultural Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-BsSzSjnTYC|access-date=12 September 2012|date=30 July 2008|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] US|isbn=978-0-415-44759-1}}
* {{citation|last=Sengupta|first=R.|date=24 September 2010|title=Is Boxing the New Cricket?|publisher=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/1jxksEgRhUYXq0ezp1iixM/Is-boxing-the-new-cricket.html|access-date=5 October 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Mint 2010}}}}
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* {{citation|last=Ramanujan|first=A. K. (translator)|author-link=A. K. Ramanujan|date=15 October 1985|title=Poems of Love and War: From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|place=New York|pages=ix–x|isbn=978-0-231-05107-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIybE0HRvdQC<!--|quote=These poems are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e. works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilisation. Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BC – AD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (''Eţţuttokai''), the Ten Long Poems (''Pattuppāţţu''), and a grammar called the ''Tolkāppiyam'' or the 'Old Composition.'&nbsp;... The literature of classical Tamil later came to be known as ''Cankam'' (pronounced ''Sangam'') literature.-->}}
* {{citation|title=Anand Crowned World Champion|date=29 October 2008|publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]]|url=http://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm|access-date=29 October 2008|ref={{sfnRef|Rediff 2008 b}}}}
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* {{citation|last=Schwartzberg|first=J.|year=2011|title=India: Caste|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46404/Caste|access-date=17 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Silverman|first=S.|date=10 October 2007|title=Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature|publisher=[[Gibbs Smith]]|isbn=978-1-4236-0132-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iwaryJd3fD8C&pg=PA20}}
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* {{citation|last=Zvelebil|first=K. V.|date=1 August 1997|title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=978-90-04-09365-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC}}
{{refend}}
 
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* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ India]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
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Revision as of 00:36, 21 March 2022

This article is about the Republic of India. For other uses, see India (disambiguation).
Republic of India

गणतन्त्र भारत (Hindi) Gaṇatantra Bhārat
Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)
"Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Anthem: "Jana Gana Mana"[2][3]
"Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People"[4][2]
National song
"Vande Mataram" (Sanskrit)
"I Bow to Thee, Mother"[lower-alpha 1][1][2]
CapitalNew Delhi
28°36′50″N 77°12′30″E / 28.61389°N 77.20833°E / 28.61389; 77.20833
Largest cityMumbai
Official languagesHindi
English
Recognised national languagesNone
Recognised regional languagesKannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Marathi, Meitei, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu
Religion
(2011)
Demonym(s)Indian
MembershipUnited Nations, G20, Commonwealth of Nations, G4, BRICS, SAARC, BIM-STEC, SCO
GovernmentFederal parliamentary constitutional republic
• President
Ram Nath Kovind
Venkaiah Naidu
Narendra Modi
Om Birla
N. V. Ramana
LegislatureParliament
Rajya Sabha
Lok Sabha
Formation
• Indus Valley Civilization
3300 BCE
• Aryan city-states
1500 BCE
• Maurya Kingdom
300 BCE
• Mughal Empire
1526
• Maratha Confederation
14 November 1818
• British Raj
2 August 1858
• Independence
15 August 1947
• Current constitution
26 January 1950
Area
• Total
3,601,733[2] km2 (1,390,637 sq mi) (7th)
• Water (%)
9.6
Population
• 2021 estimate
1,352,357,985 (2nd)
• Density
490.99/km2 (1,271.7/sq mi) (198th)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$11.35 trillion (3rd)
• Per capita
$8,080 (126th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$3.25 trillion (6th)
• Per capita
$2,310 (144th)
Gini (2013)41.8[5]
medium
HDI (2020)Increase 0.645[6]
medium · 131st
CurrencyIndian rupee (₹) (INR)
Time zoneUTC+05:30 (IST)
DST is not observed
Date format
Mains electricity230 V–50 Hz
Driving sideleft[7]
Calling code+91
ISO 3166 codeIN
Internet TLD.in (others)

India (Hindi: Bhārat), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is second largest country in population and seventh largest country by land area. It is also the most populous democracy in the world,[8][9] bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It has seven neighbors: Pakistan in north-west, China in north, and Myanmar in east and Sri Lanka in south. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India, is also near Thailand and Indonesia along with Myanmar.[10]

The capital of India is New Delhi. India is a peninsula, bound by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea on the west and Bay of Bengal in the east. The coastline of India is of about 7,517 km (4,671 mi) long.[11] India has the second largest military force in the world and is also a nuclear weapon state.[12]

India's economy became the world's fastest growing in the G20 developing nations during the last quarter of 2014, replacing the People's Republic of China.[13] India's literacy and wealth are also rising.[14] According to New World Wealth, India is the fifth richest country in the world with a total individual wealth of $5.6 trillion.[15][16] However, it still has many social and economic issues like poverty and corruption. India is a founding member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and has signed the Kyoto Protocol.

India has the fourth largest number of spoken languages per country in the world, only behind Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Nigeria.[17] People of many different religions live there, including the five most popular world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity. The first three religions originated from the Indian subcontinent along with Jainism.

National Symbols of India

National emblem of India

The National emblem of India shows four lions standing back-to-back. The lions symbolise power, pride, confidence, and courage (bravery). Only the government can use this emblem, according to the State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005

The name India comes from the Greek word, Indus. This came from the word sindhu, which in time turned into Hind or Hindi or Hindu. The preferred native name or endonym is "Bharat" in Hindi and other Indian languages as contrasted with names from outsiders. Some of the national symbols are:

  • National anthem: Jana Gana Mana
  • National song: Vande Mataram
  • National animal: Tiger
  • National bird: Peacock
  • National flower: Lotus
  • National tree: Banyan
  • National river: Ganges (Ganga)
  • National fruit: Mango
  • National heritage animal: Elephant
  • National heritage bird: Indian eagle

History

The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as a memorial to his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is thought to be of "outstanding universal value".[18]
Main article: History of India

Some of the main classical languages of the world Tamil language was born in today's India. Both of these languages are more than 3000 years old.[19] The country founded a religion called Hinduism, which most Indians still follow. Later, a king named Chandragupt Maurya built an empire called the Maurya Empire in 300 BC. It made most of South Asia into one whole country.[20] From 180 BC, many other countries invaded India. Even later (100 BC  AD 1100), other Indian dynasties (empires) came, including the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas.[21] Southern India at that time was famous for its science, art, and writing. The Cholas of Thanjavur were pioneers at war in the seas and invaded Malaya, Borneo, Cambodia. The influence of Cholas are still well noticeable in SE Asia.[22]

Many dynasties ruled India around the year 1000. Some of these were the Mughal, Vijayanagara, and the Maratha empires. In the 1600s, European countries invaded India, and the British controlled most of India by 1856.[23]

In the early 1900s, millions of people peacefully started to protest against British control. One of the people who led the freedom movement was Mahatma Gandhi, who only used peaceful tactics, including a way called "ahimsa", which means "non-violence".[24] On 15 August 1947, India peacefully became free and independent from the British Empire. India's constitution was founded on 26 January 1950. Every year, on this day, Indians celebrate Republic Day. The first official leader (Prime Minister) of India was Jawaharlal Nehru.

After 1947, India had a socialist planned economy. It is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It has fought many wars since independence from Britain, including the wars in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, and 1999 with Pakistan and in 1962 with China. It also fought a war to capture Goa, a Portuguese-built port and a city that was not a part of India until 1961. The Portuguese refused to give it to the country, and so India had to use force and the Portuguese were defeated. India has also done nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998, and it is one of the few countries that have nuclear bombs.[25] Since 1991, India has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.[26]

Government

Parliament of India.

India is the largest democracy in the world.[27]

India's government is divided into three parts: the Legislative (the one that makes the laws, the Parliament), the Executive (the government), and the Judiciary (the one that makes sure that the laws are obeyed, the supreme court).

The legislative branch is made up of the Parliament of India, which is in New Delhi, the capital of India. The Parliament of India is divided into two houses: the upper house, Rajya Sabha (Council of States); and the lower house, Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha has 250 members,[28] and the Lok Sabha has 552 members.[28]

The executive branch is made up of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers. The President of India is elected for a period of five years. The President can choose the Prime Minister, who has most of the power. The Council of Ministers, such as the Minister of Defence, helps the Prime Minister. Narendra Modi became the Prime Minister of India on May 16, 2014. He is the 19th Prime Minister of India. The president has less power than the prime minister.

The judicial branch is made up of the courts of India, including the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of India is the head of the Supreme Court. Supreme Court members have the power to stop a law being passed by Parliament if they think that the law is illegal and contradicts (opposes) the Constitution of India.[29] In India, there are also 24 High Courts.

Geography and climate

Rivers of India

India is the seventh biggest country in the world. It is the main part of the Indian subcontinent. The countries next to India are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Bhutan, and Nepal. It is also near Sri Lanka, an island country.

India is a peninsula, which means that it is surrounded on three sides by water. One of the seven wonders of the world is in Agra: the Taj Mahal. In the west is the Arabian Sea, in the south is the Indian Ocean, and in the east is the Bay of Bengal. The northern part of India has many mountains. The most famous mountain range in India is the Himalayas, which have some of the tallest mountains in the world. There are many rivers in India. The main rivers are the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, the Kaveri, the Narmada, and the Krishna.

India has different climates.[30] In the South, the climate is mainly tropical, which means it can get very hot in summer and cool in winter.[30] The northern part, though, has a cooler climate, called sub-tropical, and even alpine in mountainous regions.[30] The Himalayas, in the alpine climate region, can get extremely cold. There is very heavy rainfall along the west coast and in the Eastern Himalayan foothills. The west, though, is drier. Because of some of the deserts of India, all of India gets rain for four months of the year. That time is called the monsoon. That is because the deserts attract water-filled winds from the Indian Ocean, which give rain when they come into India. When the monsoon rains come late or not so heavily, droughts (when the land dries out because there is less rain) are possible. Monsoons normally come around July - August.

Defence

Main article: Indian Armed Forces

The Indian Armed Forces is the military of India. It is made up of an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are other parts like Paramilitary and Strategic Nuclear Command.

The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief. However, it is managed by the Ministry of Defence. In 2010, the Indian Armed Forces had 1.32 million active personnel. This makes it one of the largest militaries in the world.[31]

The Indian Army is becoming more modern by buying and making new weapons. It is also building defenses against missiles of other countries.[32] In 2011, India imported more weapons than any other nation in the world.[33]

From its independence in 1947, India fought four wars with Pakistan and a war with China.

Indian states

For administration purposes, India has been divided into smaller pieces. Most of these pieces are called states, some are called union territories. States and union territories are different in the way they are represented. Most union territories are ruled by administrators (called Lieutenant Governors) sent by the central government. All the states, and the territories of Delhi, and Puducherry elect their local government themselves. In total, there are twenty-eight states and nine union territories.[34]

These are the states and territories of India, including 29 states and 7 union territories.

States:

States Capitals Code
Andhra Pradesh Amaravati AP
Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar AR
Assam Dispur AS
Bihar Patna BR
Chhattisgarh Raipur CT
Goa Panaji GA
Gujarat Gandhi nagar GJ
Haryana Chandigarh HR
Himachal Pradesh Shimla HP
Jharkhand Ranchi JH
Karnataka Bangalore KA
Kerala Tiruvanananthapuram KL
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal MP
Maharashtra Mumbai MH
Manipur Imphal MN
Meghalaya Shillong ML
Mizoram Aizawl MZ
Nagaland Kohima NL
Odisha Bhubaneswar OD
Punjab Chandigarh PB
Rajasthan Jaipur RJ
Sikkim Gangtok SK
Tamil Nadu Chennai TN
Telangana Hyderabad TS
Tripura Agartala TR
Uttar Pradesh Lucknow UP
Uttarakhand Dehra Dun UA/UK
West Bengal Kolkata WB

Union territories:

Union territory Capital
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Port Blair
Chandigarh Chandigarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Silvassa
Daman and Diu Daman
Delhi Delhi
Ladakh Leh
Lakshadweep Kavaratti
Puducherry Puducherry
Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar (summer capital) and Jammu (winter capital)

Trouble with the borders

There are disputes about certain parts of the Indian borders. Countries do not agree on where the borders are.[35] Pakistan and China do not recognise the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir.[36] The Indian government claims it as an Indian state.[36] Similarly, the Republic of India does not recognise the Pakistani and Chinese parts of Kashmir.[36]

In 1914, British India and Tibet agreed on the McMahon Line, as part of the Simla Accord.[37] In July 1914, China withdrew from the agreement.[37] Indians and Tibetans see this line as the official border. China does not agree, and both mainland China and Taiwan do not recognize that Arunachal Pradesh belongs to India. According to them, it is a part of South Tibet, which belongs to China.[38][39]

Economy

Main article: Economy of India

The economy of the country is among the world's fastest growing. It is the 7th largest in the world with a nominal GDP of $2,250 billion (USD), and in terms of PPP, the economy is 3rd largest (worth $8.720 trillion USD).[40] The growth rate is 8.25% for fiscal 2010. However, that is still $3678 (considering PPP) per person per year. India's economy is based mainly on:

India's economy is diverse. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles.[41]

However, despite economic growth, India continues to suffer from poverty. 27.5% of the population was living in poverty in 2004–2005.[42] In addition, 80.4% of the population live on less than USD $2 a day,[43] which was lowered to 68% by 2009.[44]

People

This is a map of the population density of India.

There are 1.21 billion people living in India.[45] India is the second largest country by the number of people living in it, with China being the first. Experts think that by the year 2030, India will be the first.[46] About 65% of Indians live in rural areas, or land set aside for farming.[47] The largest cities in India are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad.[34] India has 23 official languages.[48] Altogether, 1,625 languages are spoken in India.[29]

Languages

There are many different languages and cultures in India. The only geographical place with more different languages and cultures is the African continent.[34] There are two main language families in India, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian languages. About 69% of Indians speak an Indo-Arayan language, about 26% speak a Dravidian language. Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic group. Around 5% of the people speak a Tibeto-Burman language.

Hindi is the official language in India with the largest number of speakers.[49] It is the official language of the union.[50] Native speakers of Hindi represent about 41% of the Indian population (2001 Indian census). English is also used, mostly for business and in administration. It has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'.[51] The constitution also recognises 21 other languages. Either many people speak those languages, or they have been recognized to be very important for Indian culture. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.[29]

In the south of India, many people speak Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Malayalam. In the north, many people speak Chhattisgarhi, Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, and Marathi, Odia, and Bihari.[52][53]

India has 27 official languages. Its constitution lists the name of the country in each of the languages.[54] Hindi and English (listed in boldface) are the "official languages of the union" (Union meaning the Federal Government in Delhi);[55] Tamil,Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia are officially the "classical languages of India."

Language Long form English Pronunciation Short form
Assamese ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য Bhārôt Gôṇôrājÿô ভাৰত Bharot
Bengali ভারত গণরাজ্য Bʰārôt Gôṇôrājÿô ভারত Bharot
Bhojpuri भोजपुरी Bʰārôt Gôṇôrājÿô ভারত Bharot
Bodo
Dogri
English[41] Republic of India India
Gujarati ભારતીય પ્રજાસત્તાક Bhartiya Prajasattak ભારત.
Hindi भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya भारत Bhārat
Kannada ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ Bhārata Gaṇarājya ಭಾರತ Bhārata
Kashmiri ہِندوستان Hindustān
Konkani भारोत गोणराज भारोत
Ladakhi ལ་དྭགས་སྐད་ Hindustān
Lepcha ᰛᰩᰵᰛᰧᰵᰶ་ Hindustān
Limbu ᤕᤠᤰᤌᤢᤱ ᤐᤠᤴ་ Hindustān
Magahi ᤕमगही/मगधी Hindustān
Maithili
Malayalam ഭാരതം Bhāratam ഭാരതം Bhāratam
Manipuri (also Meitei or Meithei) ভারত গণরাজ্য ভারত
Marathi भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक Bhartiya Prajasattak भारत Bhārat
Nepali भारत गणराज्य Bʰārat Gaṇarādzya भारत Bʰārat
Odia ଭାରତ Bharata Bharata
Punjabi ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਤੰਤਰ Bhārat Gantantar ਭਾਰਤ Bhārat
Sanskrit भारत गणराज्यम् Bhārata Gaṇarājyam भारत Bhārata
Santhali ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ
Sindhi ڀارت، هندستانڀارت، ڀارت،
Tamil இந்தியக் குடியரசு Indiyak-Kudiyarasu இந்தியா India/Bharadham
Telugu భారత గణరాజ్యము Bʰārata Gaṇa Rājyamu భారత్ Bhārath
Urdu جمہوریہ بھارت Jumhūrīyat-e Bhārat بھارت Bhārat

Culture

Religion in India[56]
Religion Percent
Hinduism
 
 79.80%
Islam
 
 14.23%
Christianity
 
 2.30%
Sikhism
 
 1.72%
Buddhism
 
 0.70%
Jainism
 
 0.37%
Others
 
 0.9%

Cave paintings from the Stone Age are found across India. They show dances and rituals and suggest there was a prehistoric religion. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written from about 500–100 BCE,[57] although these were orally transmitted for centuries before this period.[58] Other South Asian Stone Age sites apart from Pakistan are in modern India, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art showing religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[59]

The Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple of the Sikhs.

Several modern religions are linked to India,[60] namely modern Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. All of these religions have different schools (ways of thinking) and traditions that are related. As a group they are called the Eastern religions. The Indian religions are similar to one another in many ways: The basic beliefs, the way worship is done and several religious practices are very similar. These similarities mainly come from the fact that these religions have a common history and common origins. They also influenced each other.

The religion of Hinduism is the main faith followed by 79.80% of people in the Republic of India; Islam – 14.23%; Christianity – 2.30%; Sikhism – 1.72%; Buddhism – 0.70% and Jainism – 0.37%.[61]

It's the first time ever since independence that the Hindu population percentage fell below 80%.

Technology

India sent a spacecraft to Mars for the first time in 2014. That made it the third country and only Asian country to do so, successfully. India is the only country to be successful in its very first attempt to orbit Mars. It was called the Mars Orbiter Mission.

ISRO launched 104 satellites in a single mission to create a world record. India became the first nation in the world to have launched over a hundred satellites in one mission. That was more than the 2014 Russian record of 37 satellites in a single launch.

Pop culture

India has the largest movie industry in the world. It is based in Bombay which is now known as Mumbai, the industry is also known as Bollywood. It makes 1,000 movies a year, about twice as many as Hollywood.[62]

Sports

Cricketers in a game in front of nearly-full stands.
A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders
Main article: Sports in India

Indians have excelled in Hockey. They have also won eight gold, one silver, and two bronze medals at the Olympic games. However, cricket is the most popular sport in India. The Indian cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20. They shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka and won the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Cricket in India is controlled by the Board of Control for Cricket in India or BCCI. Domestic tournaments are the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the Challenger Series. There is also the Indian cricket league and Indian premier league Twenty20 competitions.

Tennis has become popular due to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. Association football is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala.[63] The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup many times. Chess, which comes from India, is also becoming popular. This is with the increase in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[64] Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played throughout India.

Notes

  1. ↑ "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it."(Constituent Assembly of India 1950).
  2. ↑ See Date and time notation in India.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 National Informatics Centre 2005.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "National Symbols | National Portal of India". India.gov.in. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017. The National Anthem of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950.
  3. ↑ "National anthem of India: a brief on 'Jana Gana Mana'". News18. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2019.
  4. ↑ Wolpert 2003, p. 1.
  5. ↑ "Income Gini coefficient". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
  6. ↑ "Human Development Report 2020" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. December 15, 2020. Retrieved December 15, 2020.
  7. ↑ "List of all left- & right-driving countries around the world". worldstandards.eu. 13 May 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  8. ↑ "India" (PDF). HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  9. ↑ Basu, Moni. "The world's largest democratic event: India begins voting". CNN. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  10. ↑ "Andaman and Nicobar Islands · India". Andaman and Nicobar Islands · India. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  11. ↑ Kumar, V. Sanil; Pathak, K. C.; Pednekar, P.; Raju, N. S. N. (2006). "Coastal processes along the Indian coastline" (PDF). Current Science. 91 (4): 530–536.
  12. ↑ "India Nuclear Forces". Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
  13. ↑ "India clocks 7.5% growth in January-March quarter, becomes world's fastest growing economy". DNA India. 29 May 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  14. ↑ Singh, Gyanant (16 January 2013). "Rising economic wealth and literacy behind increase of court cases, claims report". India Today. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  15. ↑ "India on 10 wealthiest country list, takes 5th spot". The Times of India. 23 August 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  16. ↑ "India's large population helps push it to 5th position in wealthiest nations list". The Economic Times. 23 August 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  17. ↑ "Which countries have the most languages?". Ethnologue. 8 February 2013.
  18. ↑ "Taj Mahal". World Heritage List. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 28 September 2007. The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value.
  19. ↑ "Dravidian language family is 4,500 years old: study". The Hindu. PTI. 2018-03-21. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2019-04-25.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  20. ↑ Jona Lendering. "Maurya dynasty". Archived from the original on 2012-02-08. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  21. ↑ "South India". Suni System Ltd. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-19.
  22. ↑ "What were the main achievements of Raja Raja Chola and Rajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty in south India | eNotes". eNotes. Archived from the original on 2016-11-06. Retrieved 2017-08-26.
  23. ↑ "From Trade to Colonization - Historic Dynamics of the East India Companies". 3 June 2007. paragraph 18. Archived from the original on 2012-12-05. Retrieved 2007-06-19.
  24. ↑ Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersly Limited. 1997. p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4.
  25. ↑ "India Profile". NTI. 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  26. ↑ Montek S. Ahluwalia (2002). "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?". Journal of Economic Perspectives. Archived from the original (MS Word) on 2010-03-04. Retrieved 2007-06-13.
  27. ↑ "Country profile: India". BBC. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Our Parliament A brief description of the Indian Parliament". parliamentofindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Matthew, K.M. (2006). Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama. ISBN 81-89004-07-7.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 1997. p. 333. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4.
  31. ↑ IISS 2010, pp. 358
  32. ↑ India's army seeks military space program San Francisco Chronicle.
  33. ↑ "Solar Power an Alternative Energy for Farming". 24 May 2017.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Country Profile: India" (PDF). Library of Congress - Federal Research Division. December 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  35. ↑ "Fantasy frontiers". The Economist Newspaper Limited. 8 February 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 "India - Pakistan Border Dispute". Maps of India. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet (Simla Accord)". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 8 October 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
  38. ↑ "China revives claims on Indian territory". Islamic Republic News Agency. Retrieved 2007-08-26.
  39. ↑ "IPCS - Institute Of Peace & Conflict Studies". ipcs.org.
  40. ↑ "List of Countries by Projected GDP". Statistics Times. 21 Oct 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "CIA Factbook: India". CIA. Archived from the original on 2008-06-11. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  42. ↑ "Poverty estimates for 2004-05" (PDF). Planning Commission,Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-14. Retrieved 2009-08-12.
  43. ↑ "Human Development Report 2007/2008 - Population living below $2 a day (%)". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2009-08-12.
  44. ↑ Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. FIELD LISTING: POPULATION BELOW POVERTY LINE Archived 2016-12-21 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ↑ "Most populated countries". Compare Infobase Limited. Retrieved 2009-08-11.
  46. ↑ Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersly Limited. 1997. p. 332. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4.
  47. ↑ "Census of India 2001". Census of India. Archived from the original on April 9, 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
  48. ↑ "Languages of India". India image. Archived from the original on November 7, 2006. Retrieved August 14, 2005.
  49. ↑ "Languages by number of speakers according to 1991 census". Central Institute of Indian Languages. Archived from the original on April 29, 2008. Retrieved August 2, 2007.
  50. ↑ Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India, Language in India, Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940.
  51. ↑ "Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L. (Ministry of Home Affairs), dated 27 April, 1960". Archived from the original on October 6, 2007. Retrieved July 4, 2007.
  52. ↑ Prabodh Bechardas Pandit, "Language in a Plural Society", Dev Raj Chanana Memorial Committee, 1977.
  53. ↑ Robert McHenry, "The New Encyclopaedia Britannica", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1993.
  54. ↑ "Eighth Schedule". National Informatics Centre (NIC). 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  55. ↑ "The Union: Official Language". National Informatics Centre (NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  56. ↑ "Census of India : Religious Composition". censusindia.gov.in.
  57. ↑ Goldman 2007, p. 23.
  58. ↑ Rinehart 2004, p. 28.
  59. ↑ "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
  60. ↑ Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2007
  61. ↑ "Census of India 2001, Data on Religion". Census of India. Archived from the original on August 12, 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
  62. ↑ "Bollywood at 100: How Big is India's Mammoth Film Industry". International Business Times. 3 May 2013.
  63. ↑ Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, pp. 1–5
  64. ↑ "Anand crowned World champion". Rediff. 2008-10-29. Retrieved 2008-10-29.

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