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{{Short description|Sino-Tibetan language spoken in India}}
{{Distinguish|Amailon}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Aimol
| name             = Aimol
|altname=
| altname         =  
|nativename=
| nativename       =  
|states= [[India]]
| states           = [[India]]
|region=[[Manipur]], [[Assam]]
| region           = [[Manipur]], [[Assam]]
|ethnicity=[[Aimol people|Aimol]], Langrong
| ethnicity       = [[Aimol people|Aimol]]
|speakers={{sigfig|6000|2}}
| speakers         = 3000
|date=2001 census
| date             = 2011 census
|ref=e18
| ref             = e18
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
| familycolor     = Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=([[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
| fam2             = [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]
|fam3=[[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin]]
| fam3             = [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]
|fam4=[[Northwestern Kuki-Chin languages|Northwestern]]<ref name="DeLancey2015">DeLancey, Scott; Krishna Boro; Linda Konnerth1; Amos Teo. 2015. ''Tibeto-Burman Languages of the Indo-Myanmar borderland''. 31st South Asian Languages Analysis Roundtable, 14 May 2015</ref>
| fam4            = [[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin]]
|iso3=aim
| fam5            = [[Northwestern Kuki-Chin languages|Northwestern]]
|glotto=aimo1244
| iso3             = aim
|glottorefname=Aimol
| glotto           = aimo1244
|dia1=Aimol
| glottorefname   = Aimol
| script = [[Latin script|Latin]]
| dia1             = Sutpong
| dia2            = Khutai
| dia3            = Langrong
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]], [[Meitei script|Meitei]] (to lesser extent)
}}
}}
 
'''Aimol''', also known as '''Aimual''', is a [[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin]] language, belonging to the [[Northwestern Kuki-Chin languages|Northwestern]] or "Old Kuki" subfamily,<ref>
'''Aimol''' (Aimual) is a [[Tibeto-Burman language]] spoken by the [[Aimol people|Aimol]] people of [[Manipur]], [[India]]. It is considered endangered and has less than 6,000 speakers worldwide.<ref name=ELP >Endangered Languages Project - http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3700</ref>
{{citation |first=Graham |last=Thurgood |chapter=Sino-Tibetan: Genetic and Areal Subgroups |title=The Sino-Tibetan Languages |editor1=Graham Thurgood |editor2=Randy J. LaPolla |edition=2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2016 |isbn=9781315399492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |page=22}}
</ref>
spoken by the [[Aimol people|Aimol]] people of [[Manipur]], [[India]]. It is considered endangered and has less than 3,000 speakers worldwide as per 2011 census.<ref name=ELP >Endangered Languages Project - http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3700</ref> most speakers also use [[Meitei language]] as their [[second language]] (L2) according to the [[Ethnologue]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meitei {{!}} Ethnologue |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mni/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=[[Ethnologue]] |language=en}}</ref>


==Geographical distribution==
==Geographical distribution==
Aimol is spoken primarily in the Tengnoupal district, Chandel district, Kangpokpi district, and Churachandpur districts of [[Manipur]].<ref name=Haokip>Haokip, P. (2011). The languages of manipur: A case study of the Kuki-Chin languages. Linguistics Of The Tibeto-Burman Area, 34(1), 85-118.</ref> Aimol is spoken in the following villages of [[Manipur]] state (''[[Ethnologue]]''). There are also small numbers of speakers in [[Assam]].
Aimol is spoken primarily in the Tengnoupal district, Chandel district, Kangpokpi district, and Churachandpur districts of [[Manipur]].<ref name=Haokip>Haokip, P. (2011). The languages of manipur: A case study of the Kuki-Chin languages. Linguistics Of The Tibeto-Burman Area, 34(1), 85-118.</ref> Aimol is spoken in the following villages of [[Manipur]] state (''[[Ethnologue]]''). There are also small numbers of speakers in [[Assam]], [[Mizoram]], [[Tripura]], [[Nagaland]].


*[[Tengnoupal district]]:Aimol Khullen, Satu, Kumbirei, Chingunghut, Aimol Tampak, Khodamphai, Ngairong Aimol, Chandonpokpi, Sibong (Khudengthabi), and Khomayai (Khunjai)
*[[Tengnoupal district]]: Aimol Khullen, Satu, Kumbirei, Chingnunghut, Aimol Tampak, Khodamphai, Aimol Ngairong, Chandonpokpi, Sibong (Khudengthabi), and Khomayai (Khunjai)
*[[Chandel district]] : Unapal  
*[[Chandel district]]: Unapal  
*[[Kangpokpi district]]: Tuikhang, Kharam aimol
*[[Kangpokpi district]]: Tuikhang, Kharam Aimol
*[[Churachandpur district]]: Luichungbum (Louchulbung), kha-aimol
*[[Churachandpur district]]: Luichungbum (Louchulbung), Kha-Aimol


==Name==
==Name==
The name of the language comes from the Aimol tribe of people who speak it. The word Aimol itself may come from the words ''Ai'' meaning "wild turmeric" which would be found in the hill ''Mol''.<ref name=Suantak>Suantak, K. (2011). Socio-Linguistic Paradigm of the Aimol. Language In India, 11(6), 36-49.</ref>
The name of the language comes from the Aimol tribe of people who speak it. The word Aimol itself may come from the words ''Ai'' meaning "wild" and ''Mol'' meaning "hill".<ref name=Suantak>Suantak, K. (2011). Socio-Linguistic Paradigm of the Aimol. Language In India, 11(6), 36-49.</ref>


== Genealogical affiliation ==
== Genealogical affiliation ==
Aimol is an [[Kukish languages|Old Kuki]] language.  The language displays similar characteristics as other Old Kuki including Kom, Koireng, Kharam, Purum, Chiru, Chothe, Tarao, etc.  However, most of the Old Kuki languages are not mutually intelligible with Aimol.<ref name=Suantak /> Additionally, Aimol is reportedly less influenced by Meitei, the lingua franca of the state of Manipur, as compared to the other neighboring languages.<ref name=Ruhemann>Ruhemann, B. (1948). The Relationship Terms of Some Hill Tribes of Burma and Assam. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 4, 155-198.</ref>
Aimol is an [[Kukish languages|Old Kuki]] language.  The language displays similar characteristics as other Old Kuki including [[Hmar language|Hmar]], [[Kom language (India)|Kom]], [[Koireng language|Koireng]], [[Kharam language|Kharam]], [[Purum language|Purum]], [[Chiru language|Chiru]], [[Chothe language|Chothe]], [[Tarao language|Tarao]], etc.  However, most of the Old Kuki languages are not mutually intelligible with Aimol.<ref name=Suantak /> Additionally, Aimol is reportedly less influenced by Meitei, the lingua franca of the state of Manipur, as compared to the other neighboring languages.<ref name=Ruhemann>Ruhemann, B. (1948). The Relationship Terms of Some Hill Tribes of Burma and Assam. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 4, 155-198.</ref> Aimol is mutually intelligible with Kom. Speakers of the respective languages can understand each other when speaking in their own language.  In terms of numeric structures, the two languages demonstrate extreme grammatical and structural similarities.<ref name=Haokip /><ref name=Suantak /> In the [[Linguistic Survey of India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]] reported that all the Old Kuki languages, including Aimol, are all merely dialects of the same language.  He also reported that these Old Kuki languages are closely related to the [[Kukish languages|Central Kuki]] languages.<ref name=Haokip /><ref name=LSI>Grierson, G. A. (1903). Linguistic Survey of India, 3. (reprint: 2005. Delhi: Low Price Publications).</ref>
Aimol is mutually intelligible with Kom. Speakers of the respective languages can understand each other when speaking in their own language.  In terms of numeric structures, the two languages demonstrate extreme grammatical and structural similarities.<ref name=Haokip /><ref name=Suantak />
 
In the [[Linguistic Survey of India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]] reported that all the Old Kuki languages, including Aimol, are all merely dialects of the same language.  He also reported that these Old Kuki languages are closely related to the [[Kukish languages|Central Kuki]] languages.<ref name=Haokip /><ref name=LSI>Grierson, G. A. (1903). Linguistic Survey of India, 3. (reprint: 2005. Delhi: Low Price Publications).</ref>
== Status ==
The Aimol people are predominantly [[Christians|Christian]] and this community has helped with preserving the language.  The [[New Testament]] has been translated, and there are significant audio samples of the language in the form of Bible studies and [[Gospel music|Gospel Songs]].<ref name="GRN">Global Recordings Network Aimol - http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/3822</ref> Aside from this there are several books as well as radio programs in Aimol.<ref name=":0" />
 
[[Meitei language|Meitei]] is the official language of Manipur and the lingua franca amongst the various tribes in the region.  Most Aimol speakers are completely fluent in Meitei with many also speaking [[Hindi]] and [[English language|English]] for the same reasons. Meitei is the language of education with Aimo not being used in school and instead being used in the home.<ref name="Suantak" /><ref name="Haokip" /> The strong influence of the lingua franca is a considerable threat to the continued existence of Aimol and its survival in future generations.  However, there have been efforts to preserve the Aimol culture, including the language.<ref name="TOI">Manipur tribe turns to music to preserve culture - The Times of India. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Manipur-tribe-turns-to-music-to-preserve-culture/articleshow/24060212.cms/</ref><ref name=":0" />


==Dialects==
The Aimol people themselves have a large amount of pride in their language and have taken effort to preserve it and encourage its usage.<ref name=":0" />
The Langrong variety is distinct enough that some consider it a separate language. There are two dialects of Aimol proper, Sutpong and Khurai, which can perhaps be attributed to differing migration patterns.  There are small differences between the two but they are completely mutually intelligible.


Most occurrences of Aimol writing are of Sutpong.  This version makes use of glottal stops in word endings preceding by vowel sounds.  Speakers of this dialect tend to take pride in speaking this dialect over Khurai.
== Phonology ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowels<ref>{{Cite book |last=Okhup Aimol |first=Khochung |title=Aimol Dictionary (Aimual Chongbrianbuk) Amiol-English dictionary |isbn=978-93-5208-138-7 |pages=167 |language=en}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" |[[Near-back vowel|Near-back]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!Short
!Long
!Short
!Short
!Long
!Long
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]
|[[Close front unrounded vowel|iː]]
|
|
|
|
|-
![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
|[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]
|
|
|[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]
|[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ:]]
|
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|
|[[Mid central vowel|ə]]
|
|
|
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-Mid]]
|
|[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛː]]
|
|
|
|[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|ɔ:]]
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|[[Open front unrounded vowel|aː]]
|
|
|
|[[Open back rounded vowel|ɒ]]
|}


Khurai usually does not use the glottal stops as is present in Sutpong.  There is also less use of initial nasalized sounds in Khurai. There may be negative interpretations of the word ''Khurai'' which lead to the negativity with the dialect.<ref name=Haokip /> Additionally, the Khurai dialect is understood to borrow more words from Meitei and other neighboring languages, though it is indisputable that both dialects take from and are influenced by other languages.
=== Phonotactics ===
Aimol has a relatively high consonant to vowel ratio of 4.5-1 and /CCVC/ [[Syllable structure|syllable]] structure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SPPEL - Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages |url=https://www.sppel.org/aimolG.aspx |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=www.sppel.org}}</ref>


== Writing system ==
== Morphology and Syntax ==
There are very few written records of the Aimol language.  Much of what has been recorded were samples from Grierson.  Younger generations use Latin script, while older generations use "Manipuri written in Bengali script."<ref name=Haokip />
Additionally, a version of the [[Bible]] has been recently completed, but not yet released.<ref name=Bible>Welcome to Bible Society of India Aimol New Testament http://www.bsind.org/aimol.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403055255/http://www.bsind.org/aimol.html |date=2013-04-03 }}</ref> This should greatly benefit the translation and preservation process.


===Syntax===
=== Syntax ===
Aimol follows the traditional subject-object-verb word order, like the other [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], and uses postposition instead of preposition.  Tone is an important feature of the language, as the certain pitch used can indicate multiple different words.
Aimol follows the traditional subject-object-verb word order, like the other [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], and uses postposition instead of preposition.  Tone is an important feature of the language, as the certain pitch used can indicate multiple different words.
=== Pronouns ===
Aimol uses both suffixes and prefixes as pronouns, but the suffixes are only used in negative sentences.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Prefix pronouns in Aimol<ref name=":0" />
!
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!1st person
|kə-
|kən-
|-
!2nd person
|nə-
|nən-
|-
!3rd person
|ə-
|ən-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Suffix Pronouns in Aimol<ref name=":0" />
!
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!1st person
| -kiŋ
| -siŋ
|-
!2nd person
| -ce
| -ceu
|-
!3rd person
| -k
| -u
|}
=== Gender ===
Aimol does not have [[grammatical gender]] but it lexically differentiates 3 genders: Male, Female, and Neuter. All words have Male and Female versions with the male version having the [[suffix]] /-pa/ and the female version having the suffiv /-nu/; in words with a neuter version the neuter version has neither suffix.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Language In India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow |date=September 2017 |volume=17:9 |pages=2–12 |language=en |issn=1930-2940}}</ref>
Proper Names in Aimol that end in the suffixes:-pa, -tʰəŋ, -kʰup, -boi, -ŋir, -reŋ, -lal, soŋ, and -pu are considered to be male while those that end in:-nəi, -kim, -hui, -pi, -nu, and -kip are considered female. The suffix /-pu/ is an honorific suffix for men while /-pi/  is an honorific suffix for woman.<ref name=":0" />
For animals the suffix  /-kʰoŋ/ is male for birds and /-cəl/ is male for animals, insects, and plants while the suffix /-pui/ is female. For plants the male marker is used for barren plants while the female marker is used for ripe ones.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Gendered Suffixes in Aimol<ref name=":0" />
!Male
!Translation
!Female
!Translation
!Neuter
!Translation
|-
|suəkpa
|Male slave
|suəknu
|Female slave
|suək
|Slave
|-
|pəsəlnai
|boy
|numəinai
|girl
|N/a
|N/a
|-
|sehrat-cəl
|bull
|sehrat-pui
|cowl
|
|
|-
|watʰəpi-cəl
|Male Papaya
|watʰəpi-pui
|Female Papaya
|
|
|}
=== Plural ===
The suffix /-ŋai/ is used to pluralize nouns; it can be added to proper nouns to imply plurality, or added to [[Demonstrative|demonstrative pronouns]] to create plurality. The suffix /-ni/ is used after pronouns to pluralize them.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Pluralization of nouns in Aimol<ref name=":0" />
!Singular
!Translation
!Plural
!Translation
|-
|naipəŋ
|Child
|naipəŋ-ŋai
|Children
|-
|coŋnu
|Chongu
|coŋnu-ŋai
|Chongu and her group
|-
|kəi
|I
|kəi-ni
|We
|-
|hiwǝhi
|This
|hiwa-ŋai-hi
|These
|}
Plurality can also be conveyed via deduplication with /tu-/ meaning "who is" and /tutu-/ meaning "who are" and /i-/ being able to be reduplicated to go from meaning "what thing" to meaning "what things".<ref name=":0" />
The final method of forming the plural is to use various words that convey plurality; these words include:/ətəm/ “many/much”, /əbo/ “pair”, /əbuk/ “pile”, /əreŋŋa/ “all”, /ərup/ “crowd”, /alo/ “bundle”, /awer/ “some”.<ref name=":0" />
There are very few written records of the Aimol language.  Much of what has been recorded were samples from Grierson.  Younger generations use Latin script, while older generations use "Manipuri written in Bengali script."<ref name="Haokip" /> Additionally, a version of the [[Bible]] has been recently completed and released.<ref name="Bible">Welcome to Bible Society of India Aimol New Testament http://www.bsind.org/aimol.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403055255/http://www.bsind.org/aimol.html|date=2013-04-03}}</ref> This should greatly benefit the translation and preservation process.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
Cardinal numbers in Aimol are formed by using simple addition and/or multiplication compounds.  The numbers between 11-19 are formed by taking the word for ten ''som'' and the respective number between 1–9, and using the connective word ''ləj''.  For example, the word for fifteen is ''som-ləj-raŋa'', which is formed by the words for ten-connective-five.  The decade, century, and thousand numbers are formed by using a multiplication compound.  To illustrate this principle further, the word for three hundred is {{transl|aim|rethum}}, which is formed by the root ''re-'',  and the word for three ''ənthum'' (the prefix ''ən-'' is dropped).  Finally, for the numbers not divisible by 10, the two principles are combined.  The word for 22 is ''somniləjthum'', which translate to ten-two-connective-two.  In this instance, ''ten'' and ''two'' are multiplied to equal twenty which is connected to two.
Cardinal numbers in Aimol are formed by using simple addition and/or multiplication compounds.  The numbers between 11-19 are formed by taking the word for ten ''som'' and the respective number between 1–9, and using the connective word ''ləj''.  For example, the word for fifteen is ''som-ləj-raŋa'', which is formed by the words for ten-connective-five.  The decade, century, and thousand numbers are formed by using a multiplication compound.  To illustrate this principle further, the word for three hundred is {{Transliteration|aim|rethum}}, which is formed by the root ''re-'',  and the word for three ''ənthum'' (the prefix ''ən-'' is dropped).  Finally, for the numbers not divisible by 10, the two principles are combined.  The word for 22 is ''somniləjthum'', which translate to ten-two-connective-two.  In this instance, ''ten'' and ''two'' are multiplied to equal twenty which is connected to two.


====Ordinal Numerals====
====Ordinal Numerals====
Line 64: Line 245:
To express fractions, the prefix ''sem-'' is added to the denominator number, followed by the connective ''-ə-'', and then the word for the numerator.  To express the fraction two-fifths, the word in Aimol is ''sem-rəŋə-ə-ənni''.
To express fractions, the prefix ''sem-'' is added to the denominator number, followed by the connective ''-ə-'', and then the word for the numerator.  To express the fraction two-fifths, the word in Aimol is ''sem-rəŋə-ə-ənni''.


==Linguistic climate==
==Dialects==
The Langrong variety is distinct enough that some consider it a separate language. There are two dialects of Aimol proper, Sutpong and Khurai, which can perhaps be attributed to differing migration patterns, there are small differences between the two but they are completely mutually intelligible.


===Manipur===
Most occurrences of Aimol writing are in Sutpong.  This version makes use of glottal stops in word endings preceding by vowel sounds.  Speakers of this dialect tend to take pride in speaking this dialect over Khurai.
The linguistic situation of the state of Manipur is complex and confusing, making it difficult for proper classification and documentation of the dozens of endangered languages in the region.  Languages and dialects are classified according to status as a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|scheduled tribe]].<ref name=Haokip /> Mutually intelligible dialects of the same language can be classified as distinct languages, and mutually unintelligible languages can be classified as dialects of the same language.
Additionally, there is difficulty attributed to shifting ethnic loyalties in the region.  Peoples with distinct relation to the Old Kuki groups, including the Aimol, have declared themselves as Nagas or as completely separate distinct peoples.  This makes it difficult as the Kukish and Naga set of languages have little linguistic similarities and are mutually unintelligible.


===Meitei===
Khurai usually does not use the glottal stops as is present in Sutpong.  There is also less use of initial nasalized sounds in Khurai.  There may be negative interpretations of the word ''Khurai'' which lead to the negativity with the dialect.<ref name=Haokip />  Additionally, the Khurai dialect is understood to borrow more words from Meitei and other neighboring languages, though it is indisputable that both dialects take from and are influenced by other languages.
[[Meitei language|Meitei]] is the official language of Manipur and the lingua franca amongst the various tribes in the region.  Most Aimol speakers are completely fluent in Meitei.  Also, it is the language that is taught in school, thus Aimol has to be taught as a second language in the home.<ref name=Suantak />  The strong influence of the lingua franca is a considerable threat to the continued existence of Aimol and its survival in future generations.  However, there have been efforts to preserve the Aimol culture, including the language.<ref name=TOI >Manipur tribe turns to music to preserve culture - The Times of India. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Manipur-tribe-turns-to-music-to-preserve-culture/articleshow/24060212.cms/</ref>  Additionally, Aimol sees a significant use in the personal domain.


===Religion===
== Sample Text ==
The Aimol people are predominantly [[Christians|Christian]] and this community has helped with preserving the language.  The [[New Testament]] has been translated, and there are significant audio samples of the language in the form of Bible studies.<ref name=GRN>Global Recordings Network Aimol - http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/3822</ref> While primarily done to spread and maintain the religion, recordings like these are vital to the continued existence of the language.
{| class="wikitable"
|+1st Thessalonians 1-2
!Aimol<ref>{{Cite book |title=New testament Aimol Language |publisher=[[Bible Society of India]] |year=2016 |pages=429}}</ref>
!English<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: 1 Thessalonians 1 - New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Thessalonians%201&version=NIV |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|Paul, Silas hale Timothi ning Thessalonika biakrup mingai chunga pa pathian le Jisu Khrista jiang a om mi lungsiat thei nale lunghip na ha nan chunga na pek rase.
Keinin nangni ranga phat rakip a Pathian jiang lam na kan nei hale Pathian ha kan manpak.
|Paul, Silas[a] and Timothy,To the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace and peace to you.
We always thank God for all of you and continually mention you in our prayers.
|}


==See also==
==See also==
Line 104: Line 292:
{{Languages of Northeast India}}
{{Languages of Northeast India}}


[[Category:Kukish languages]]
{{Authority control}}
 
[[Category:Endangered languages of India]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of India]]
[[Category:Endangered Sino-Tibetan languages]]
[[Category:Endangered Sino-Tibetan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Manipur]]
[[Category:Languages of Manipur]]
[[Category:Languages of Assam]]
[[Category:Kuki-Chin languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]

Latest revision as of 02:25, 12 February 2026


Not to be confused with Amailon.
Aimol
Native toIndia
RegionManipur, Assam
EthnicityAimol
Native speakers
3000 (2011 census)[1]
Dialects
  • Sutpong
  • Khutai
  • Langrong
Latin, Meitei (to lesser extent)
Language codes
ISO 639-3aim
Glottologaimo1244

Aimol, also known as Aimual, is a Kuki-Chin language, belonging to the Northwestern or "Old Kuki" subfamily,[2] spoken by the Aimol people of Manipur, India. It is considered endangered and has less than 3,000 speakers worldwide as per 2011 census.[3] most speakers also use Meitei language as their second language (L2) according to the Ethnologue.[4]

Geographical distribution[edit | edit source]

Aimol is spoken primarily in the Tengnoupal district, Chandel district, Kangpokpi district, and Churachandpur districts of Manipur.[5] Aimol is spoken in the following villages of Manipur state (Ethnologue). There are also small numbers of speakers in Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland.

Name[edit | edit source]

The name of the language comes from the Aimol tribe of people who speak it. The word Aimol itself may come from the words Ai meaning "wild" and Mol meaning "hill".[6]

Genealogical affiliation[edit | edit source]

Aimol is an Old Kuki language. The language displays similar characteristics as other Old Kuki including Hmar, Kom, Koireng, Kharam, Purum, Chiru, Chothe, Tarao, etc. However, most of the Old Kuki languages are not mutually intelligible with Aimol.[6] Additionally, Aimol is reportedly less influenced by Meitei, the lingua franca of the state of Manipur, as compared to the other neighboring languages.[7] Aimol is mutually intelligible with Kom. Speakers of the respective languages can understand each other when speaking in their own language. In terms of numeric structures, the two languages demonstrate extreme grammatical and structural similarities.[5][6] In the Linguistic Survey of India, Grierson reported that all the Old Kuki languages, including Aimol, are all merely dialects of the same language. He also reported that these Old Kuki languages are closely related to the Central Kuki languages.[5][8]

Status[edit | edit source]

The Aimol people are predominantly Christian and this community has helped with preserving the language. The New Testament has been translated, and there are significant audio samples of the language in the form of Bible studies and Gospel Songs.[9] Aside from this there are several books as well as radio programs in Aimol.[10]

Meitei is the official language of Manipur and the lingua franca amongst the various tribes in the region. Most Aimol speakers are completely fluent in Meitei with many also speaking Hindi and English for the same reasons. Meitei is the language of education with Aimo not being used in school and instead being used in the home.[6][5] The strong influence of the lingua franca is a considerable threat to the continued existence of Aimol and its survival in future generations. However, there have been efforts to preserve the Aimol culture, including the language.[11][10]

The Aimol people themselves have a large amount of pride in their language and have taken effort to preserve it and encourage its usage.[10]

Phonology[edit | edit source]

Vowels[12]
Front Central Near-back Back
Short Long Short Short Long Long
Close i iː
Near-close e ʊ ʊ:
Mid ə
Open-Mid ɛː ɔ:
Open aː ɒ

Phonotactics[edit | edit source]

Aimol has a relatively high consonant to vowel ratio of 4.5-1 and /CCVC/ syllable structure.[13]

Morphology and Syntax[edit | edit source]

Syntax[edit | edit source]

Aimol follows the traditional subject-object-verb word order, like the other Tibeto-Burman languages, and uses postposition instead of preposition. Tone is an important feature of the language, as the certain pitch used can indicate multiple different words.

Pronouns[edit | edit source]

Aimol uses both suffixes and prefixes as pronouns, but the suffixes are only used in negative sentences.[10]

Prefix pronouns in Aimol[10]
Singular Plural
1st person kə- kən-
2nd person nə- nən-
3rd person ə- ən-
Suffix Pronouns in Aimol[10]
Singular Plural
1st person -kiŋ -siŋ
2nd person -ce -ceu
3rd person -k -u

Gender[edit | edit source]

Aimol does not have grammatical gender but it lexically differentiates 3 genders: Male, Female, and Neuter. All words have Male and Female versions with the male version having the suffix /-pa/ and the female version having the suffiv /-nu/; in words with a neuter version the neuter version has neither suffix.[10]

Proper Names in Aimol that end in the suffixes:-pa, -tʰəŋ, -kʰup, -boi, -ŋir, -reŋ, -lal, soŋ, and -pu are considered to be male while those that end in:-nəi, -kim, -hui, -pi, -nu, and -kip are considered female. The suffix /-pu/ is an honorific suffix for men while /-pi/ is an honorific suffix for woman.[10]

For animals the suffix /-kʰoŋ/ is male for birds and /-cəl/ is male for animals, insects, and plants while the suffix /-pui/ is female. For plants the male marker is used for barren plants while the female marker is used for ripe ones.[10]

Gendered Suffixes in Aimol[10]
Male Translation Female Translation Neuter Translation
suəkpa Male slave suəknu Female slave suək Slave
pəsəlnai boy numəinai girl N/a N/a
sehrat-cəl bull sehrat-pui cowl
watʰəpi-cəl Male Papaya watʰəpi-pui Female Papaya

Plural[edit | edit source]

The suffix /-ŋai/ is used to pluralize nouns; it can be added to proper nouns to imply plurality, or added to demonstrative pronouns to create plurality. The suffix /-ni/ is used after pronouns to pluralize them.[10]

Pluralization of nouns in Aimol[10]
Singular Translation Plural Translation
naipəŋ Child naipəŋ-ŋai Children
coŋnu Chongu coŋnu-ŋai Chongu and her group
kəi I kəi-ni We
hiwǝhi This hiwa-ŋai-hi These

Plurality can also be conveyed via deduplication with /tu-/ meaning "who is" and /tutu-/ meaning "who are" and /i-/ being able to be reduplicated to go from meaning "what thing" to meaning "what things".[10]

The final method of forming the plural is to use various words that convey plurality; these words include:/ətəm/ “many/much”, /əbo/ “pair”, /əbuk/ “pile”, /əreŋŋa/ “all”, /ərup/ “crowd”, /alo/ “bundle”, /awer/ “some”.[10]

There are very few written records of the Aimol language. Much of what has been recorded were samples from Grierson. Younger generations use Latin script, while older generations use "Manipuri written in Bengali script."[5] Additionally, a version of the Bible has been recently completed and released.[14] This should greatly benefit the translation and preservation process.

Numerals[edit | edit source]

Cardinal numbers in Aimol are formed by using simple addition and/or multiplication compounds. The numbers between 11-19 are formed by taking the word for ten som and the respective number between 1–9, and using the connective word ləj. For example, the word for fifteen is som-ləj-raŋa, which is formed by the words for ten-connective-five. The decade, century, and thousand numbers are formed by using a multiplication compound. To illustrate this principle further, the word for three hundred is rethum, which is formed by the root re-, and the word for three ənthum (the prefix ən- is dropped). Finally, for the numbers not divisible by 10, the two principles are combined. The word for 22 is somniləjthum, which translate to ten-two-connective-two. In this instance, ten and two are multiplied to equal twenty which is connected to two.

Ordinal Numerals[edit | edit source]

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the suffix cəŋnə to the base number. For example, second is expressed as ənni-cəŋnə, meaning two-necessary suffix.

Multiplicative Numerals[edit | edit source]

Adding the prefix wəj- to a base numeral results in a multiplicative numeral. Fifth is expressed by wəj-rəŋə, the prefix to the base word for 5.

Fractional Numerals[edit | edit source]

To express fractions, the prefix sem- is added to the denominator number, followed by the connective -ə-, and then the word for the numerator. To express the fraction two-fifths, the word in Aimol is sem-rəŋə-ə-ənni.

Dialects[edit | edit source]

The Langrong variety is distinct enough that some consider it a separate language. There are two dialects of Aimol proper, Sutpong and Khurai, which can perhaps be attributed to differing migration patterns, there are small differences between the two but they are completely mutually intelligible.

Most occurrences of Aimol writing are in Sutpong. This version makes use of glottal stops in word endings preceding by vowel sounds. Speakers of this dialect tend to take pride in speaking this dialect over Khurai.

Khurai usually does not use the glottal stops as is present in Sutpong. There is also less use of initial nasalized sounds in Khurai. There may be negative interpretations of the word Khurai which lead to the negativity with the dialect.[5] Additionally, the Khurai dialect is understood to borrow more words from Meitei and other neighboring languages, though it is indisputable that both dialects take from and are influenced by other languages.

Sample Text[edit | edit source]

1st Thessalonians 1-2
Aimol[15] English[16]
Paul, Silas hale Timothi ning Thessalonika biakrup mingai chunga pa pathian le Jisu Khrista jiang a om mi lungsiat thei nale lunghip na ha nan chunga na pek rase.

Keinin nangni ranga phat rakip a Pathian jiang lam na kan nei hale Pathian ha kan manpak.

Paul, Silas[a] and Timothy,To the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace and peace to you.

We always thank God for all of you and continually mention you in our prayers.

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Aimol at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. ↑ Thurgood, Graham (2016), "Sino-Tibetan: Genetic and Areal Subgroups", in Graham Thurgood; Randy J. LaPolla (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan Languages (2 ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 22, ISBN 9781315399492
  3. ↑ Endangered Languages Project - http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3700
  4. ↑ "Meitei | Ethnologue". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2023-05-03.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Haokip, P. (2011). The languages of manipur: A case study of the Kuki-Chin languages. Linguistics Of The Tibeto-Burman Area, 34(1), 85-118.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Suantak, K. (2011). Socio-Linguistic Paradigm of the Aimol. Language In India, 11(6), 36-49.
  7. ↑ Ruhemann, B. (1948). The Relationship Terms of Some Hill Tribes of Burma and Assam. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 4, 155-198.
  8. ↑ Grierson, G. A. (1903). Linguistic Survey of India, 3. (reprint: 2005. Delhi: Low Price Publications).
  9. ↑ Global Recordings Network Aimol - http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/3822
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 Language In India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow. Vol. 17:9. September 2017. pp. 2–12. ISSN 1930-2940.
  11. ↑ Manipur tribe turns to music to preserve culture - The Times of India. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Manipur-tribe-turns-to-music-to-preserve-culture/articleshow/24060212.cms/
  12. ↑ Okhup Aimol, Khochung. Aimol Dictionary (Aimual Chongbrianbuk) Amiol-English dictionary. p. 167. ISBN 978-93-5208-138-7.
  13. ↑ "SPPEL - Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages". www.sppel.org. Retrieved 2025-03-22.
  14. ↑ Welcome to Bible Society of India Aimol New Testament http://www.bsind.org/aimol.html Archived 2013-04-03 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ↑ New testament Aimol Language. Bible Society of India. 2016. p. 429.
  16. ↑ "Bible Gateway passage: 1 Thessalonians 1 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2025-03-22.

Further reading[edit | edit source]

  1. (2013, August 22). The Times of India:; Manipur sets up cell to develop state languages. Times of India, The (Mumbai, India)
  2. Bose, J.K. (1934). Social Organisation of the Aimol Kukis. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.
  3. Bradley, D. (1997). Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. Papers in Southeast Asian linguistics No.14, Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas, 1-72.
  4. Bradley, D. (2012). The Characteristics of the Burmic Family of Tibeto-Burman. Language and Linguistics, 13, 171–192.
  5. Haokip, T. (2012). Revisiting English education amidst various local languages: situation in Manipur State. Language In India, (9). 404.
  6. Hodson, T.C. (1913). Note on the Numeral Systems of the Tibeto-Burman Dialects. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 315–336.
  7. Hyslop, G., Morey, S., & Post, M. (2011). North East Indian linguistics, 3. New Delhi: Foundation Books.
  8. Matisoff, J. (1995). Languages and dialects of Tibeto-Burman. Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Project, Centers for South and Southeast Asia Studies, University of California, Berkeley.
  9. Needham, R. (1960). A Structural Analysis of Aimol Society. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde Deel 116, 1ste Afl., ANTHROPOLOGICA, 81-108.
  10. Pramodini, N. (2011). Sharing the Future: The Language Situation in Manipur. Language In India, 11(5), 404–421.

External links[edit | edit source]

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