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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} | ||
{{Infobox river | {{Infobox river | ||
| name | | name = Kaveri | ||
| name_other | | name_other = Cauvery | ||
| | <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->| image = {{Photomontage | ||
| photo1a = Thalakkaveri_Temple,_Karnataka.jpg | |||
| photo1b = Kaveri_View_Rail_Bridge_Srirangapatna_Jul22_A7C_02120.jpg | |||
| photo2a = Barahachukki.jpg | |||
| photo2b = Hogenakkal_Falls_Close.jpg | |||
| photo3a = Bhavani-Kaveri-Sangamam.JPG | |||
| photo3b = Grand Anaicut.jpg | |||
| foot_montage = '''Clockwise from top left''': [[Talakaveri]]; Kaveri at [[Srirangapatna]]; [[Hogenakkal Falls]]; [[Kallanai Dam]]; Confluence with [[Bhavani River|Bhavani]]; and [[Shivanasamudra Falls]] | |||
| size = 250 | |||
| position = center | |||
}} | |||
| map_size = 250px | |||
| map = Cauvery River Basin.png | |||
| map_caption = Kaveri River basin | |||
| pushpin_map = | |||
| pushpin_map_size = | |||
| pushpin_map_caption = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | |||
| subdivision_type1 = Country | |||
| subdivision_name1 = India | |||
| subdivision_type2 = Region | |||
| subdivision_name2 = [[South India]] | |||
| subdivision_type3 = States | |||
| subdivision_name3 = [[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] | |||
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->| length = {{cvt|800|km}}<ref name="Data">{{cite report|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/IHD2015_final.pdf|title=Integrated Hydrological Data Book|publisher=[[Central Water Commission]]|page=92|access-date=13 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402104009/http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/IHD2015_final.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | |||
| width_min = | |||
| width_avg = | |||
| width_max = | |||
| depth_min = | |||
| depth_avg = | |||
| depth_max = | |||
| discharge1_location = [[Lower Anaicut]] (58.5 km upstream of mouth) | |||
| discharge1_min = {{cvt|144|m3/s}}<ref name="Discharge1">{{cite web|url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/2043.htm|title=River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes - Area 2043|work=Flood observatory, [[Colorado University]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> | |||
| discharge1_avg = {{cvt|919|m3/s}} (1998-2024)<ref name="Discharge1"/> | |||
| discharge1_max = {{cvt|4,075|m3/s}}<ref name="Discharge1"/> | |||
| discharge2_location = [[Grand Anicut]] (140 km upstream of mouth) | |||
| discharge2_min = {{cvt|78|m3/s}}<ref name="Discharge2">{{cite web|url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/2042.htm|title=River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes - Area 2042|work=Flood observatory, [[Colorado University]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> | |||
| discharge2_avg = {{cvt|400.716|m3/s}} (1976-1979)<ref name="Discharge3">{{cite web|title=Gauging Station - Data Summary|work=RivDis|url=http://daac.ornl.gov/rivdis/STATIONS/TEXT/INDIA/1263/SUMMARY.HTML|access-date=1 October 2013|url-status=dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215927/http://daac.ornl.gov/rivdis/STATIONS/TEXT/INDIA/1263/SUMMARY.HTML|archive-date = 4 October 2013| df=dmy-all}}</ref> <br/> {{cvt|1,131|m3/s}} (1998-2024)<ref name="Discharge2"/> | |||
| discharge2_max = {{cvt|4,916|m3/s}}<ref name="Discharge2"/> | |||
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->| source1 = [[Western Ghats]] | |||
| source1_location = [[Talakaveri]], [[Kodagu district]], (Coorg) Karnataka | |||
| source1_coordinates = {{coord|12|23|N|75|29|E|display=inline}} | |||
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|1,341|m}} | |||
| mouth = [[Bay of Bengal]] | |||
| mouth_location = [[Poompuhar]], [[Mayiladuthurai district]], Tamil Nadu | |||
| mouth_coordinates = | |||
| mouth_elevation = {{cvt|0|m}} | |||
| progression = | |||
| river_system = | |||
| basin_size = {{cvt|81,155|km2}}<ref name="Riparian">{{cite web|url=https://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/cauvery-water-dispute/|title=Cauvery Water|work=[[Ministry of Jal Shakti]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> | |||
| tributaries_left = [[Harangi Reservoir|Harangi]], [[Hemavati River|Hemavati]], [[Shimsha]], [[Arkavathi River|Arkavati]], [[Sarabanga River|Sarabanga]], [[Thirumanimutharu River (tributary of Kaveri)|Thirumanimutharu]] | |||
| tributaries_right = [[Lakshmana Tirtha]], [[Kabini]], [[Bhavani River|Bhavani]], [[Noyyal]], [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]], [[Moyar River|Moyar]] | |||
| custom_label = | |||
| custom_data = | |||
| extra = | |||
}} | |||
The '''Kaveri''' (anglicized as '''Cauvery'''),{{efn|name=Kaveri|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]: ''Kāviri'', {{IPA|ta|kaːʋɪɾi|ipa}}, [[Kannada]]: ''Kāvēri'', {{IPA|ka|kaːʋeːri|ipa}})}} also known as '''Ponni''' ({{IPA|ta|ponːi|ipa}}),<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of the Madras Geographical Association|volume=13|year=1938|publisher=[[Indian Geographical Society]]|page=56}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=South India Heritage: An Introduction|year=2007|isbn=978-8-18866-164-0|publisher=East West Books|page=9}}</ref> is a [[Rivers of India|major river]] flowing across [[Southern India]]. It is the third largest river in the region after [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]]. | |||
The catchment area of the Kaveri basin is estimated to be {{cvt|81155|km2}} and encompasses the states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], and the union territory of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. | |||
The river rises at [[Talakaveri]] in the [[Brahmagiri (hill), Karnataka|Brahmagiri]] range in the [[Western Ghats]]. The source is located at an elevation of {{cvt|1,341|m}} in the [[Kodagu district]] of Karnataka. The river flows for about {{cvt|320|km}} through the [[Deccan Plateau]] in Karnataka before entering Tamil Nadu. It flows further eastward in Tamil Nadu for {{cvt|416|km}} before flowing into the [[Bay of Bengal]] near [[Puhar, Mayiladuthurai|Poompuhar]] in [[Mayiladuthurai district]] of Tamil Nadu. The river flows for a total length of about {{cvt|800|km}}. The major tributaries include [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]], [[Arkavati]], [[Bhavani River|Bhavani]], [[Harangi Dam|Harangi]], [[Hemavati River|Hemavati]], [[Kabini]], [[Lakshmana Tirtha]], [[Shimsha]] and [[Noyyal]]. | |||
There are a number of dams on the river which form part of an extensive [[irrigation system]] and are used for the generation of [[hydroelectric power]]. The river has supported agriculture for centuries and has served as the lifeline of several kingdoms in the past. Access to the river's waters has been a [[Kaveri River water dispute|cause of dispute]] among the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for decades. The Kaveri basin is a densely populated region, with several towns and cities located on its banks. | |||
The | The river is considered as sacred by the people of Southern India and is considered to be among the seven holy rivers of India. The river is often personified and worshiped as the goddess Kaveri. The river is mentioned in various Hindu religious texts including the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Puranas]]''. In ancient [[Tamil literature]], the river is referenced to as ''Ponni'' meaning "the golden one". | ||
== Etymology == | == Etymology == | ||
=== | Kaveri is mentioned in [[Sanskrit]] as a holy river in various Hindu religious texts including the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Puranas]]''.<ref name="Wisdom">{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kaveri|title=Kaveri|work=Wisdom library|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The name itself might have had different etymologies. As per ''[[Skanda Purana]]'', the river arose after [[Ganesha]] took a form of a crow and toppled sage [[Agastya]]'s [[kamandala]]. The river then took its name from the [[Tamil language]] words ''kā'' meaning "crow" and ''viri'' meaning "spread" literally translating to "spread by a crow". It might also mean a river with wide spread banks as ''viri'' can also be translated as wide spread.<ref name="Wisdom"/><ref name="Puranam"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/religion/temples/story-of-river-kaveri-how-lord-ganesha-and-maharshi-agasthiyar-started-river-cauvery/articleshow/70820021.cms|title=River Kaveri Story|date=9 September 2021|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Samayam|language=ta}}</ref><ref name="Pao">{{cite web|url=https://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=travel.Manipur_Travel_Log.Cauvery_flows_thanks_to_a_crow_By_S_Balakrishnan|title=Cauvery flows, thanks to a crow!|date=4 January 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|work=E-pao}}</ref> The etymology of the river might have also been derived from ''kāviri'', the [[Sankethi dialect|Sankethi]] word for "river" from the language spoken by the [[Sankethi people]], who live along its waters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/travel/how-the-rivers-of-india-descended-from-the-heavens-kaveri-news-185689|title=How the Rivers of India Descended From the Heavens: Kaveri|date=5 November 2022|access-date=1 June 2024|work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]}}</ref> Cauvery is the [[anglicized]] version of the original name.<ref name="Pao"/> | ||
The river is also known by other names. In ancient [[Tamil literature]], the river was called ''Ponni'' meaning "the golden one" in reference to the fine silt it deposits.<ref name="Puranam">{{cite book|title=Kandha Puranam|first=Akilā|last=Civarāman̲|year=1900|isbn=978-8-17950-397-3|publisher= GIRI Trading|page=159}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/daughter-of-ponni/|title=Daughter of Ponni|date=27 April 2014|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=27 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2020/02/08/cauvery-chronicles-ii-ponnis-perish|title=Cauvery Chronicles II: Ponni's Perish|work=Newslaundry|date=8 February 2020|access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/opinion/the-death-of-a-river-357460|title=The death of a river|date=11 June 2019|work=Millennium Post|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> It is known as ''Daksina gaṅgā'' meaning the "[[Ganges]] of the South" indicating its geographical location and its significance.<ref name="Brit">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kaveri River|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kaveri-River|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> It is also mentioned as ''Ardha gaṅgā'' meaning ''Half Ganga'' in Mahabharata and other literature, due to its purported mythology of having arisen from the Ganges.<ref name="Wisdom"/> Marudvṛdhā is another hypothesised name for this river, meaning "the beloved of the [[Maruts]]" in Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite web|title=Marudvṛdhā|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/index.php|access-date=18 July 2022|work=Sanskrit Lexicon}}</ref> | |||
== Course == | == Course == | ||
The | The river arises at [[Talakaveri]] in [[Kodagu district]] of [[Karnataka]].<ref name="Springer">{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Sharad K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKs1gBhJSWIC&dq=kaveri+river+course&pg=PA702 |title=Hydrology and Water Resources of India |last2=Agarwal |first2=Pushpendra K. |last3=Singh |first3=Vijay P. |publisher=[[Springer Science]] |year=2007 |pages=702–711|isbn=9781402051807 }}</ref> The source of the river is located at an altitude of {{cvt|1,341|m}} in the [[Brahmagiri (Karnataka)|Brahmagiri Hills]] of the [[Western Ghats]].<ref name="Data"/> Its follows a rough upper course consisting of rocky beds and high banks. Once it leaves the Kodagu hills, it flows eastwards and forms a series of rapids and falls. It flows through a narrow gorge onto the [[Deccan Plateau]] and drops about {{cvt|18-24|m}} at [[Chunchanakatte Falls]].<ref name="Brit"/> The river forms the island of [[Srirangapatna]] and widens to {{cvt|900-1200|ft}} before flowing south-east.<ref name="Brit"/><ref name="Springer"/> At [[Shivanasamudra]], the river drops {{cvt|91|m}} and forms the [[Shivanasamudra Falls]], one of the largest waterfalls in the country.<ref name="Data"/><ref name="Springer"/> After forming the island of Shivanasamudra, the river converges and passes through the [[Mekedatu]] gorge.<ref name="Data"/><ref name="Singh">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Dhruv Sen|title=The Indian rivers : scientific and socio-economic aspects|publisher=[[Springer Science]]|year=2018|location=Singapore|pages=354–356}}</ref> After flowing for {{cvt|320|km}} in Karnataka, the river flows for about {{cvt|64|km}} along the Karnataka-[[Tamil Nadu]] border.<ref name="Data"/> | ||
The river enters Tamil Nadu | The river enters Tamil Nadu and forms the [[Hogenakkal Falls]].<ref name="Springer"/> After the falls, the river flows southwards towards [[Mettur Dam]] and joins its main right bank tributary [[Bhavani River|Bhavani]] at [[Kooduthurai]].<ref name="Data"/><ref name="Singh"/> The river flows eastwards through [[Erode]] and [[Karur]], and widens further before entering the [[Tiruchirappalli district]]. It splits into two branches with the northern part called as [[Kollidam River]] and the southern part of the river retaining the name Kaveri.<ref name="Data"/> After flowing for {{cvt|16|km}}, the two branches converge around the [[Srirangam]] island.<ref name="Data"/><ref name="Singh"/> The river further branches off into 36 different channels before emptying into the [[Bay of Bengal]] near [[Poombuhar|Poompuhar]] in [[Mayiladuthurai district]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ramkumar |first1=Mu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Yq9BgAAQBAJ&dq=kaveri+delta&pg=PA286 |title=Environmental Management of River Basin Ecosystems |last2=Kumaraswamy |first2=K. |last3=Mohanraj |first3=R. |publisher=[[Springer Science]] |year=2015 |pages=286 |isbn=978-3-319-13425-3 }}</ref> The river traverses for about {{cvt|416|km}} in Tamil Nadu for a total length of about {{cvt|800|km}}.<ref name="Data"/> | ||
The | === Tributaries === | ||
The Kaveri River has 21 major tributaries.<ref name="Data"/> The largest tributary [[Hemavati River|Hemavati]], and [[Lakshmana Tirtha]] join the river at [[Krishna Raja Sagara]].<ref name="Data"/><ref name="Brit"/> [[Kabini River|Kabini]] is another major contributor to the flow of Kaveri and joins the river in Karnataka. It meets with its second largest tributary [[Bhavani River|Bhavani]] at [[Kooduthurai]] in [[Bhavani, Tamil Nadu|Bhavani]] and two other tributaries [[Noyyal River|Noyyal]], and [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]] join further down the stream in Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Data"/> Other tributaries of Kaveri include [[Shimsha]], [[Arkavathi River|Arkavati]], [[Sarabanga River|Sarabanga]], and [[Thirumanimutharu River (tributary of Kaveri)|Thirumanimutharu]].<ref name="Data"/><ref name="Singh"/> | |||
===Discharge=== | === Discharge === | ||
Source:<ref name="Discharge1"/><ref name="Discharge2"/> | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;" | ||
|+Discharge | |||
! rowspan="3" |Year | ! rowspan="3" |Year | ||
! rowspan="28" | | ! rowspan="28" | | ||
| Line 308: | Line 303: | ||
|3,385 | |3,385 | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Overall | |||
! | |||
!78 | |||
!1,151 | |||
!4,916 | |||
! | |||
!144 | |||
!928 | |||
!4,075 | |||
|} | |} | ||
== | == Geology and ecology == | ||
[[File:Kaveri Crater visualization.png|thumb|The location of the supposed impact structure (red circle) surrounded by hills within the Deccan peninsula]] | |||
The Kaveri basin was formed in the [[Late Jurassic]] to [[Early Cretaceous]] period during [[Gondwana]] breakup and opening of the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nagendra |first1=R. |last2=Nallapa Reddy |first2=A. |date=2017 |title=Major geologic events of the Cauvery Basin, India and their correlation with global signatures – A review |journal=Journal of Palaeogeography |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=69–83 |doi=10.1016/j.jop.2016.09.002 |bibcode=2017JPalG...6...69N |doi-access=free }}</ref> Most of the basin is made up of [[Precambrian]] rocks and the two major rock types that are found are [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] and [[Igneous rock|igneous]] rocks.<ref name="Singh"/> Closepet granite is found in the upper parts of the Kaveri basin and [[Charnockite]] rocks are only found in the central part.<ref name="Springer"/> A 2017 paper proposed that an [[impact structure]] was present in the vicinity of the Kaveri river.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Subrahmanya |first1=K. R. |last2=Prakash Narasimha |first2=K. N. |date=October 2017 |title=Kaveri crater – An impact structure in the Precambrian terrain of southern India |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12594-017-0733-5 |journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=387–395 |doi=10.1007/s12594-017-0733-5 |bibcode=2017JGSI...90..387S |s2cid=134717819 |issn=0016-7622|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The run-off from the river does not drain off quickly because of the shape of the river basin, which limits the occurrence of floods. It is a [[perennial river]] fed mostly by [[monsoon]]s. Four distinct seasons occur in the basin with hot and cold seasons sandwiching the monsoon seasons. The river basin is fed by South-West monsoon in Karnataka, and North-East monsoon in Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Data"/> | |||
The Kaveri basin was formed in the [[Late Jurassic]] to [[Early Cretaceous]] period during [[Gondwana]] breakup and opening of the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref>{{ | |||
[[ | |||
As per a government report from 2014-15, the [[Dissolved load|dissolved salt load]] generated in the Kaveri basin is nearly 3.5 million metric tons annually with an estimated [[salinity]] is 441 [[Parts-per notation#ppm|ppm]], close to the safe maximum permissible 500 ppm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/water_quality_data.html# |title=Water Quality Database of Indian rivers |work=Government of India |access-date=15 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mdba.gov.au/sites/default/files/pubs/Assessment-of-salt-export-objective-and-salinity-targets-flow-management-2014-15.pdf |title=Murray–Darling River Basin – Assessment of the salt export objective and salinity targets for flow management 2014–15 |access-date=15 September 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922204242/http://www.mdba.gov.au/sites/default/files/pubs/Assessment-of-salt-export-objective-and-salinity-targets-flow-management-2014-15.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lenntech.com/calculators/conductivity/tds-engels.htm |title= Conductivity units converter |access-date=15 September 2016}}</ref> The population in the river basin, which was estimated to have reached 40 million in 2015, led to an increased per capita consumption of inorganic salts.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/Publications/BasinReports/Cauvery%20Basin.pdf |title=Basin Report – Cauvery |publisher=WRIS |year=2014 |access-date=15 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005090053/http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/Publications/BasinReports/Cauvery%20Basin.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thewire.in/66739/cauvery-bengaluru-mettur-krishnarajasagar/ |title=Soon, We May Not Have a Cauvery River to Fight Over |work=[[The Wire (magazine)|The Wire]] |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> When adequate salt export from the river basin is not taking place to the sea, the water quality would deteriorate beyond the permissible limits impeding its sustainable productivity and the ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237403006 |title=River basin development phases and implications of closure |last1=Keller |first1=Jack |last2=Keller |first2=Andrew |last3=Davids |first3=Grant |date=January 1998| access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1996/04/01/000009265_3980722171346/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf |title= The new era of water resources management – From 'dry' to 'wet' water savings |author= David Seckler |access-date=25 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF |title=Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications |author1=Andrew Keller |author2=Jack Keller |author3=David Seckler |access-date=5 July 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233639/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
The Kaveri basin is made up of two sub-zones, forest and agro-ecosystem.<ref name="Environ"/> The forest vegetation consists of a mix of [[dry deciduous forest|dry deciduous]], [[evergreen forests]], and [[grasslands]].<ref name="Compendium"/> As per a study, about {{cvt|12,850|km2}} of natural vegetation was lost in the river basin between 1965 and 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/natural-vegetation-on-nearly-12850-sq-km-in-the-cauvery-basin-has-been-lost-says-a-research-paper/article67624533.ece|title=Natural vegetation on nearly 12,850 sq. km in the Cauvery basin has been lost, says a research paper|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=11 December 2023|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The basin has a variety of flora with major species including ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'', ''[[Tamarindus indica]]'', ''[[Pongamia pinnata]]'', ''[[Salix tetrasperma]]'', ''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'', ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'', ''[[Eucalyptus|Eucalyptus torticornis]]'', and ''[[Diospyros montana]]''.<ref name="Environ">{{cite journal |last1=Sunil |first1=C. |last2=Somashekar |first2=R. K. |last3=Nagaraja |first3=B. C. |date=2010-11-01 |title=Riparian vegetation assessment of Cauvery River Basin of South India |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1256-3 |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |volume=170 |issue=1 |pages=548 |doi=10.1007/s10661-009-1256-3|pmid=20024615 |bibcode=2010EMnAs.170..545S |s2cid=19865294 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> | |||
There are many [[List of protected areas of India|protected areas]] spread across the river basin including significant [[Project Tiger|tiger]] and [[Project Elephant|elephant]] habitats. The basin provides habitat to a range of animal species such as [[Indian bison|gaur]], [[leopard]], [[sloth bear]], [[Bengal tiger]], [[Indian elephant]], [[Nilgiri tahr]], [[grizzled giant squirrel]], and various species of deer, wild boar and reptiles.<ref name="Compendium">{{cite report|url=https://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-04/9%20Compendium%20Book_2021_Low%20%281%29%20%282%29.pdf|title=National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in India|work=[[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change]], [[Government of India]]|date=November 2021|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The river also hosts a variety of avifauna including the [[painted stork]] (''Mycteria leucocephala''), [[spot-billed pelican]] (''Pelecanus philippensis''), and [[black-headed ibis]] (''Threskiornis melanocephalus''). It is also home to the [[mugger crocodile]] (''Crocodylus palustris''), [[smooth-coated otter]] ''(Lutrogale perspicillata),'' and [[Tor remadevii|hump-backed mahseer]] ''(Tor remadevii).''<ref>{{cite web |title=Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary|work=Ramsar Sites Information Service |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2473 |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref> | |||
== | == Riparian zone == | ||
[[File:Water Catchment Area of Stanley reservoir.jpg|thumb|[[Stanley Reservoir]] formed by [[Mettur Dam]], the largest dams on the river.]] | |||
The total watershed of the basin is {{cvt|81,155|km2}} and the [[riparian zone]] of the river consists of {{cvt|43,856|km2}} in Tamil Nadu, {{cvt|34,273|km2}} in Karnataka, {{cvt|2,866|km2}} in [[Kerala]], and {{cvt|160|km2}} in the union territory of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]].<ref name="Riparian"/><ref name="Data"/> Over half of the Kaveri basin is arable and the most cultivated crops are [[rice]] and [[sugarcane]].<ref name="Environ"/> An estimate at the time of the first [[Five-year plans of India|Five Year Plan]] put the total flow of the river at {{convert|12000000|acre.ft|km3|order=flip}}, of which 60% was used for irrigation.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/1st/1planch26.html | title=Chapter 26: Irrigation and power | work=1st Five Year Plan | publisher=[[Planning Commission of India]] | access-date=1 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328061837/http://www.planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/1st/1planch26.html | archive-date=28 March 2019 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The river is also used for [[drinking water]] and [[hydroelectric power]] generation.<ref name="Brit"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tce.co.in/infra/watersupply/bangalore.pdf#search=%22halli%20pipeline%20Bangalore%22 |title=Archived copy |work=TCE|access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320070821/http://www.tce.co.in/infra/watersupply/bangalore.pdf#search=%22halli%20pipeline%20Bangalore%22 |archive-date=20 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
== | The [[Grand Anicut]] was constructed by a [[Chola]] King in 2nd century CE.<ref name="Data"/> The hydroelectric plant built on the Sivanasamudra Falls in 1902 was the first hydroelectric plant in Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall.php?num=149|title=World Waterfall Database|access-date=9 November 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114204057/http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall.php?num=149|archive-date=14 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
The | The [[Mettur Dam]] in Tamil Nadu was constructed in 1934 and the [[Stanley Reservoir]] formed by the dam has a capacity of 93.4 [[tmc ft]].<ref name="Brit"/><ref name="Res">{{cite web|url=http://tnagriculture.in/ARS/home/reservoir|title=Reservoir levels|work=[[Government of Tamil Nadu]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> [[Krishna Raja Sagara]] in Karnataka is the second largest dam on the river and has a capacity of 49.5 [[tmc ft]].<ref name="Res"/><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/26/stories/2006032614180300.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029044318/http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/26/stories/2006032614180300.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=29 October 2006 | newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | title=Corporation urged to chalk out water policy for Mysore city | date=26 March 2006}}</ref> [[Bhavanisagar Dam]] (32.8 tmc ft) on the [[Bhavani River]] in Tamil Nadu, [[Gorur dam]] (37.1 tmc ft) on the [[Hemavathi River]], [[Kabini Dam]] (18.5 tmc ft) on the [[Kabini River]], and [[Harangi Dam]] (9.5 tmc ft) on the Harangi River in Karnataka are major dams on the tributaries of Kaveri.<ref name="Riparian"/><ref name="Res"/> | ||
=== Water dispute === | |||
[[File:Kaveri basin Map.pdf|thumb|Kaveri basin]] | |||
{{further|Kaveri River water dispute}} | |||
The | The dispute over the sharing of Kaveri waters began in 1807 when the [[Madras Presidency]] objected to the plans of the [[Mysore kingdom]] to develop irrigation projects. After initial discussions failed, the [[British Raj]] intervened and a six rule agreement called the ''General Agreement of 1892'' was signed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rani |first1=Midatala |last2=Rani |first2=Middatala |date=2002 |title=Historical Background Of The Cauvery Water Dispute |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158173 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=63 |pages=1033–1042 |jstor=44158173 }}</ref> The agreement was revised in 1924, with a validity of fifty years. After the expiry of the 1924 agreement in 1974, Karnataka demanded a renegotiation and its due share of water from the river while Tamil Nadu favored an extension of the agreement.<ref name="Rao">{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Dodda Srinivasa |title=Inter-state Water Disputes in India: Constitutional and Statutory Provisions and Settlement Machinery |year=1998 |isbn=978-8-176-29159-0 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |pages=164-169}}</ref><ref name="Ranjan">{{cite book |last=Ranjan |first=Amit |title=Federalism and Inter-State River Water Disputes in India |date=2023 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-00088-728-0 |pages=92–95 }}</ref><ref name="Ram">{{cite book |title=Water: Perspectives, Issues, Concerns |first=Ramaswamy |last=Iyer |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-761-99759-7 |publisher=SAGE Publications |pages=41-49 }}</ref> After [[Indian Independence Act, 1947|Indian Independence]], article 262 of the [[Constitution of India]] provided powers to the [[Government of India]] to adjudicate on inter-state disputes on water sharing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1558821/|title=Article 262 of Indian Constitution|work=India kanoon|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The union government constituted the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) on 2 June 1990, based on the order of the [[Supreme Court of India]], to adjudicate the water dispute between the riparian states and territories in the river basin. The tribunal gave an interim award on 25 June 1991 that was based on its 10-year calculation of average inflow of water from Karnataka into Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Rao" /><ref name="Ram" /> In the order passed on 25 June 1991, the CWDT directed Karnataka to release 205 [[tmcft]] of water per year to Tamil Nadu based on a specific schedule. The water was to be released in four equal installments in a particular month and any shortfall would need to be covered in the subsequent week. Tamil Nadu was directed to provide 6 tmcft of water to Puducherry.<ref name="Riparian"/> | ||
[[ | In July 1991, the [[President of India|president]] asked the Supreme Court to rule on the validity and legality of the tribunal under the Constitution. In November 1991, the Supreme Court opined that the order needs to be published by the central government in the official gazette, which was done on 1 December 1991.<ref name="Riparian"/> In May 1992, the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] filed a case in the Supreme Court to direct the union government to pass necessary orders to ensure the implementation of the provisions of the tribunal order. In April 1997, the [[Attorney General of India|attorney general]] reverted that the central government has prepared a scheme under the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 for the implementation of the tribunal award and the Cauvery Water Authority (CRA) and Cauvery Monitoring Committee (CMC) were formed subsequently as a part of the Cauvery Water (Implementation of Interim Orders of 1991 and all subsequent Tribunal Orders) Scheme, 1998. The CRA is headed by the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] and consists of the chief ministers of the riparian states as its constituent members.<ref name="Riparian"/> | ||
The | The dispute arose periodically such as in 1995 and 2002, when poor monsoon led to lower water levels.<ref name="Ram" /> This led to instances where the Supreme Court and the CRA had to intervene, and had led to instances of violence, arson, and protests in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka-erupts-over-supreme-court-order-on-cauvery/article9101050.ece |title=Karnataka erupts over SC order on Cauvery |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=1 June 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/cauvery-water-dispute-second-death-in-karnataka-over-300-held-3029964/ |title=Cauvery Water Dispute: Second death in Karnataka, over 300 held |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=1 June 2020 }}</ref> The CWDT announced its final verdict on 5 February 2007. According to its verdict, Tamil Nadu was awared 419 tmcft of the Kaveri river waters while Karnataka got 270 tmcft, with Kerala and Puducherry getting 30 tmcft and 7 tmcft respectively. It also laid down the terms for monthly release of water from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu.<ref name="CWDT">{{cite web|year=2007|title=Cauvery water disputes tribunal award|url=http://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/acts-tribunals/current-inter-state-river-water-disputes-tribunals/cauvery-water-disputes|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818123025/http://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/acts-tribunals/current-inter-state-river-water-disputes-tribunals/cauvery-water-disputes|archive-date=18 August 2021|access-date=|work=Ministry of Jal Shakti Department of water resources}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-02-05/news/28453533_1_cauvery-water-disputes-tribunal-tamil-nadu-justice-n-p-singh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411035123/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-02-05/news/28453533_1_cauvery-water-disputes-tribunal-tamil-nadu-justice-n-p-singh |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 April 2015 |title=Tamil Nadu wins the Cauvery water battle |work=[[The Economic Times]] |date=5 February 2007}}</ref> | ||
After further disputes in 2012, and the intervention of the Supreme Court,<ref>{{cite news |last=Venkatesan |first=J. |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/release-10000-cusecs-till-sunday-karnataka-told/article4169009.ece |title=Release 10,000 cusecs till Sunday, Karnataka told |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=6 December 2012 |access-date=1 June 2015 }}</ref> the Indian Government notified the final award in the gazette on 20 February 2013.<ref name="CWDT" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Parsai |first=Gargi |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-notifies-cauvery-tribunal-final-award/article4434853.ece |title=Centre notifies Cauvery Tribunal final award |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=20 February 2013 |access-date=20 February 2013}}</ref> However, after further disputes in 2016,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/karnataka-assembly-adopts-resolution-to-use-cauvery-water-only-for-drinking-needs-3046614// |title=Cauvery water only for drinking needs |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=1 June 2020 }}</ref> and further appeals by the concerned states, the Supreme Court ruled on 16 February 2018, that Karnataka will get 284.75 tmcft, Tamil Nadu will get 404.25 tmcft, Kerala will get 30 tmcft and Puducherry will get 7 tmcft of water from the river basin. An additional 10 tmcft was reserved for environmental protection and 4 tmcft was reserved for wastage into the sea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2007/11993/11993_2007_Judgement_16-Feb-2018.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417132747/http://sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2007/11993/11993_2007_Judgement_16-Feb-2018.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The court directed the government to form a Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) within six weeks and acting on the Supreme Court's direction, the central government constituted the CMWA in June 2018.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme-court-reduces-allocation-of-cauvery-water-to-tamil-nadu/article22771422.ece|title=Supreme Court curtails Tamil Nadu's share of Cauvery water|last=Rajagopal|first=Krishnadas|date=16 February 2018|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=1 June 2020|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mowr.gov.in/acts-tribunals/acts/cauvery-water-management-authority-cwma|title=Cauvery Water Management Scheme, 2018|work=[[Ministry of Jal Shakti]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/centre-forms-9-member-cauvery-water-regulation-committee-despite-k-taka-s-opposition-83567|title=Cauvery dispute|work=[[The News Minute]]|date=23 June 2018|access-date=1 June 2020}}</ref> | |||
== Religious significance == | |||
[[File:Arulmigu Rajamariamman Devasthanam, JB (2025) - img 48 (cropped).jpg|thumb|A depiction of [[Agastya]] creating the Kaveri with [[Ganesha]], at a [[Kovil]] in [[Johor Bahru]], [[Malaysia]]]] | |||
In | In [[Hinduism]], the river is considered one of seven holy rivers in India. The river is personified and worshiped as the river goddess ''Kaveri Amma.''<ref name="Wisdom" /><ref name="Rel">{{Cite book |last=Warrier |first=Shrikala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNhiCAAAQBAJ&dq=goddess+kaveri&pg=PA222 |title=Kamandalu: The Seven Sacred Rivers of Hinduism |publisher=Mayur University |year=2014 |pages=20, 192–195|isbn=978-0-95356-797-3}}</ref> Kaveri is mentioned as both a river and a goddess in various Hindu texts such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Puranas]]''. The river is mentioned as one of the seven holy [[Ganges|Gangas]] and bathing in the river is said to grant one's desired as per the ''[[Sivapurana]]''. The ''[[Varaha Purana]]'' states that the river flows from the five great mountains and gives longevity to those who drink the waters of the river. The ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' narrates the various origins of the river. [[Shiva]] filled [[Agastya]]'s [[kamandala|bowl]] with Kaveri, who flowed as a river with the help of [[Ganesha]].<ref name="Wisdom" /><ref name="Puranam"/> | ||
In another legend, [[Lopamudra]] becomes Agastya's wife and takes on a form of water during a severe drought in South India. Agastya carries her in his small brass water pot and Ganesha, in the form of crow, knocks the water pot down. The spilled water runs down the hill and onto the drought-stricken land.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&dq=kaveri+eck&pg=PA177 |title=India: A Sacred Geography |publisher=Harmony Books |year=2012 |location=United States |page=179|isbn=978-0-385-53191-7}}</ref> Another story narrates that during the [[Samudra Manthana]], or churning of the [[Kshira Sagara|Ocean of Milk]], [[Mohini]] and Lopamudra retrieved the nectar of immortality for the gods. Afterwards, [[Brahma]] took care of Lopamudra as his daughter and later offered her to king Kavera, who renamed her as Kaveri. When Kaveri grew up she prayed to Brahma to transform her into a purifying river.<ref name="Rel"/> | |||
As per the [[Tamil literature]] ''[[Manimekalai]]'', Agastya drank the Ganges River in anger, when the floods destroyed his [[Tapas (Indian religions)|tapas]] and later released it in South India. ''[[Silapathikaram]]'' mentions Kaveri as the daughter of Kavera. In [[Theravada Buddhism]], Kaveri is mentioned as a water channel. It is part of the twenty canal-systems associated with the reservoir Parakkamasamudda that existed in the [[Polonnaruwa]] region during the reign of king [[Parakramabahu I]].<ref name="Wisdom"/> | |||
[[Kaveri Pushkaram]] is a Hindu festival dedicated to the river.<ref name="IE">{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2017/Sep/19/cauvery-pushkaram-celebration-of-rivers-100823.html|title=Cauvery Pushkaram: Celebration of rivers|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=19 September 2019|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> It is generally observed once every 12 years,<ref name="IE"/> with a "Maha Pushkaram" held every 144 years.<ref name="India">{{cite web|url=https://www.india.com/travel/articles/kaveri-maha-pushkaram-2017-celebration-in-srirangam-and-mayiladuthurai-tamil-nadu-set-for-holy-festival-along-cauvery-3228342/|title=Kaveri Maha Pushkaram 2017 Celebration in Srirangam and Mayiladuthurai: Tamil Nadu Set for Holy Festival along Cauvery|work=India.com|date=12 September 2017|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref name="Mayil">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/mayiladuthurai-ready-for-cauvery-maha-pushkaram/article19656872.ece|title=Mayiladuthurai ready for Cauvery Maha Pushkaram |newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=11 September 2017|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The key pilgrimage sites includes [[Srirangam]] and Thula Kattam at [[Mayiladuthurai]] near the mouth of the river.<ref name="India"/><ref name="Mayil"/> The festival is celebrated for 12 days, and includes ceremonial observations such as [[Homa (ritual)|homam]], [[yagnam]], chanting of the [[Vedas]], ritual feeding, and [[Śrāddha|tharpanam]] accompanied by cultural activities such as music, dance, and spiritual speeches.<ref name="Mayil"/> | |||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
* [[List of rivers of India]] | * [[List of rivers of India]] | ||
* [[Kaveri Pushkaram]] | * [[Kaveri Pushkaram]] | ||
== Notes == | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
{{ | {{reflist}} | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
{{Commons category|Kaveri}} | |||
{{Kaveri River}} | {{Kaveri River}} | ||
Latest revision as of 17:46, 10 February 2026
| Kaveri Cauvery | |
|---|---|
      Clockwise from top left: Talakaveri; Kaveri at Srirangapatna; Hogenakkal Falls; Kallanai Dam; Confluence with Bhavani; and Shivanasamudra Falls | |
 Kaveri River basin | |
| Location | |
| Country | India |
| Region | South India |
| States | Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry |
| Physical characteristics | |
| Source | Western Ghats |
| • location | Talakaveri, Kodagu district, (Coorg) Karnataka |
| • coordinates | 12°23′N 75°29′E / 12.383°N 75.483°E |
| • elevation | 1,341 m (4,400 ft) |
| Mouth | Bay of Bengal |
• location | Poompuhar, Mayiladuthurai district, Tamil Nadu |
• elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
| Length | 800 km (500 mi)[1] |
| Basin size | 81,155 km2 (31,334 sq mi)[2] |
| Discharge | |
| • location | Lower Anaicut (58.5 km upstream of mouth) |
| • average | 919 m3/s (32,500 cu ft/s) (1998-2024)[3] |
| • minimum | 144 m3/s (5,100 cu ft/s)[3] |
| • maximum | 4,075 m3/s (143,900 cu ft/s)[3] |
| Discharge | |
| • location | Grand Anicut (140 km upstream of mouth) |
| • average | 400.716 m3/s (14,151.2 cu ft/s) (1976-1979)[5] 1,131 m3/s (39,900 cu ft/s) (1998-2024)[4] |
| • minimum | 78 m3/s (2,800 cu ft/s)[4] |
| • maximum | 4,916 m3/s (173,600 cu ft/s)[4] |
| Basin features | |
| Tributaries | |
| • left | Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavati, Sarabanga, Thirumanimutharu |
| • right | Lakshmana Tirtha, Kabini, Bhavani, Noyyal, Amaravati, Moyar |
The Kaveri (anglicized as Cauvery),[lower-alpha 1] also known as Ponni (ta),[6][7] is a major river flowing across Southern India. It is the third largest river in the region after Godavari and Krishna. The catchment area of the Kaveri basin is estimated to be 81,155 km2 (31,334 sq mi) and encompasses the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the union territory of Puducherry.
The river rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats. The source is located at an elevation of 1,341 m (4,400 ft) in the Kodagu district of Karnataka. The river flows for about 320 km (200 mi) through the Deccan Plateau in Karnataka before entering Tamil Nadu. It flows further eastward in Tamil Nadu for 416 km (258 mi) before flowing into the Bay of Bengal near Poompuhar in Mayiladuthurai district of Tamil Nadu. The river flows for a total length of about 800 km (500 mi). The major tributaries include Amaravati, Arkavati, Bhavani, Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Lakshmana Tirtha, Shimsha and Noyyal.
There are a number of dams on the river which form part of an extensive irrigation system and are used for the generation of hydroelectric power. The river has supported agriculture for centuries and has served as the lifeline of several kingdoms in the past. Access to the river's waters has been a cause of dispute among the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for decades. The Kaveri basin is a densely populated region, with several towns and cities located on its banks.
The river is considered as sacred by the people of Southern India and is considered to be among the seven holy rivers of India. The river is often personified and worshiped as the goddess Kaveri. The river is mentioned in various Hindu religious texts including the Mahabharata and the Puranas. In ancient Tamil literature, the river is referenced to as Ponni meaning "the golden one".
Etymology[edit | edit source]
Kaveri is mentioned in Sanskrit as a holy river in various Hindu religious texts including the Mahabharata and the Puranas.[8] The name itself might have had different etymologies. As per Skanda Purana, the river arose after Ganesha took a form of a crow and toppled sage Agastya's kamandala. The river then took its name from the Tamil language words kā meaning "crow" and viri meaning "spread" literally translating to "spread by a crow". It might also mean a river with wide spread banks as viri can also be translated as wide spread.[8][9][10][11] The etymology of the river might have also been derived from kāviri, the Sankethi word for "river" from the language spoken by the Sankethi people, who live along its waters.[12] Cauvery is the anglicized version of the original name.[11]
The river is also known by other names. In ancient Tamil literature, the river was called Ponni meaning "the golden one" in reference to the fine silt it deposits.[9][13][14][15] It is known as Daksina gaṅgā meaning the "Ganges of the South" indicating its geographical location and its significance.[16] It is also mentioned as Ardha gaṅgā meaning Half Ganga in Mahabharata and other literature, due to its purported mythology of having arisen from the Ganges.[8] Marudvṛdhā is another hypothesised name for this river, meaning "the beloved of the Maruts" in Sanskrit.[17]
Course[edit | edit source]
The river arises at Talakaveri in Kodagu district of Karnataka.[18] The source of the river is located at an altitude of 1,341 m (4,400 ft) in the Brahmagiri Hills of the Western Ghats.[1] Its follows a rough upper course consisting of rocky beds and high banks. Once it leaves the Kodagu hills, it flows eastwards and forms a series of rapids and falls. It flows through a narrow gorge onto the Deccan Plateau and drops about 18–24 m (59–79 ft) at Chunchanakatte Falls.[16] The river forms the island of Srirangapatna and widens to 900–1,200 ft (270–370 m) before flowing south-east.[16][18] At Shivanasamudra, the river drops 91 m (299 ft) and forms the Shivanasamudra Falls, one of the largest waterfalls in the country.[1][18] After forming the island of Shivanasamudra, the river converges and passes through the Mekedatu gorge.[1][19] After flowing for 320 km (200 mi) in Karnataka, the river flows for about 64 km (40 mi) along the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border.[1]
The river enters Tamil Nadu and forms the Hogenakkal Falls.[18] After the falls, the river flows southwards towards Mettur Dam and joins its main right bank tributary Bhavani at Kooduthurai.[1][19] The river flows eastwards through Erode and Karur, and widens further before entering the Tiruchirappalli district. It splits into two branches with the northern part called as Kollidam River and the southern part of the river retaining the name Kaveri.[1] After flowing for 16 km (9.9 mi), the two branches converge around the Srirangam island.[1][19] The river further branches off into 36 different channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal near Poompuhar in Mayiladuthurai district.[20] The river traverses for about 416 km (258 mi) in Tamil Nadu for a total length of about 800 km (500 mi).[1]
Tributaries[edit | edit source]
The Kaveri River has 21 major tributaries.[1] The largest tributary Hemavati, and Lakshmana Tirtha join the river at Krishna Raja Sagara.[1][16] Kabini is another major contributor to the flow of Kaveri and joins the river in Karnataka. It meets with its second largest tributary Bhavani at Kooduthurai in Bhavani and two other tributaries Noyyal, and Amaravati join further down the stream in Tamil Nadu.[1] Other tributaries of Kaveri include Shimsha, Arkavati, Sarabanga, and Thirumanimutharu.[1][19]
Discharge[edit | edit source]
| Year | Grand Anicut | Lower Anicut | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m3/s) | (m3/s) | |||||||
| Min | Mean | Max | Min | Mean | Max | |||
| 1998 | 170 | 1,099 | 3,454 | 161 | 885 | 2,540 | ||
| 1999 | 289 | 1,131 | 3,778 | 285 | 864 | 2,845 | ||
| 2000 | 343 | 1,287 | 4,903 | 233 | 1,011 | 3,335 | ||
| 2001 | 258 | 1,080 | 3,348 | 309 | 948 | 3,115 | ||
| 2002 | 139 | 772 | 2,392 | 144 | 867 | 2,423 | ||
| 2003 | 78 | 667 | 2,297 | 216 | 646 | 2,100 | ||
| 2004 | 103 | 895 | 3,303 | 217 | 839 | 3,160 | ||
| 2005 | 179 | 1,012 | 3,354 | 240 | 991 | 3,873 | ||
| 2006 | 268 | 1,072 | 2,495 | 473 | 1,091 | 3,187 | ||
| 2007 | 118 | 993 | 3,308 | 324 | 1,126 | 4,075 | ||
| 2008 | 132 | 1,094 | 3,677 | 398 | 1,103 | 3,167 | ||
| 2009 | 227 | 1,040 | 3,238 | 290 | 965 | 3,301 | ||
| 2010 | 373 | 1,080 | 3,141 | 411 | 1,022 | 3,626 | ||
| 2011 | 171 | 1,163 | 3,815 | 296 | 928 | 3,014 | ||
| 2012 | 190 | 874 | 3,342 | 177 | 711 | 2,149 | ||
| 2013 | 82 | 1,043 | 3,281 | 229 | 856 | 3,127 | ||
| 2014 | 279 | 1,148 | 3,663 | 409 | 980 | 2,533 | ||
| 2015 | 559 | 1,422 | 3,816 | 407 | 913 | 2,177 | ||
| 2016 | 490 | 1,129 | 2,890 | 276 | 728 | 1,733 | ||
| 2017 | 216 | 931 | 3,586 | 154 | 671 | 1,832 | ||
| 2018 | 341 | 1,571 | 4,439 | 266 | 934 | 3,427 | ||
| 2019 | 331 | 1,473 | 4,559 | 173 | 966 | 3,070 | ||
| 2020 | 591 | 1,590 | 4,373 | 209 | 983 | 2,944 | ||
| 2021 | 478 | 1,502 | 3,935 | 257 | 988 | 3,136 | ||
| 2022 | 548 | 1,713 | 4,916 | 407 | 1,172 | 3,385 | ||
| Overall | 78 | 1,151 | 4,916 | 144 | 928 | 4,075 | ||
Geology and ecology[edit | edit source]
The Kaveri basin was formed in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period during Gondwana breakup and opening of the Indian Ocean.[21] Most of the basin is made up of Precambrian rocks and the two major rock types that are found are metamorphic and igneous rocks.[19] Closepet granite is found in the upper parts of the Kaveri basin and Charnockite rocks are only found in the central part.[18] A 2017 paper proposed that an impact structure was present in the vicinity of the Kaveri river.[22] The run-off from the river does not drain off quickly because of the shape of the river basin, which limits the occurrence of floods. It is a perennial river fed mostly by monsoons. Four distinct seasons occur in the basin with hot and cold seasons sandwiching the monsoon seasons. The river basin is fed by South-West monsoon in Karnataka, and North-East monsoon in Tamil Nadu.[1]
As per a government report from 2014-15, the dissolved salt load generated in the Kaveri basin is nearly 3.5 million metric tons annually with an estimated salinity is 441 ppm, close to the safe maximum permissible 500 ppm.[23][24][25] The population in the river basin, which was estimated to have reached 40 million in 2015, led to an increased per capita consumption of inorganic salts.[26][27] When adequate salt export from the river basin is not taking place to the sea, the water quality would deteriorate beyond the permissible limits impeding its sustainable productivity and the ecosystem.[28][29][30]
The Kaveri basin is made up of two sub-zones, forest and agro-ecosystem.[31] The forest vegetation consists of a mix of dry deciduous, evergreen forests, and grasslands.[32] As per a study, about 12,850 km2 (4,960 sq mi) of natural vegetation was lost in the river basin between 1965 and 2016.[33] The basin has a variety of flora with major species including Terminalia arjuna, Tamarindus indica, Pongamia pinnata, Salix tetrasperma, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Eucalyptus torticornis, and Diospyros montana.[31]
There are many protected areas spread across the river basin including significant tiger and elephant habitats. The basin provides habitat to a range of animal species such as gaur, leopard, sloth bear, Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, Nilgiri tahr, grizzled giant squirrel, and various species of deer, wild boar and reptiles.[32] The river also hosts a variety of avifauna including the painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala), spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), and black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus). It is also home to the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), and hump-backed mahseer (Tor remadevii).[34]
Riparian zone[edit | edit source]
The total watershed of the basin is 81,155 km2 (31,334 sq mi) and the riparian zone of the river consists of 43,856 km2 (16,933 sq mi) in Tamil Nadu, 34,273 km2 (13,233 sq mi) in Karnataka, 2,866 km2 (1,107 sq mi) in Kerala, and 160 km2 (62 sq mi) in the union territory of Puducherry.[2][1] Over half of the Kaveri basin is arable and the most cultivated crops are rice and sugarcane.[31] An estimate at the time of the first Five Year Plan put the total flow of the river at 15 cubic kilometres (12,000,000 acre⋅ft), of which 60% was used for irrigation.[35] The river is also used for drinking water and hydroelectric power generation.[16][36]
The Grand Anicut was constructed by a Chola King in 2nd century CE.[1] The hydroelectric plant built on the Sivanasamudra Falls in 1902 was the first hydroelectric plant in Asia.[37] The Mettur Dam in Tamil Nadu was constructed in 1934 and the Stanley Reservoir formed by the dam has a capacity of 93.4 tmc ft.[16][38] Krishna Raja Sagara in Karnataka is the second largest dam on the river and has a capacity of 49.5 tmc ft.[38][39] Bhavanisagar Dam (32.8 tmc ft) on the Bhavani River in Tamil Nadu, Gorur dam (37.1 tmc ft) on the Hemavathi River, Kabini Dam (18.5 tmc ft) on the Kabini River, and Harangi Dam (9.5 tmc ft) on the Harangi River in Karnataka are major dams on the tributaries of Kaveri.[2][38]
Water dispute[edit | edit source]
The dispute over the sharing of Kaveri waters began in 1807 when the Madras Presidency objected to the plans of the Mysore kingdom to develop irrigation projects. After initial discussions failed, the British Raj intervened and a six rule agreement called the General Agreement of 1892 was signed.[40] The agreement was revised in 1924, with a validity of fifty years. After the expiry of the 1924 agreement in 1974, Karnataka demanded a renegotiation and its due share of water from the river while Tamil Nadu favored an extension of the agreement.[41][42][43] After Indian Independence, article 262 of the Constitution of India provided powers to the Government of India to adjudicate on inter-state disputes on water sharing.[44] The union government constituted the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) on 2 June 1990, based on the order of the Supreme Court of India, to adjudicate the water dispute between the riparian states and territories in the river basin. The tribunal gave an interim award on 25 June 1991 that was based on its 10-year calculation of average inflow of water from Karnataka into Tamil Nadu.[41][43] In the order passed on 25 June 1991, the CWDT directed Karnataka to release 205 tmcft of water per year to Tamil Nadu based on a specific schedule. The water was to be released in four equal installments in a particular month and any shortfall would need to be covered in the subsequent week. Tamil Nadu was directed to provide 6 tmcft of water to Puducherry.[2]
In July 1991, the president asked the Supreme Court to rule on the validity and legality of the tribunal under the Constitution. In November 1991, the Supreme Court opined that the order needs to be published by the central government in the official gazette, which was done on 1 December 1991.[2] In May 1992, the Government of Tamil Nadu filed a case in the Supreme Court to direct the union government to pass necessary orders to ensure the implementation of the provisions of the tribunal order. In April 1997, the attorney general reverted that the central government has prepared a scheme under the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 for the implementation of the tribunal award and the Cauvery Water Authority (CRA) and Cauvery Monitoring Committee (CMC) were formed subsequently as a part of the Cauvery Water (Implementation of Interim Orders of 1991 and all subsequent Tribunal Orders) Scheme, 1998. The CRA is headed by the prime minister and consists of the chief ministers of the riparian states as its constituent members.[2]
The dispute arose periodically such as in 1995 and 2002, when poor monsoon led to lower water levels.[43] This led to instances where the Supreme Court and the CRA had to intervene, and had led to instances of violence, arson, and protests in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.[45][46] The CWDT announced its final verdict on 5 February 2007. According to its verdict, Tamil Nadu was awared 419 tmcft of the Kaveri river waters while Karnataka got 270 tmcft, with Kerala and Puducherry getting 30 tmcft and 7 tmcft respectively. It also laid down the terms for monthly release of water from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu.[47][48]
After further disputes in 2012, and the intervention of the Supreme Court,[49] the Indian Government notified the final award in the gazette on 20 February 2013.[47][50] However, after further disputes in 2016,[51] and further appeals by the concerned states, the Supreme Court ruled on 16 February 2018, that Karnataka will get 284.75 tmcft, Tamil Nadu will get 404.25 tmcft, Kerala will get 30 tmcft and Puducherry will get 7 tmcft of water from the river basin. An additional 10 tmcft was reserved for environmental protection and 4 tmcft was reserved for wastage into the sea.[52] The court directed the government to form a Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) within six weeks and acting on the Supreme Court's direction, the central government constituted the CMWA in June 2018.[53][54][55]
Religious significance[edit | edit source]
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In Hinduism, the river is considered one of seven holy rivers in India. The river is personified and worshiped as the river goddess Kaveri Amma.[8][56] Kaveri is mentioned as both a river and a goddess in various Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The river is mentioned as one of the seven holy Gangas and bathing in the river is said to grant one's desired as per the Sivapurana. The Varaha Purana states that the river flows from the five great mountains and gives longevity to those who drink the waters of the river. The Skanda Purana narrates the various origins of the river. Shiva filled Agastya's bowl with Kaveri, who flowed as a river with the help of Ganesha.[8][9]
In another legend, Lopamudra becomes Agastya's wife and takes on a form of water during a severe drought in South India. Agastya carries her in his small brass water pot and Ganesha, in the form of crow, knocks the water pot down. The spilled water runs down the hill and onto the drought-stricken land.[57] Another story narrates that during the Samudra Manthana, or churning of the Ocean of Milk, Mohini and Lopamudra retrieved the nectar of immortality for the gods. Afterwards, Brahma took care of Lopamudra as his daughter and later offered her to king Kavera, who renamed her as Kaveri. When Kaveri grew up she prayed to Brahma to transform her into a purifying river.[56]
As per the Tamil literature Manimekalai, Agastya drank the Ganges River in anger, when the floods destroyed his tapas and later released it in South India. Silapathikaram mentions Kaveri as the daughter of Kavera. In Theravada Buddhism, Kaveri is mentioned as a water channel. It is part of the twenty canal-systems associated with the reservoir Parakkamasamudda that existed in the Polonnaruwa region during the reign of king Parakramabahu I.[8]
Kaveri Pushkaram is a Hindu festival dedicated to the river.[58] It is generally observed once every 12 years,[58] with a "Maha Pushkaram" held every 144 years.[59][60] The key pilgrimage sites includes Srirangam and Thula Kattam at Mayiladuthurai near the mouth of the river.[59][60] The festival is celebrated for 12 days, and includes ceremonial observations such as homam, yagnam, chanting of the Vedas, ritual feeding, and tharpanam accompanied by cultural activities such as music, dance, and spiritual speeches.[60]
See also[edit | edit source]
Notes[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 Integrated Hydrological Data Book (PDF) (Report). Central Water Commission. p. 92. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 "Cauvery Water". Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes - Area 2043". Flood observatory, Colorado University. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 "River Discharge and Reservoir Storage Changes - Area 2042". Flood observatory, Colorado University. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Gauging Station - Data Summary". RivDis. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
- ↑ Journal of the Madras Geographical Association. Vol. 13. Indian Geographical Society. 1938. p. 56.
- ↑ South India Heritage: An Introduction. East West Books. 2007. p. 9. ISBN 978-8-18866-164-0.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 "Kaveri". Wisdom library. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Civarāman̲, Akilā (1900). Kandha Puranam. GIRI Trading. p. 159. ISBN 978-8-17950-397-3.
- ↑ "River Kaveri Story". Samayam (in தமிழ்). 9 September 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Cauvery flows, thanks to a crow!". E-pao. 4 January 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "How the Rivers of India Descended From the Heavens: Kaveri". Outlook. 5 November 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Daughter of Ponni". The Indian Express. 27 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
- ↑ "Cauvery Chronicles II: Ponni's Perish". Newslaundry. 8 February 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
- ↑ "The death of a river". Millennium Post. 11 June 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 "Kaveri River". Britannica. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Marudvṛdhā". Sanskrit Lexicon. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Jain, Sharad K.; Agarwal, Pushpendra K.; Singh, Vijay P. (2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India. Springer Science. pp. 702–711. ISBN 9781402051807.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Singh, Dhruv Sen (2018). The Indian rivers : scientific and socio-economic aspects. Singapore: Springer Science. pp. 354–356.
- ↑ Ramkumar, Mu; Kumaraswamy, K.; Mohanraj, R. (2015). Environmental Management of River Basin Ecosystems. Springer Science. p. 286. ISBN 978-3-319-13425-3.
- ↑ Nagendra, R.; Nallapa Reddy, A. (2017). "Major geologic events of the Cauvery Basin, India and their correlation with global signatures – A review". Journal of Palaeogeography. 6 (1): 69–83. Bibcode:2017JPalG...6...69N. doi:10.1016/j.jop.2016.09.002.
- ↑ Subrahmanya, K. R.; Prakash Narasimha, K. N. (October 2017). "Kaveri crater – An impact structure in the Precambrian terrain of southern India". Journal of the Geological Society of India. 90 (4): 387–395. Bibcode:2017JGSI...90..387S. doi:10.1007/s12594-017-0733-5. ISSN 0016-7622. S2CID 134717819.
- ↑ "Water Quality Database of Indian rivers". Government of India. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- ↑ "Murray–Darling River Basin – Assessment of the salt export objective and salinity targets for flow management 2014–15" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- ↑ "Conductivity units converter". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- ↑ Basin Report – Cauvery (PDF) (Report). WRIS. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- ↑ "Soon, We May Not Have a Cauvery River to Fight Over". The Wire. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ↑ Keller, Jack; Keller, Andrew; Davids, Grant (January 1998). "River basin development phases and implications of closure". Retrieved 25 September 2020.
- ↑ David Seckler. "The new era of water resources management – From 'dry' to 'wet' water savings" (PDF). Retrieved 25 July 2016.
- ↑ Andrew Keller; Jack Keller; David Seckler. "Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Sunil, C.; Somashekar, R. K.; Nagaraja, B. C. (1 November 2010). "Riparian vegetation assessment of Cauvery River Basin of South India". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 170 (1): 548. Bibcode:2010EMnAs.170..545S. doi:10.1007/s10661-009-1256-3. PMID 20024615. S2CID 19865294.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in India (PDF). Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India (Report). November 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Natural vegetation on nearly 12,850 sq. km in the Cauvery basin has been lost, says a research paper". The Hindu. 11 December 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
- ↑ "Chapter 26: Irrigation and power". 1st Five Year Plan. Planning Commission of India. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). TCE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2007. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "World Waterfall Database". Archived from the original on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 9 November 2006.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 "Reservoir levels". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Corporation urged to chalk out water policy for Mysore city". The Hindu. 26 March 2006. Archived from the original on 29 October 2006.
- ↑ Rani, Midatala; Rani, Middatala (2002). "Historical Background Of The Cauvery Water Dispute". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 63: 1033–1042. JSTOR 44158173.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 Rao, Dodda Srinivasa (1998). Inter-state Water Disputes in India: Constitutional and Statutory Provisions and Settlement Machinery. Deep & Deep Publications. pp. 164–169. ISBN 978-8-176-29159-0.
- ↑ Ranjan, Amit (2023). Federalism and Inter-State River Water Disputes in India. Taylor & Francis. pp. 92–95. ISBN 978-1-00088-728-0.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Iyer, Ramaswamy (2003). Water: Perspectives, Issues, Concerns. SAGE Publications. pp. 41–49. ISBN 978-0-761-99759-7.
- ↑ "Article 262 of Indian Constitution". India kanoon. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Karnataka erupts over SC order on Cauvery". The Hindu. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
- ↑ "Cauvery Water Dispute: Second death in Karnataka, over 300 held". The Indian Express. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Cauvery water disputes tribunal award". Ministry of Jal Shakti Department of water resources. 2007. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021.
- ↑ "Tamil Nadu wins the Cauvery water battle". The Economic Times. 5 February 2007. Archived from the original on 11 April 2015.
- ↑ Venkatesan, J. (6 December 2012). "Release 10,000 cusecs till Sunday, Karnataka told". The Hindu. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
- ↑ Parsai, Gargi (20 February 2013). "Centre notifies Cauvery Tribunal final award". The Hindu. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
- ↑ "Cauvery water only for drinking needs". The Indian Express. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ Rajagopal, Krishnadas (16 February 2018). "Supreme Court curtails Tamil Nadu's share of Cauvery water". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
- ↑ "Cauvery Water Management Scheme, 2018". Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ "Cauvery dispute". The News Minute. 23 June 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Warrier, Shrikala (2014). Kamandalu: The Seven Sacred Rivers of Hinduism. Mayur University. pp. 20, 192–195. ISBN 978-0-95356-797-3.
- ↑ Eck, Diana L. (2012). India: A Sacred Geography. United States: Harmony Books. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7.
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 "Cauvery Pushkaram: Celebration of rivers". The Indian Express. 19 September 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Kaveri Maha Pushkaram 2017 Celebration in Srirangam and Mayiladuthurai: Tamil Nadu Set for Holy Festival along Cauvery". India.com. 12 September 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 "Mayiladuthurai ready for Cauvery Maha Pushkaram". The Hindu. 11 September 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2024.