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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} | ||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
| name | | name = Caribbean Hindustani | ||
| image | | image = Caribbean Hindustani in Latin, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Nastaliq.svg | ||
| imagecaption = Caribbean Hindustani written in the Latin, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Perso-Arabic scripts | | imagecaption = Caribbean Hindustani written in the Latin, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Perso-Arabic ([[Nastaliq]] calligraphy) scripts | ||
| nativename = कैरेबियाई हिंदुस्तानी {{small|{{small|{{small|([[Devanagari|Devanagari script]])}}}}}} <br /> {{script|Kthi|𑂍𑂶𑂩𑂵𑂥𑂱𑂨𑂰𑂆⸱𑂯𑂱𑂁𑂠𑂳𑂮𑂹𑂞𑂰𑂢𑂲}} {{small|{{small|{{small|([[Kaithi|Kaithi script]])}}}}}}<br />{{nastaliq|کَیریبئائی ہندوستانی}} {{small|{{small|{{small|([[Arabic script|Perso-Arabic script]])}}}}}} | | image_class = skin-invert-image | ||
| nativename = कैरेबियाई हिंदुस्तानी {{small|{{small|{{small|([[Devanagari|Devanagari script]])}}}}}} <br /> {{script|Kthi|𑂍𑂶𑂩𑂵𑂥𑂱𑂨𑂰𑂆⸱𑂯𑂱𑂁𑂠𑂳𑂮𑂹𑂞𑂰𑂢𑂲}} {{small|{{small|{{small|([[Kaithi|Kaithi script]])}}}}}}<br />{{nastaliq|کَیریبئائی ہندوستانی}} {{small|{{small|{{small|([[Arabic script|Perso-Arabic script]])}}}}}} | |||
| ethnicity = | | ethnicity = | ||
*[[Indo- | *[[Indo-Caribbean people]] | ||
**[[Indians in the Netherlands|Indo-Caribbean people in the Netherlands]] | |||
**[[Indo-Caribbean Americans]] | **[[Indo-Caribbean Americans]] | ||
**[[British Indo-Caribbean people]] | **[[British Indo-Caribbean people]] | ||
**[[Indo-Canadians#Indians from the Caribbean|Indo-Caribbean Canadians]] | **[[Indo-Canadians#Indians from the Caribbean|Indo-Caribbean Canadians]] | ||
| states = | | states = | ||
| region = [[Caribbean]] | | region = [[Caribbean]] | ||
| speakers = {{sigfig|153,000|2}} in Suriname | | speakers = {{sigfig|153,000|2}} in Suriname | ||
| date = 2018 | | date = 2018 | ||
| ref = e25 | | ref = e25 | ||
| speakers2 = | | speakers2 = ~1,600 in Trinidad and Tobago (in 2003)<br>299,400 in all countries (2006–2019)<ref name=e25/> | ||
| familycolor = Indo-European | | familycolor = Indo-European | ||
| fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | | fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | ||
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|fam4=[[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]] and [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]] | |fam4=[[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]] and [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]] | ||
|fam5=[[Bihari languages|Bihari]] and [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern Hindi]] | |fam5=[[Bihari languages|Bihari]] and [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern Hindi]] | ||
|fam6=[[ | |fam6=[[Magahi language|Magahi]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] | ||
| protoname = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] | | protoname = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] | ||
| ancestor2 = [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] | | ancestor2 = [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] | ||
| Line 29: | Line 30: | ||
| ancestor4 = [[Vedic Sanskrit]] | | ancestor4 = [[Vedic Sanskrit]] | ||
| ancestor5 = [[Sanskrit#Classical_Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]] | | ancestor5 = [[Sanskrit#Classical_Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]] | ||
| ancestor6 = [[Magadhi Prakrit|Magadhi]] and [[Ardhamagadhi Prakrit]]{{efn| | | ancestor6 = [[Magadhi Prakrit|Magadhi]] and [[Ardhamagadhi Prakrit]]{{efn|Magahi is descended from Magadhi Prakrit and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Prakrit}} | ||
| ancestor7 = Magadhan and Ardhamagadhi [[Apabhraṃśa]]{{efn| | | ancestor7 = Magadhan and Ardhamagadhi [[Apabhraṃśa]]{{efn|Magahi is descended from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa}} | ||
| ancestor8 = [[Abahattha]]{{efn|Only | | ancestor8 = [[Abahattha]]{{efn|Only Magahi is descended from Abahattha, not Awadhi. Awadhi comes straight from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa}} | ||
*[[ | *[[Magahi language|Magahi]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] | ||
| dia1 = [[#Trinidadian Hindustani|Trinidadian Hindustani]] | | dia1 = [[#Trinidadian Hindustani|Trinidadian Hindustani]] | ||
| dia2 = [[#Guyanese Hindustani|Guyanese Hindustani]] | | dia2 = [[#Guyanese Hindustani|Guyanese Hindustani]] | ||
| dia3 = [[ | | dia3 = [[Sarnámi Hindustáni|Sarnami Hindustani]] | ||
| script = {{unbulleted list | | script = {{unbulleted list | ||
|[[Devanagari]]<ref name="Script">{{Cite web|url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/library/script/|title=Script}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hykEAAAAQAAJ&q=kaithi+in+trinidad&pg=RA4-PA81-IA3|title = The Wesleyan Missionary Notices, Relating Principally to the Foreign Missions First Established by the Rev. John Wesley, M.A. The Rev. Dr. Coke and Others, and Now Carried on Under the Direction of the Methodist Conference|year = 1867}}</ref> | |[[Devanagari]]<ref name="Script">{{Cite web|url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/library/script/|title=Script}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hykEAAAAQAAJ&q=kaithi+in+trinidad&pg=RA4-PA81-IA3|title = The Wesleyan Missionary Notices, Relating Principally to the Foreign Missions First Established by the Rev. John Wesley, M.A. The Rev. Dr. Coke and Others, and Now Carried on Under the Direction of the Methodist Conference|year = 1867}}</ref> | ||
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| glottorefname = Caribbean Hindustani | | glottorefname = Caribbean Hindustani | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Caribbean Hindustani''' ({{lang|hns|[[Devanagari]]: {{lang|inc-Deva|कैरेबियाई हिंदुस्तानी}}; [[Kaithi]]: 𑂍𑂶𑂩𑂵𑂥𑂱𑂨𑂰𑂆⸱𑂯𑂱𑂁𑂠𑂳𑂮𑂹𑂞𑂰𑂢𑂲; [[Arabic script|Perso-Arabic]]: {{nastaliq| | '''Caribbean Hindustani''' ({{lang|hns|[[Devanagari]]: {{lang|inc-Deva|कैरेबियाई हिंदुस्तानी}}; [[Kaithi]]: 𑂍𑂶𑂩𑂵𑂥𑂱𑂨𑂰𑂆⸱𑂯𑂱𑂁𑂠𑂳𑂮𑂹𑂞𑂰𑂢𑂲; [[Arabic script|Perso-Arabic]]: {{nastaliq|کَیریبیائی ہندوستانی}}}}) is an [[Indo-Aryan language]] spoken by [[Indo-Caribbean people]] and the Indo-Caribbean diaspora. It is a [[koiné language]] mainly based on the [[Magahi language|Magahi]] ('Bhojpuri') and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] languages.<ref name=e25/> These were the most-spoken languages by the Indians who came as immigrants to the [[Caribbean]] from [[India]] as [[Indian indenture system|indentured laborers]]. It is closely related to [[Fiji Hindi]] and the ''koines'' spoken in [[Mauritius]] and [[South Africa]]. | ||
Because a majority of people came from the [[Magadha]] region in [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Jharkhand]], and the [[Awadh]] region in Uttar Pradesh, Caribbean Hindustani is most influenced by [[Magahi language|Magahi]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] and other [[Eastern Hindi]]-[[Bihari languages|Bihari dialects]]. [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi|Standard Hindi]]-[[Urdu|Standard Urdu]]) has also influenced the language due to the arrival of [[Bollywood]] films, music, and other media from India. It also has a minor influence from [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and other [[Languages of South Asia|South Asian languages]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/language/|title=Language}}</ref> The language has also borrowed many words from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[English language|English]] in [[Suriname]] and [[Guyana]], and English and [[French language|French]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. Many words unique to Caribbean Hindustani have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Caribbean people now live in. After the introduction of Standard Hindustani to the Caribbean, Caribbean Hindustani was seen by many Indo-Caribbean people as a broken version of Hindi, however due to later academic research it was seen as deriving from Bhojpuri (or more accurately Magahi<!--see Siegel-->, Awadhi, and other dialects and was in fact not a broken language, but its own unique language mainly deriving from the Magahi and Awadhi dialects, and not the [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]] dialect like Standard Hindi and Urdu did, thus the difference.<ref name="auto1">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/qZZIkdRuMI0 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20210202131346/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZZIkdRuMI0&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZZIkdRuMI0| title = Motilall Marhé meets Peggy Mohan for the first time to duscuss Bhojpuri | website=[[YouTube]]| date = 4 May 2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> | |||
Caribbean Hindustani is spoken as a vernacular by Indo-Caribbean people, independent of their religious background, though Hindus tend to incorporate more [[Sanskrit]] derived vocabulary and Muslims tend to incorporate more [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]], and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] derived vocabulary, similar to the Standard Hindi-Urdu divide of the [[Hindustani language]]. When written, the [[Devanagari script]] is used by [[Hindus]], while some [[Muslims]] tend to use the [[Perso-Arabic script]] in the [[Nastaliq]] [[calligraphic hand]] following the [[Urdu alphabet]]; historically, the [[Kaithi]] script was also used.<ref name=Kaithi>{{cite web |year=2007 |first=Anshuman |last=Pandey |title=Proposal to Encode the Kaithi Script in Plane 1 of ISO/IEC 10646 |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2007/07199-kaithi.pdf}}</ref> However, due to the decline in the language these scripts are not widely used and most often the [[Latin script]] is used due to familiarity and easiness. | |||
Caribbean Hindustani is spoken as a vernacular by Indo- | |||
[[Chutney music]], [[chutney soca]], [[chutney parang]], [[Baithak Gana|baithak gana]], [[Indian folk music|folk music]], [[Indian classical music|classical music]], some [[Hindu music|Hindu religious songs]], some [[Islamic music|Muslim religious songs]], and even some Indian [[Christian music|Christian religious songs]] are sung in Caribbean Hindustani, sometimes being mixed with [[Caribbean English|English]] in the [[Commonwealth Caribbean|Anglophone Caribbean]] or [[Dutch language|Dutch]] in [[Suriname]] and the [[Dutch Caribbean]]. | [[Chutney music]], [[chutney soca]], [[chutney parang]], [[Baithak Gana|baithak gana]], [[Indian folk music|folk music]], [[Indian classical music|classical music]], some [[Hindu music|Hindu religious songs]], some [[Islamic music|Muslim religious songs]], and even some Indian [[Christian music|Christian religious songs]] are sung in Caribbean Hindustani, sometimes being mixed with [[Caribbean English|English]] in the [[Commonwealth Caribbean|Anglophone Caribbean]] or [[Dutch language|Dutch]] in [[Suriname]] and the [[Dutch Caribbean]]. | ||
==Guyanese Hindustani== | ==Guyanese Hindustani== | ||
The Caribbean Hindustani of [[Guyana]] is known as ''Guyanese Hindustani'', ''Guyanese Bhojpuri'', ''Puraniya Hindi'', or ''Aili Gaili''. It is spoken by some members in a community of 300,000 Indo-Guyanese, mostly by the older generation.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2016/07/24/sunday/arts-on-sunday/bhojpuri-links-guyana-caribbean/ | title=Bhojpuri and its links to Guyana and the Caribbean | date=24 July 2016 }}</ref> The [[#Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani|Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani]] dialect of Guyanese Hindustani and Sarnami is spoken in [[East Berbice-Corentyne]] in Guyana and the neighboring district of [[Nickerie District|Nickerie]] in Suriname.<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KCpL6__6V0 | title=Djamoeni Dewdath tell her life story in the Nickerian Sarnami dialect | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> | The Caribbean Hindustani of [[Guyana]] is known as ''Guyanese Hindustani'', ''Guyanese Bhojpuri'', ''Puraniya Hindi'', or ''Aili Gaili''. It is spoken by some members in a community of 300,000 Indo-Guyanese, mostly by the older generation, [[Hindu priest|Hindu priests]], and [[Imam|imams]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2016/07/24/sunday/arts-on-sunday/bhojpuri-links-guyana-caribbean/ | title=Bhojpuri and its links to Guyana and the Caribbean | date=24 July 2016 }}</ref> The [[#Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani|Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani]] dialect of Guyanese Hindustani and Sarnami is spoken in [[East Berbice-Corentyne]] in Guyana and the neighboring district of [[Nickerie District|Nickerie]] in Suriname.<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KCpL6__6V0 | title=Djamoeni Dewdath tell her life story in the Nickerian Sarnami dialect | website=[[YouTube]] | date=6 May 2020 }}</ref> | ||
== Trinidadian Hindustani == | == Trinidadian Hindustani == | ||
[[File:Kala Brand Madras Curry Powder.jpg|thumb|Trinidadian Hindustani text in the Devanagari and Perso-Arabic script on a bucket of [[ | [[File:Kala Brand Madras Curry Powder.jpg|thumb|Trinidadian Hindustani text in the Devanagari and Perso-Arabic script on a bucket of [[curry powder]] from Trinidad and Tobago.]] | ||
The variant that is spoken in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] is known as ''Trinidadian Hindustani'', ''Trinidadian Bhojpuri'', ''Trinidadian Hindi'', ''Indian'', ''Plantation Hindustani'', or ''Gaon ke Bolee (Village Speech)''.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDRjfwtJgBMC&q=hindi+in+trinidad&pg=PA155 |title = The Indian Diaspora: Dynamics of Migration|isbn = 9780761932185|last1 = Jayaram|first1 = N.|last2 = Atal|first2 = Yogesh|date = 24 May 2004}}</ref> A majority of the early [[ | The variant that is spoken in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] is known as ''Trinidadian Hindustani'', ''Trinidadian Bhojpuri'', ''Trinidadian Hindi'', ''Indian'', ''Plantation Hindustani'', or ''Gaon ke Bolee (Village Speech)''.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDRjfwtJgBMC&q=hindi+in+trinidad&pg=PA155 |title = The Indian Diaspora: Dynamics of Migration|isbn = 9780761932185|last1 = Jayaram|first1 = N.|last2 = Atal|first2 = Yogesh|date = 24 May 2004}}</ref> A majority of the early [[Indo–Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Indian]] indentured immigrants spoke the [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] dialects, which later formed into Trinidadian Hindustani. In 1935, Indian movies began showing to audiences in Trinidad. Most of the Indian movies were in the [[Hindustani language|Standard Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) dialect]] and this modified Trinidadian Hindustani slightly by adding Standard [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] phrases and vocabulary to Trinidadian Hindustani. Indian movies also revitalized Hindustani among Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MNVnQAACAAJ |title = Bala Joban: The First Indian Movie in Trinidad (1935)|isbn = 9789766483227|last1 = Gooptar|first1 = Primnath|year = 2014| publisher=Caribbean Educational Publishers }}</ref> The British colonial government and estate owners had disdain and contempt for Hindustani and Indian languages in Trinidad. Due to this, many Indians saw it as a broken language keeping them in poverty and bound to the cane fields, and did not pass it on as a [[first language]], but rather as a [[heritage language]], as they favored English as a way out.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ZJqwHqFYzI | title=The Hindustani language as an element of Caribbean identity | website=[[YouTube]] | date=4 May 2020 }}</ref> Around the mid to late 1960s the ''lingua franca'' of Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians switched from Trinidadian Hindustani to a sort of ''Hindinized'' version of English. Today Hindustani survives on through [[Indo-Caribbean music|Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian musical forms]] such as, [[Bhajan]], [[Indian classical music]], [[Indian folk music]], [[Filmi]], [[Pichakaree]], [[Chutney music|Chutney]], [[Chutney soca]], and [[Chutney parang]]. {{asof|2003|post=,}} there were about 15,600 Trinidadians who spoke Trinidadian Hindustani, 90 % of them as a second language.<ref name="auto2" /> {{asof|2011|post=,}} there were about 10,000 who spoke Standard Hindi. Many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians today speak a type of [[Hinglish]] that consists of Trinidadian and Tobagonian English that is heavily laced with Trinidadian Hindustani vocabulary and phrases and many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians can recite phrases or prayers in Hindustani today. There are many places in Trinidad and Tobago that have names of Hindustani origin. Some phrases and vocabulary have even made their way into the mainstream English and English Creole dialect of the country.<ref name=e25/><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.studycountry.com/guide/TT-language.htm |title = The Languages spoken in Trinidad and Tobago}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.guardian.co.tt/lifestyle/10000-students-graduate-hindi-6.2.449105.73f9770ef7 |title = 10,000 students graduate in Hindi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mahabir|first1=Kumar |date=December 1999 |title=The Impact of Hindi on Trinidadian English |journal=Caribbean Quarterly|volume=45 |issue=4|pages= 13–34|doi= 10.1080/00086495.1999.11671866}}</ref><ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC&q=caribbean+hindustani+165%2C600&pg=PA481|title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: 4-Volume Set|last=Frawley|first=William|access-date=15 April 2020|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195139778|language=en|date=May 2003}}</ref> [[World Hindi Conference|World Hindi Day]] is celebrated each year on 10 January with events organized by the National Council of Indian Culture, Hindi Nidhi Foundation, Indian High Commission, Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Cultural Co-operation, and the [[Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsday.co.tt/2020/01/19/tt-celebrates-world-hindi-day/|title=TT celebrates World Hindi Day|date=19 January 2020|website=Trinidad and Tobago Newsday}}</ref> | ||
==Sarnami Hindustani== | ==Sarnami Hindustani== | ||
{{main|Sarnámi Hindustáni}} | |||
[[File:Suriname Bhojpuri.jpg|thumb|Sarnami Hindustani (Roman script) plaque at Suriname Memorial, [[Garden Reach]], [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]]] | [[File:Suriname Bhojpuri.jpg|thumb|Sarnami Hindustani (Roman script) plaque at Suriname Memorial, [[Garden Reach]], [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]]] | ||
{{anchor|Sarnami}}''Sarnami'' or ''Sarnami Hindoestani'' or ''Sarnami Hindustani'' meaning ''Surinamese Hindustani'' is the third-most spoken language in Suriname after Dutch and [[Sranan Tongo]] (the two ''[[lingua franca]]s'').<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Languages spoken in Suriname|url=https://www.studycountry.com/guide/SR-language.htm|access-date=4 January 2021|website=SpainExchange Country Guide|language=en}}</ref> | {{anchor|Sarnami}}''Sarnami'' or ''Sarnami Hindoestani'' or ''Sarnami Hindustani'' meaning ''Surinamese Hindustani'' is the third-most spoken language in Suriname after Dutch and [[Sranan Tongo]] (the two ''[[lingua franca]]s'').<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Languages spoken in Suriname|url=https://www.studycountry.com/guide/SR-language.htm|access-date=4 January 2021|website=SpainExchange Country Guide|language=en}}</ref> | ||
It developed as a fusion of [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] and [[Eastern Hindi]] languages, specifically [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], and – to a lesser degree – [[Magahi language|Magahi]]. Most scholars agree that Bhojpuri is the main contributor in the formation of Sarnami.<ref name=Damsteegt/> It is mainly spoken by and within Suriname's [[Indo-Surinamese]] (ca. 27% of the population) community and therefore it is not considered to be a third lingua franca. While Sarnami is mostly a language of informal daily communication, the traditional prestige language of the community is Standard [[Hindi–Urdu]] in either of its literary variants: [[Hindi|Hindi (Modern Standard Hindi)]] for Hindus, and [[Urdu]] for Muslims. | It developed as a fusion of [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] and [[Eastern Hindi]] languages, specifically [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], and – to a lesser degree – [[Magahi language|Magahi]]. Most scholars agree that Bhojpuri is the main contributor in the formation of Sarnami.<ref name=Damsteegt/> It is mainly spoken by and within Suriname's [[Indo-Surinamese]] (ca. 27% of the population) community and therefore it is not considered to be a third lingua franca. While Sarnami is mostly a language of informal daily communication, the traditional prestige language of the community is Standard [[Hindi–Urdu]] in either of its literary variants: [[Hindi|Hindi (Modern Standard Hindi)]] for Hindus, and [[Urdu]] for Muslims. This is similar to how [[Jamaican Patois]] is used informally and [[Jamaican English|Jamaican Standard English]] or the ''[[Received Pronunciation|Queen's English]]'' is seen as more prestigious.<ref name=Damsteegt>{{cite book |year=1988 |last=Damsteegt |first=Theo |chapter=Sarnami: a Living Language |editor1=Richard Keith Barz |editor2=Jeff Siegel |title=Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi |pages=95–120 |place=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz}}</ref> ''[[Baithak Gana]]'' is the most famous genre of music sung in Sarnami Hindustani. | ||
===Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani=== | ===Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani=== | ||
Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani, also called Nickerian Sarnami or Berbician Hindustani, is a unique dialect of Sarnami and Guyanese Bhojpuri-Hindustani that developed in the district of [[Nickerie District|Nickerie]] in [[Suriname]] and the neighboring county of [[Berbice]] (present-day [[East Berbice-Corentyne]]) in [[Guyana]] during the colonial times in the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Even though Suriname's Nickerie and Guyana's Berbice are in different countries separated by the [[Courantyne River]], the groups of descendants of Indian indentured laborers that settled in both areas existed as one [[Indo-Caribbean|Indian]] community and | Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani, also called Nickerian Sarnami or Berbician Hindustani, is a unique dialect of Sarnami and Guyanese Bhojpuri-Hindustani that developed in the district of [[Nickerie District|Nickerie]] in [[Suriname]] and the neighboring county of [[Berbice]] (present-day [[East Berbice-Corentyne]]) in [[Guyana]] during the colonial times in the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Even though Suriname's Nickerie and Guyana's Berbice are in different countries separated by the [[Courantyne River]], the groups of descendants of Indian indentured laborers that settled in both areas existed as one [[Indo-Caribbean|Indian]] community and intermarriage between Indians from Nickerie to Indians in Berbice and vice versa often occurred. The difference in colonial and post-colonial independent history in the two districts led to the Indians in Nickerie in Suriname being able to preserve the dialect, while in Berbice in Guyana it largely died out, however many words and phrases from the dialect were incorporated into the [[Guyanese Creole|Guyanese English Creole]] of Berbice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vinay Lal |date=26 June 2009 |title=From Masjid to Mandir: Across the Corentyne, into Suriname |url=https://southasia.ucla.edu/diaspora/masjid-madir-across-corentyne-suriname/ |website=southasia.ucla.edu}}</ref> Today the remaining speakers of Guyanese Hindustani are mostly speakers of the Nickerian-Berbician dialect due to the influx of Nickerians in Berbice. Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani is mostly mutually intelligible with the Sarnami spoken in the rest of Suriname, although there are many words from Guyanese English Creole and [[English language|English]]. Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani is also mutually intelligible with the Guyanese Hindustani spoken in the rest of Guyana, however unlike Suriname, Indians in Guyana have mostly adopted Guyanese English Creole as their first language and it is spoken mostly by the elderly, [[Hindu priest]]s, and Indian immigrants from Suriname.<ref name="youtube.com"/><ref>https://www.facebook.com/sarnamibol.nl/videos/sarnami-nickere-paramaribo/397549981504863/ {{User-generated source|certain=yes|date=October 2022}}</ref> | ||
== Research and promotional efforts == | == Research and promotional efforts == | ||
Early research on the language has been conducted by Motilall Rajvanshi Marhe from Suriname, Peggy Mohan and Noor Kumar Mahabir from Trinidad and Tobago, and Surendra Kumar Gambhir in Guyana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2020 |title=Motilall Marhe |url=https://chutneymusic.com/motilall-marhe/ |website=Chutney Music}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Priya J. Ramcharan |date=4 July 2020 |title=The Awareness of an Indian Decendant |url=https://icdn.today/the-awareness-of-an-indian-decendant/ |website=ICDN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Peggy Mohan |url=https://harpercollins.co.in/author-details/peggy-mohan/ |website=HarperCollins Publishers India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Kumar Mahabir Donates Copies of His Audio-Cassettes to UWI |url=https://indocaribbeanpublications.com/2018/07/16/dr-kumar-mahabir-donates-copies-of-his-audio-cassettes-to-uwi/ |access-date=8 February 2021 |website=Indo-Caribbean Publications}}</ref><ref name="auto1" /> Attempts to preserve the language are being made by Caribbean Hindustani Inc. led by Visham Bhimull, Sarnami Bol Inc. led by Rajsingh Ramanjulu in Suriname,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/ |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=Caribbean Hindustani |language=en-US}}</ref> Karen Dass in Trinidad and Tobago, and Harry Hergash in Canada who is originally from Guyana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who We Are |url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/about-us/who-we-are/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarnami Bol |url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/sarnami-bol/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2014 |title=The Linguistic Legacy of Indian-Guyanese |url=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2014/04/21/features/in-the-diaspora/linguistic-legacy-indian-guyanese/}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Hergash Launches Book on Indian-Guyanese Words, Phrases |url=https://guyaneseonline.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/hergash-launches-book-on-indian-guyanese-words-phrases.pdf |access-date=7 April 2021 |mode=cs1 |via=guyaneseonline.files.wordpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 September 2013 |title=Author Releases Book on Words and Phrases Used by Indian Immigrants, Descendants |work=Guyana Chronicle |url=https://guyanachronicle.com/2013/09/11/author-releases-book-on-words-and-phrases-used-by-indian-immigrants-descendants/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Kaveeta Sharma |date=n.d. |title=Guyanese Hindi Dictionary |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56183697e4b0beb41666a064/t/56340d3ee4b01aa7927ff753/1446251838454/Guyanese+Hindi+Dictionary.pdf |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref> | Early research on the language has been conducted by Motilall Rajvanshi Marhe from Suriname, Peggy Mohan and Noor Kumar Mahabir from Trinidad and Tobago, and Surendra Kumar Gambhir in Guyana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2020 |title=Motilall Marhe |url=https://chutneymusic.com/motilall-marhe/ |website=Chutney Music}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Priya J. Ramcharan |date=4 July 2020 |title=The Awareness of an Indian Decendant |url=https://icdn.today/the-awareness-of-an-indian-decendant/ |website=ICDN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Peggy Mohan |url=https://harpercollins.co.in/author-details/peggy-mohan/ |website=HarperCollins Publishers India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Kumar Mahabir Donates Copies of His Audio-Cassettes to UWI |url=https://indocaribbeanpublications.com/2018/07/16/dr-kumar-mahabir-donates-copies-of-his-audio-cassettes-to-uwi/ |access-date=8 February 2021 |website=Indo-Caribbean Publications|date=16 July 2018 }}</ref><ref name="auto1" /> Attempts to preserve the language are being made by Caribbean Hindustani Inc. led by Visham Bhimull, Sarnami Bol Inc. led by Rajsingh Ramanjulu in Suriname,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/ |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=Caribbean Hindustani |language=en-US}}</ref> Karen Dass in Trinidad and Tobago, and Harry Hergash in Canada who is originally from Guyana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who We Are |url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/about-us/who-we-are/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarnami Bol |url=https://caribbeanhindustani.org/sarnami-bol/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2014 |title=The Linguistic Legacy of Indian-Guyanese |url=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2014/04/21/features/in-the-diaspora/linguistic-legacy-indian-guyanese/}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Hergash Launches Book on Indian-Guyanese Words, Phrases |url=https://guyaneseonline.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/hergash-launches-book-on-indian-guyanese-words-phrases.pdf |access-date=7 April 2021 |mode=cs1 |via=guyaneseonline.files.wordpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 September 2013 |title=Author Releases Book on Words and Phrases Used by Indian Immigrants, Descendants |work=Guyana Chronicle |url=https://guyanachronicle.com/2013/09/11/author-releases-book-on-words-and-phrases-used-by-indian-immigrants-descendants/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Kaveeta Sharma |date=n.d. |title=Guyanese Hindi Dictionary |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56183697e4b0beb41666a064/t/56340d3ee4b01aa7927ff753/1446251838454/Guyanese+Hindi+Dictionary.pdf |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
*[[Indo- | *[[Indo-Caribbean people]] | ||
*[[Fiji Hindi]] | *[[Fiji Hindi]] | ||
* [[Girmityas]] | * [[Girmityas]] | ||
| Line 81: | Line 83: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
== Further reading == | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Mohan |first=Peggy |title=The rise and fall of Trinidad Bhojpuri |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |date=1990 |volume=85 |pages=21-30 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.1990.85.21}} | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| Line 97: | Line 102: | ||
[[Category:Fusional languages]] | [[Category:Fusional languages]] | ||
[[Category:Bihari languages]] | [[Category:Bihari languages]] | ||
[[Category:Bhojpuri language]] | [[Category:Bhojpuri-language culture]] | ||
[[Category:Languages of Guyana]] | [[Category:Languages of Guyana]] | ||
[[Category:Languages of Suriname]] | [[Category:Languages of Suriname]] | ||
| Line 104: | Line 109: | ||
[[Category:Awadhi language]] | [[Category:Awadhi language]] | ||
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]] | [[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]] | ||
[[Category:Languages of the Indian diaspora]] | |||
Latest revision as of 10:19, 20 February 2026
| Caribbean Hindustani | |
|---|---|
| कैरेबियाई हिंदुस्तानी (Devanagari script) Template:Script/Kaithi (Kaithi script) کَیریبئائی ہندوستانی (Perso-Arabic script) | |
 Caribbean Hindustani written in the Latin, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Perso-Arabic (Nastaliq calligraphy) scripts | |
| Region | Caribbean |
| Ethnicity | |
Native speakers | 150,000 in Suriname (2018)e25 ~1,600 in Trinidad and Tobago (in 2003) 299,400 in all countries (2006–2019)[1] |
Early forms | |
| Dialects | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | hns |
| Glottolog | cari1275 |
Caribbean Hindustani (Devanagari: कैरेबियाई हिंदुस्तानी; Kaithi: 𑂍𑂶𑂩𑂵𑂥𑂱𑂨𑂰𑂆⸱𑂯𑂱𑂁𑂠𑂳𑂮𑂹𑂞𑂰𑂢𑂲; Perso-Arabic: کَیریبیائی ہندوستانی) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Indo-Caribbean people and the Indo-Caribbean diaspora. It is a koiné language mainly based on the Magahi ('Bhojpuri') and Awadhi languages.[1] These were the most-spoken languages by the Indians who came as immigrants to the Caribbean from India as indentured laborers. It is closely related to Fiji Hindi and the koines spoken in Mauritius and South Africa.
Because a majority of people came from the Magadha region in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand, and the Awadh region in Uttar Pradesh, Caribbean Hindustani is most influenced by Magahi, Awadhi and other Eastern Hindi-Bihari dialects. Hindustani (Standard Hindi-Standard Urdu) has also influenced the language due to the arrival of Bollywood films, music, and other media from India. It also has a minor influence from Tamil and other South Asian languages.[5] The language has also borrowed many words from Dutch and English in Suriname and Guyana, and English and French in Trinidad and Tobago. Many words unique to Caribbean Hindustani have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Caribbean people now live in. After the introduction of Standard Hindustani to the Caribbean, Caribbean Hindustani was seen by many Indo-Caribbean people as a broken version of Hindi, however due to later academic research it was seen as deriving from Bhojpuri (or more accurately Magahi, Awadhi, and other dialects and was in fact not a broken language, but its own unique language mainly deriving from the Magahi and Awadhi dialects, and not the Khariboli dialect like Standard Hindi and Urdu did, thus the difference.[6]
Caribbean Hindustani is spoken as a vernacular by Indo-Caribbean people, independent of their religious background, though Hindus tend to incorporate more Sanskrit derived vocabulary and Muslims tend to incorporate more Persian, Arabic, and Turkic derived vocabulary, similar to the Standard Hindi-Urdu divide of the Hindustani language. When written, the Devanagari script is used by Hindus, while some Muslims tend to use the Perso-Arabic script in the Nastaliq calligraphic hand following the Urdu alphabet; historically, the Kaithi script was also used.[4] However, due to the decline in the language these scripts are not widely used and most often the Latin script is used due to familiarity and easiness.
Chutney music, chutney soca, chutney parang, baithak gana, folk music, classical music, some Hindu religious songs, some Muslim religious songs, and even some Indian Christian religious songs are sung in Caribbean Hindustani, sometimes being mixed with English in the Anglophone Caribbean or Dutch in Suriname and the Dutch Caribbean.
Guyanese Hindustani[edit | edit source]
The Caribbean Hindustani of Guyana is known as Guyanese Hindustani, Guyanese Bhojpuri, Puraniya Hindi, or Aili Gaili. It is spoken by some members in a community of 300,000 Indo-Guyanese, mostly by the older generation, Hindu priests, and imams.[7] The Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani dialect of Guyanese Hindustani and Sarnami is spoken in East Berbice-Corentyne in Guyana and the neighboring district of Nickerie in Suriname.[8]
Trinidadian Hindustani[edit | edit source]
The variant that is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago is known as Trinidadian Hindustani, Trinidadian Bhojpuri, Trinidadian Hindi, Indian, Plantation Hindustani, or Gaon ke Bolee (Village Speech).[9] A majority of the early Indian indentured immigrants spoke the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects, which later formed into Trinidadian Hindustani. In 1935, Indian movies began showing to audiences in Trinidad. Most of the Indian movies were in the Standard Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) dialect and this modified Trinidadian Hindustani slightly by adding Standard Hindi and Urdu phrases and vocabulary to Trinidadian Hindustani. Indian movies also revitalized Hindustani among Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians.[10] The British colonial government and estate owners had disdain and contempt for Hindustani and Indian languages in Trinidad. Due to this, many Indians saw it as a broken language keeping them in poverty and bound to the cane fields, and did not pass it on as a first language, but rather as a heritage language, as they favored English as a way out.[11] Around the mid to late 1960s the lingua franca of Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians switched from Trinidadian Hindustani to a sort of Hindinized version of English. Today Hindustani survives on through Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian musical forms such as, Bhajan, Indian classical music, Indian folk music, Filmi, Pichakaree, Chutney, Chutney soca, and Chutney parang. As of 2003,[update] there were about 15,600 Trinidadians who spoke Trinidadian Hindustani, 90 % of them as a second language.[12] As of 2011,[update] there were about 10,000 who spoke Standard Hindi. Many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians today speak a type of Hinglish that consists of Trinidadian and Tobagonian English that is heavily laced with Trinidadian Hindustani vocabulary and phrases and many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians can recite phrases or prayers in Hindustani today. There are many places in Trinidad and Tobago that have names of Hindustani origin. Some phrases and vocabulary have even made their way into the mainstream English and English Creole dialect of the country.[1][13][14][15][9][12] World Hindi Day is celebrated each year on 10 January with events organized by the National Council of Indian Culture, Hindi Nidhi Foundation, Indian High Commission, Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Cultural Co-operation, and the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha.[16]
Sarnami Hindustani[edit | edit source]
Sarnami or Sarnami Hindoestani or Sarnami Hindustani meaning Surinamese Hindustani is the third-most spoken language in Suriname after Dutch and Sranan Tongo (the two lingua francas).[17] It developed as a fusion of Bihari and Eastern Hindi languages, specifically Bhojpuri, Awadhi, and – to a lesser degree – Magahi. Most scholars agree that Bhojpuri is the main contributor in the formation of Sarnami.[18] It is mainly spoken by and within Suriname's Indo-Surinamese (ca. 27% of the population) community and therefore it is not considered to be a third lingua franca. While Sarnami is mostly a language of informal daily communication, the traditional prestige language of the community is Standard Hindi–Urdu in either of its literary variants: Hindi (Modern Standard Hindi) for Hindus, and Urdu for Muslims. This is similar to how Jamaican Patois is used informally and Jamaican Standard English or the Queen's English is seen as more prestigious.[18] Baithak Gana is the most famous genre of music sung in Sarnami Hindustani.
Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani[edit | edit source]
Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani, also called Nickerian Sarnami or Berbician Hindustani, is a unique dialect of Sarnami and Guyanese Bhojpuri-Hindustani that developed in the district of Nickerie in Suriname and the neighboring county of Berbice (present-day East Berbice-Corentyne) in Guyana during the colonial times in the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Even though Suriname's Nickerie and Guyana's Berbice are in different countries separated by the Courantyne River, the groups of descendants of Indian indentured laborers that settled in both areas existed as one Indian community and intermarriage between Indians from Nickerie to Indians in Berbice and vice versa often occurred. The difference in colonial and post-colonial independent history in the two districts led to the Indians in Nickerie in Suriname being able to preserve the dialect, while in Berbice in Guyana it largely died out, however many words and phrases from the dialect were incorporated into the Guyanese English Creole of Berbice.[19] Today the remaining speakers of Guyanese Hindustani are mostly speakers of the Nickerian-Berbician dialect due to the influx of Nickerians in Berbice. Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani is mostly mutually intelligible with the Sarnami spoken in the rest of Suriname, although there are many words from Guyanese English Creole and English. Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani is also mutually intelligible with the Guyanese Hindustani spoken in the rest of Guyana, however unlike Suriname, Indians in Guyana have mostly adopted Guyanese English Creole as their first language and it is spoken mostly by the elderly, Hindu priests, and Indian immigrants from Suriname.[8][20]
Research and promotional efforts[edit | edit source]
Early research on the language has been conducted by Motilall Rajvanshi Marhe from Suriname, Peggy Mohan and Noor Kumar Mahabir from Trinidad and Tobago, and Surendra Kumar Gambhir in Guyana.[21][22][23][24][6] Attempts to preserve the language are being made by Caribbean Hindustani Inc. led by Visham Bhimull, Sarnami Bol Inc. led by Rajsingh Ramanjulu in Suriname,[25] Karen Dass in Trinidad and Tobago, and Harry Hergash in Canada who is originally from Guyana.[26][27][28][29][30][31]
See also[edit | edit source]
Footnotes[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Magahi is descended from Magadhi Prakrit and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
- ↑ Magahi is descended from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa
- ↑ Only Magahi is descended from Abahattha, not Awadhi. Awadhi comes straight from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa
- ↑ Nastaliq calligraphic hand, Urdu alphabet
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namede25 - ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Script".
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 "The Wesleyan Missionary Notices, Relating Principally to the Foreign Missions First Established by the Rev. John Wesley, M.A. The Rev. Dr. Coke and Others, and Now Carried on Under the Direction of the Methodist Conference". 1867.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Pandey, Anshuman (2007). "Proposal to Encode the Kaithi Script in Plane 1 of ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF).
- ↑ "Language".
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Motilall Marhé meets Peggy Mohan for the first time to duscuss Bhojpuri". YouTube. 4 May 2020.
- ↑ "Bhojpuri and its links to Guyana and the Caribbean". 24 July 2016.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Djamoeni Dewdath tell her life story in the Nickerian Sarnami dialect". YouTube. 6 May 2020.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Jayaram, N.; Atal, Yogesh (24 May 2004). The Indian Diaspora: Dynamics of Migration. ISBN 9780761932185.
- ↑ Gooptar, Primnath (2014). Bala Joban: The First Indian Movie in Trinidad (1935). Caribbean Educational Publishers. ISBN 9789766483227.
- ↑ "The Hindustani language as an element of Caribbean identity". YouTube. 4 May 2020.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Frawley, William (May 2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: 4-Volume Set. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 9780195139778. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
- ↑ "The Languages spoken in Trinidad and Tobago".
- ↑ "10,000 students graduate in Hindi".
- ↑ Mahabir, Kumar (December 1999). "The Impact of Hindi on Trinidadian English". Caribbean Quarterly. 45 (4): 13–34. doi:10.1080/00086495.1999.11671866.
- ↑ "TT celebrates World Hindi Day". Trinidad and Tobago Newsday. 19 January 2020.
- ↑ "The Languages spoken in Suriname". SpainExchange Country Guide. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Damsteegt, Theo (1988). "Sarnami: a Living Language". In Richard Keith Barz; Jeff Siegel (eds.). Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 95–120.
- ↑ Vinay Lal (26 June 2009). "From Masjid to Mandir: Across the Corentyne, into Suriname". southasia.ucla.edu.
- ↑ https://www.facebook.com/sarnamibol.nl/videos/sarnami-nickere-paramaribo/397549981504863/ Template:User-generated source
- ↑ "Motilall Marhe". Chutney Music. 3 June 2020.
- ↑ Priya J. Ramcharan (4 July 2020). "The Awareness of an Indian Decendant". ICDN.
- ↑ "Peggy Mohan". HarperCollins Publishers India.
- ↑ "Dr Kumar Mahabir Donates Copies of His Audio-Cassettes to UWI". Indo-Caribbean Publications. 16 July 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ↑ "Home". Caribbean Hindustani. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
- ↑ "Who We Are".
- ↑ "Sarnami Bol".
- ↑ "The Linguistic Legacy of Indian-Guyanese". 21 April 2014.
- ↑ Hergash Launches Book on Indian-Guyanese Words, Phrases (PDF). Retrieved 7 April 2021 – via guyaneseonline.files.wordpress.com.
- ↑ "Author Releases Book on Words and Phrases Used by Indian Immigrants, Descendants". Guyana Chronicle. 11 September 2013.
- ↑ Kaveeta Sharma (n.d.). "Guyanese Hindi Dictionary" (PDF). Retrieved 7 April 2021.
Further reading[edit | edit source]
- Mohan, Peggy (1990). "The rise and fall of Trinidad Bhojpuri". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 85: 21–30. doi:10.1515/ijsl.1990.85.21.
External links[edit | edit source]
Template:Languages of Guyana Template:Languages of Suriname Template:Languages of Trinidad and Tobago Template:Bihari languages