Punjabi Hindus: Difference between revisions

Punjabi Hindus
पंजाबी हिंदू · ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਹਿੰਦੂ · پنجابی ہندو ; Panjābī Hindū
	Durgiana Temple, Amritsar
Total population
	c. 17,630,000–19,990,000 approx.
Regions with significant populations
Punjab, India	10,678,140 (2011 census)
Delhi	4,029,110 – 5,875,780 (2011 est.)
Haryana	2,028,120 – 2,535,150 (2011 est.)
Rajasthan	281,050 (2011 est.)
Himachal Pradesh	222,410 (2011 est.)
Punjab, Pakistan	249,716 (2023 census)
Chandigarh	94,150 (2011 est.)
Jammu	59,930 (2011 est.)
Uttarakhand	27,240 (2011 est.)
Languages
	Punjabi and its dialects; Hindi
Religion
	Hinduism (incl. Nanakpanthi)
Related ethnic groups
	Punjabi Sikhs; Punjabi Muslims; Punjabi Christians;

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Punjabi Hindus are adherents of Hinduism who identify ethnically, linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Punjabis and are natives of the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. Punjabi Hindus are the third-largest religious group of the Punjabi community, after the Punjabi Muslims and the Punjabi Sikhs. Punjabi Hindus mostly inhabit the Indian state of Punjab, as well as Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Chandigarh today, but many have ancestry across the greater Punjab region, which was partitioned between India and Pakistan in 1947.

Punjabi Hindus comprise a diverse range of castes, with the urban upper castes, particularly Khatris and Aroras, having historically played a dominant role in the region's trade, commerce, and industry. According to available demographic data, out of the Punjab state's total Hindu population of 38.5% (2011 census), Scheduled Castes constitute approximately 11%, while Other Backward Classes account for around 8.3%.^[18]

History

Ancient

Rig Veda is the oldest Vedic Sanskrit Hindu text that originated in the northwestern Punjab region.

Hinduism is the oldest recorded religion practiced by the Punjabi people.^[19] The historical Vedic religion of the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) constituted the religious ideas and practices in Punjab, and centred primarily in the worship of Indra, the Hindu god of heaven and lightning.^[20] The Vedic tribes moved further eastwards in the northern Indus Valley and towards the Ganges-Yamuna doab during the late Vedic Period, and Brahminism developed out of the Vedic origins in the Kurukshetra area. The religion of the Vedic Period is one of the precursors of Hinduism, and the Vedic period ended when the Hindu synthesis developed out of the interaction between Brahminism, Sramanism, and local religions.^[21]^[22]^{[lower-alpha 9]}

The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE,^[23] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.^[24]

British colonial era

Colour photograph of a *sadhu* and companion sitting under a large tree in Lahore, India in 1914, taken by Stéphane Passet

Prominent Indian nationalists from Punjab, such as Lala Lajpat Rai, belonged to the Arya Samaj. The Arya Samaj, a Hindu reformist sect was active in propagating their message in Punjab.^[25] In the early part of the 20th century, the Samaj and organisations inspired by it, such as Jat Pat Todak Mandal, were active in campaigning against caste discrimination.^[26] Other activities in which the Samaj engaged included campaigning for the acceptance of widow remarriage and women's education.^[27]

During the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Hindus and Punjabi Muslims was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab, Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions of tazias, in Muharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment of Sabils (shelters where water and sharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."^[28]^:174
"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of Varnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... The Shamsis are believers in Shah Shamas Tabrez of Multan, and follow the Imam, for the time being, of the Ismailia sect of Shias... they belong mostly to the Sunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."^[28]^:130
— Excerpts from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911 CE

1947 Partition

Approximately 3 million Punjabi Hindus migrated from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (present-day Pakistan) to East Punjab and Delhi (present-day India) during the Partition.^[29]^[30]^[31]

This split the former British province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's East Punjab state (later divided into the new states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide.^[32]

The newly formed governments had not anticipated, and were completely unequipped for, a two-way migration of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the new India-Pakistan border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. The worst case of violence among all regions is concluded to have taken place in Punjab.^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]

Punjabi Suba and trifurcation of Punjab

After the Partition, Sikh leaders and political parties demanded a "Punjabi Suba" (Punjabi Province) where Punjabi language written in the Gurumukhi script would be the language of the state in North India.

At the instigation of the Arya Samaj, many Punjabi Hindus in present-day Ambala, Una, and Sirsa stated Hindi as their mother tongue in the censuses of 1951 and 1961. Some areas of the erstwhile East Punjab state where Hindi, Haryanvi, and Western Pahari-speaking Hindus formed the majority, became part of the newly created states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh where Hindi was declared the state language. This was in contrast with the primarily Punjabi-speaking locals in some regions of the newly created states.^[37] A direct result of the trifurcation of East Punjab into three states made Punjab a Sikh-majority state in India. Today, Punjabi Hindus make up approximately 38.5% population of present Punjab State of India.^[38]^[39]

Demographics

India

In the Indian state of Punjab, Punjabi Hindus make up approximately 38.5% of the state's population; numbering 10.7 million and are a majority in the Doaba region. Punjabi Hindus form a majority in five districts of Punjab, namely, Pathankot, Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Fazilka and Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts.^[40]

During the 1947 partition, many Hindus from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province settled in Delhi. Determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates, Punjabi Hindus form approximately 24 to 35 percent of Delhi's population;^{[lower-alpha 2]}^{[lower-alpha 1]} based on 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 16.8 million, this amounts to between 4 and 5.9 million people.^[4]

Punjabi Hindus form between approximately 8 and 10 percent of Haryana's population; based on 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 25.4 million, this amounts to between 2.03 and 2.54 million people.^{[lower-alpha 8]} Similar to Delhi, most Punjabi Hindus in Haryana can trace their ancestry to West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province due to mass migration associated with the 1947 partition. In the contemporary era, Punjabi Hindus are influential in the state politics.^[7]^[8]

Punjabi language as a mother tongue in Haryana^{[lower-alpha 10]}
Subdivision	1881 census^[41]^[42]^[43]		1931 census^[44]		1961 census^[45]		1971 census^[46]
Subdivision	Population	Percentage	Population	Percentage	Population	Percentage	Population	Percentage
Ambala district	351,418	32.93%	264,521	35.61%	418,656	30.48%	153,142	13.94%
Hisar district^{[lower-alpha 11]}	196,808	25.98%	219,718	24.43%	178,802	11.61%	314,829	14.76%
Jind State/Jind district	66,339	26.55%	66,688	20.54%	N/A	N/A	20,033	3.13%
Kalsia State	28,168	41.6%	10,551	17.63%	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Karnal district	26,580	4.27%	16,430	1.93%	198,292	13.3%	279,421	14.1%
Rohtak district	561	0.1%	526	0.07%	14,302	1.01%	33,000	1.85%
Gurgaon district	343	0.05%	899	0.12%	19,270	1.55%	40,003	2.34%
Dujana State	8	0.03%	15	0.05%	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Pataudi State	2	0.01%	1	0.01%	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Loharu State	0	0%	16	0.07%	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Mahendragarh district	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	2,895	0.53%	3,444	0.5%
Total Punjabi language population	670,227	16.69%	579,365	12.89%	832,217	10.93%	843,872	8.41%
Total Haryana population	4,015,386	100%	4,495,730	100%	7,613,362	100%	10,036,808	100%

Pakistan

Following the large-scale exodus that took place during the 1947 partition, there remains a small Punjabi Hindu community in Pakistan today. According to the 2017 Census, there are about 200,000 Hindus in Punjab province, forming approximately 0.2% of the total population.^[47] Much of the community resides in the primarily rural South Punjab districts of Rahim Yar Khan and Bahawalpur where they form 3.12% and 1.12% of the population respectively,^[48]^[49] while the rest are concentrated in urban centres such as Lahore.^[50]^[51] In 2006, the last functioning Hindu temple in Lahore, once the cultural capital of Punjabi Hindus, was destroyed to make way for a multi-story commercial building, and thus the millennia-old history of Hindus in Lahore came to an end.^[52]

Diaspora

Large diaspora communities exist in many countries including in Canada, the Gulf Countries, Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

Culture and religion

Durgiana Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, India.

Fresco of Radha Krishna painted in the early 19th century on the walls of the Maiyanatha Thakurdwara in Katra Dulo, Amritsar, Punjab

A Hindu illustrated manuscript written in Gurmukhi script with paintings inside

As in many other parts of India, Hinduism in Punjab has adapted over time and has become a synthesis of culture and history.

As Hindus believe that dharma is universal and evolves with time, many Hindus also value other spiritual paths and religious traditions. They believe that any traditions that are equally able to nurture one's Atman should be accepted and taught. Hinduism itself encourages any being to reach their own self-realization in their own unique way either through Bhagavan or through other means of devotion and meditation.^[54]

The Punjabi Hindus continue heterogeneous religious practices in spiritual kinship with Sikhism. This not only includes veneration of the Sikh gurus in private practice but also visits to Sikh gurdwaras in addition to Hindu temples.^[55]

According to Anjali Gera Roy, The Hindu Punjabis of Western Punjab settled away from their ancestral homeland during 1947 partition, speak a hybrid language based on Punjabi and Hindi (or Hindi with Punjabi accent).^[56]^[57]

Udasis

Udasi is a religious sect of ascetic sadhus centered in Punjab Region. The Udasis were key interpreters of the Sikh philosophy and the custodians of important Sikh shrines until the Akali movement. They brought many converts into the Sikh fold during the 18th and the early 19th centuries.^[58] However, their religious practices border on a syncretism of Sikhism and Hinduism. When the Singh Sabha, dominated by Tat Khalsa Sikhs, redefined the Sikh identity in the early 20th century, the Udasi mahants were expelled from the Sikh shrines. Since then, the Udasis have increasingly regarded themselves as Hindus rather than Sikhs.^[59]

Nanakpanthis

Numerous Punjabi Hindus are Nanakpanthi, who revere Guru Nanak alongside their Hindu deities but without following the other gurus, and nor identify as Sikhs in terms of religious affiliation; at the time of the 1891 census of British Punjab, it has been estimated that, out of the 1,8 million Sikhs around 579,000 were Hindu Nanakpanthis, but in later classifications the definitions of "Hindu" and "Sikh" would be more precise and the Hindu Nanakpanthis would stop being counted as "Sikhs".^[60]

Arya Samaj

The Arya Samaj was a Hindu reformist organization founded in the 1870s by Dayananda Saraswati, and while he was from Gujarat, the movement had a lot of influence among Punjabi Hindus, especially the Khatris and Aroras, the Arya Samajis being social reformers who aimed to promote monotheism and were against what they called "supersititions" such as idolatry, wanted to raise the literacy rates (especially for women) and were fighting caste discrimination.^[61]

Temples

Punjabi Hindu temples historically had various names depending on the associated denomination, such as Shivala (Shaivist temple), Devidwara (Shaktist temple), or Thakurdwara (Vaishnavist temple).^[62]^[63]^[64] Thakurdwara complexes often had a samadh (samadhi) mausoleum dedicated to the founder of the temple and a dharamsala (building for accommodating pilgrims and ascetics, such as bairagis).^[63] Devidwaras were devoted to the worship of the devi (goddesses).^[64] Temples often have various deities as their central focus in the form of a murti (idol), with there being no general uniformity in this regard.^[62] Hindu worshipping practices at a temple are more individualistic in-nature rather than congregational.^[62]

Temple architecture

True-colour photograph - Lahore, India (now Pakistan). A Hindu temple, possibly Shaivite, 1914

The main room or area of a temple will house the deity in the form of a murti, with this space being known as garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum), which is the "heart" or inner-most point of the temple.^[62] Also, there is a passageway that allows for circuambulation of the garbha griha space, which is a requirement after prayers are given.^[62] Architecturally, there is usually a dome or spire structure built over the garbha griha.^[62] Another feature is a small passageway called the antrala (vestibule), which connects the garbha griha and mandapa (pillard hall) spaces together.^[62] The mandapa is a pavilion that allows the devotees to congregate.^[62] Temples are built on a raised, staired platform with one entryway, with the entrance-porch being called a ardh-mandapa.^[62]

Notes

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 “The most important section among settlers is the Punjabis who are estimated to constitute around 35 percent of the population."^[6]
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 “Though Punjabis constitute a mere twenty-four per cent of so of the capital city's population, on average they hold fifty-three per cent of the available managerial positions."^[5]^:54
↑ Punjabi Hindus represent between 24 and 35 per cent of Delhi's population, determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates.^[5]^[6] Based on the 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 16,787,941, this amounts to between 4,029,106 and 5,875,779 persons.^[4]
↑ “Punjabis constitute about eight per cent of the state’s population, they are a can’t-be-ignored political constituency."^[7]
↑ “Political experts attribute the rise of the BJP in the region to sustained consolidation among certain communities, especially the Punjabis who account for 8% of the state’s estimated population of around 28 million.”^[8]
↑ “From the announcement of candidates to the election campaign, the Congress primarily focused on the 22-25 percent Jat and 20-22 percent Scheduled Caste voters. In contrast, the BJP, in line with its non-Jat strategy, focused on the 30-32 percent OBCs, 9-10 percent Punjabis and 8-9 percent Brahmins.”^[9]
↑ “The Punjabi population of Haryana is considered to be 10 percent of the total population of the state. Many constituencies even put this figure at around 14 percent. Of this population, 4 percent are Sikhs and the rest are Hindus.”^[10]
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Punjabi Hindus represent between 8 and 10 percent of Haryana's population, determined from 2014, 2019, 2024, and 2025 estimates.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] Based on the 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 25,351,462, this amounts to between 2,028,117 and 2,535,146 persons.
↑ Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. p. 3.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2
↑ Including speakers of Standard Punjabi and Western Punjabi (Lahnda)
↑ 1881 census count includes Sirsa District, which was later amalgamated with Hissar District.

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↑ Jaffrelot, Christopher (2010). Religion, Caste, and Politics in India. Primus Books. p. 97.
↑ ^62.0 ^62.1 ^62.2 ^62.3 ^62.4 ^62.5 ^62.6 ^62.7 ^62.8 Singh, Jagraj (2009). "Difference Between Gurdwara and Mandir (Temple) - Mandir (Temple)". A Complete Guide to Sikhism. Unistar Books. pp. 106–107. ISBN 9788171427543.
↑ ^63.0 ^63.1 Journal of Regional History. Department of History, Guru Nanak Dev University. 1982. pp. 28–31.
↑ ^64.0 ^64.1 Nath, Viswambhar (2002). "Life in My Ancestral Village: Places of Worship and Religious Practices". Development: A Saga of Two Worlds. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 29–31. ISBN 9788170229469.

Sources

Brass, Paul Richard (1974). Language, Religion and Politics in North India. Cambridge University Press.
Halbfass, Wilhelm (1991), Tradition and Reflection, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-0361-7, archived from the original on 23 December 2023, retrieved 23 December 2023
Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press

External links

Template:Hinduism in India by region Template:Religion in India topics

[Delhi2015-5] 1.0 ^1.1 “The most important section among settlers is the Punjabis who are estimated to constitute around 35 percent of the population."^[6]

[Delhi1991-6] 2.0 ^2.1 “Though Punjabis constitute a mere twenty-four per cent of so of the capital city's population, on average they hold fifty-three per cent of the available managerial positions."^[5]^:54

[DelhiPopulation-9] Punjabi Hindus represent between 24 and 35 per cent of Delhi's population, determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates.^[5]^[6] Based on the 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 16,787,941, this amounts to between 4,029,106 and 5,875,779 persons.^[4]

[Haryana2014-11] “Punjabis constitute about eight per cent of the state’s population, they are a can’t-be-ignored political constituency."^[7]

[Haryana2019-13] “Political experts attribute the rise of the BJP in the region to sustained consolidation among certain communities, especially the Punjabis who account for 8% of the state’s estimated population of around 28 million.”^[8]

[Haryana2024-15] “From the announcement of candidates to the election campaign, the Congress primarily focused on the 22-25 percent Jat and 20-22 percent Scheduled Caste voters. In contrast, the BJP, in line with its non-Jat strategy, focused on the 30-32 percent OBCs, 9-10 percent Punjabis and 8-9 percent Brahmins.”^[9]

[Haryana2025-17] “The Punjabi population of Haryana is considered to be 10 percent of the total population of the state. Many constituencies even put this figure at around 14 percent. Of this population, 4 percent are Sikhs and the rest are Hindus.”^[10]

[HaryanaPopulation-18] 8.0 ^8.1 Punjabi Hindus represent between 8 and 10 percent of Haryana's population, determined from 2014, 2019, 2024, and 2025 estimates.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] Based on the 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 25,351,462, this amounts to between 2,028,117 and 2,535,146 persons.

[Michaels-legacy-31] Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. p. 3.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2

[50] Including speakers of Standard Punjabi and Western Punjabi (Lahnda)

[57] 1881 census count includes Sirsa District, which was later amalgamated with Hissar District.

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[census2011-3] "Population by religion community – 2011". The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015.

[delhi2011-4] 4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 "Delhi (India): Union Territory, Major Agglomerations & Towns – Population Statistics in Maps and Charts". City Population. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.

[Sanjay2008-7] 5.0 ^5.1 Sanjay Yadav (2008). The Invasion of Delhi. Worldwide Books. ISBN 978-81-88054-00-8.

[Singh2015-8] 6.0 ^6.1 Singh, Raj (6 February 2015). "Delhi Assembly elections 2015: Important facts and major stakeholders". India TV. Retrieved 8 September 2021.

[Kumar2014-10] 7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 Kumar, Virender (28 October 2014). "The 'vulnerable Punjabi' in an unthinkable post in Haryana". Indian Express. Retrieved 9 September 2021.

[Naqshbandi2019-12] 8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 Naqshbandi, Aurangzeb (23 October 2019). "Manohar Lal Khattar gives BJP an edge in Haryana's Punjabi belt". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 9 September 2021.

[Manav2024-14] 9.0 ^9.1 Manav, Sushil (14 October 2024). "Haryana numbers show Congress had best strike rate among Jats, BJP among Punjabis & Ahirs". The Print. Retrieved 10 December 2024.

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[29] ="Vedic religion">"Vedic religion". Encyclopedia Britannica. 10 November 2023. It Vedic religion takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.

[30] Virdee, Pippa (February 2018). From the Ashes of 1947. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-108-42811-8. The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab.

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[FOOTNOTEBrass1974326-41] Brass 1974, p. 326.

[42] Talbot, Ian (2009). "Partition of India: The Human Dimension". Cultural and Social History. 6 (4): 403–410. doi:10.2752/147800409X466254. S2CID 147110854. The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims.

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[:2-73] 62.0 ^62.1 ^62.2 ^62.3 ^62.4 ^62.5 ^62.6 ^62.7 ^62.8 Singh, Jagraj (2009). "Difference Between Gurdwara and Mandir (Temple) - Mandir (Temple)". A Complete Guide to Sikhism. Unistar Books. pp. 106–107. ISBN 9788171427543.

[:0-74] 63.0 ^63.1 Journal of Regional History. Department of History, Guru Nanak Dev University. 1982. pp. 28–31.

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पंजाबी हिंदू · ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਹਿੰਦੂ · پنجابی ہندو Panjābī Hindū
Durgiana Temple, Amritsar
Total population
c. 17,630,000–19,990,000 approx.^[1]^[2]
Regions with significant populations
Punjab, India	10,678,140 (2011 census)^[3]
Delhi	4,029,110 – 5,875,780 (2011 est.)^[4]^{[lower-alpha 1]}^{[lower-alpha 2]}^{[lower-alpha 3]}
Haryana	2,028,120 – 2,535,150 (2011 est.)^{[lower-alpha 4]}^{[lower-alpha 5]}^{[lower-alpha 6]}^{[lower-alpha 7]}^{[lower-alpha 8]}
Rajasthan	281,050 (2011 est.)^[11]^[12]
Himachal Pradesh	222,410 (2011 est.)^[13]^[14]
Punjab, Pakistan	249,716 (2023 census)^[15]
Chandigarh	94,150 (2011 est.)^[11]
Jammu	59,930 (2011 est.)^[16]^[11]
Uttarakhand	27,240 (2011 est.)^[17]^[11]
Languages
Punjabi and its dialects Hindi
Religion
Hinduism (incl. Nanakpanthi)
Related ethnic groups
Punjabi Sikhs Punjabi Muslims Punjabi Christians