Punjabi Muslims

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Punjabi Muslims
پنجابی مسلمان
Regions with significant populations
 Pakistan111,303,000 Template:See below
 India535,489[1]
 United Kingdom500,000[2]
 United States263,699[3]
 Canada~100,000[4] (2021 estimate)
Languages
Standard Punjabi, Western Punjabi and its dialects, Urdu
Religion
Star and Crescent.svg Islam
(Sunni majority, Shia minority)
Related ethnic groups
Punjabis, Punjabi Hindus, Punjabi Sikhs, Punjabi Christians
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Punjabi Muslims (Punjabi: پنجابی مسلمان) are adherents of Islam who identify linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Punjabis. Muslims form the majority of the Punjabi ethnic community. They are primarily geographically native to the Punjab province of Pakistan but, many have ancestry in the entire Punjab region.

Forming the majority of the Punjabi ethnicity in the greater Punjab region (overall in the South Asia),[5] Punjabi Muslims speak or identify the Punjabi language (under a Perso-Arabic script known as Shahmukhi) as their mother tongue. With a population of more than 109 million,[5][6] they are the largest ethnic group in Pakistan and the world's third-largest Islam-adhering ethnicity[7] after Arabs[8] and Bengalis.[9] The majority of Punjabi Muslims are adherents of Sunni Islam, while a minority adhere to Shia Islam.

History[edit]

Main articles: History of Punjab, Religion in the Punjab, and List of Punjabi Muslims

Early Period[edit]

At the advent of Islam, Punjab was part of Taank Kingdom. According to local traditions, Baba Ratan Hindi, who was a trader from Bhatinda, Punjab, was one of the Sahaba of Prophet Muhammad.[10][11][12][13][14] He was later ordered by Prophet Muhammad to return to his homeland, where his shrine exists till today at Bhatinda.[15] However, Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.[16][17] While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established by that time, there was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[18] In the 11th century, last Hindu dynasty of Punjab, Hindu Shahis was defeated and annexed into Ghaznavid Empire. The city of Lahore emerged as a cultural and academic centre during this era and effectively acted as second capital of the empire.[19][20] Under their patronage, poets and scholars from Kashgar, Bukhara, Samarkand, Baghdad, Nishapur, Amol and Ghazni congregated in the region.[21] The region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.[22] Fariduddin Ganjshakar was a 12th-century Punjabi Muslim saint and first major poet of Punjabi language, upon whose hand many people, specifically Khokhars converted to Islam.[23]

The Shrine of Baba Farid is one of Pakistan's most important Sufi shrines.

Medieval Period[edit]

After Muhammad Ghori was allegedly assassinated by Khokhar tribesmen,[24] one of his slaves, Qutb-ud-din Aibak established Delhi Sultanate and so Punjab became its part. The early period of Delhi Sultanate saw numerous Mongol invasions of Punjab. Ultimately, they were defeated during the rule of Khalji dynasty by its able generals, Zafar Khan and Ayn al-Mulk Multani.[25]

Ghazi Malik rose to the throne with the support of the Khokhar chiefs, establishing the Tughlaq Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.[26][27] During his reign, the Tughlaq Court produced a war ballad known as the Vaar in the Punjabi language for the Sultan describing the introduction to his rise to the throne against Khusrau Shah.[28][29] The second ruler, Jauna Khan married his daughter to the grandson of the Punjabi saint Fariduddin Ganjshakar.[30] Successive leading Tughlaq Sultans continued to merge the symbols of the Baba Farid shrine and the royal court by weaving the Punjabi Dastar-bandi ceremony of the shrine with succession to the throne.[31]

Sultan of Gujarat from the dynasty founded by Muzaffar Shah I

In 1398, Emir Timur invaded Delhi Sultanate and plundered Delhi. Taking advantage of ensuing chaos, Khizr Khan, who was probably a Punjabi chieftain,[32] became Sultan of Delhi in 1414. His native town was Fathpur in Punjab which was near Multan[33] and he was the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[34] The governor of Nagaur, Rajasthan under the Delhi Sultanate and later the independent Nagaur Sultanate was Jalal Khan Khokhar.[35] The hold of Delhi sultanate was weakened considerably in Punjab at this time as well as in other regions. In 1407, Sultan Muzaffar Shah I, who was from Punjab,[36] declared independence and established the Gujarat Sultanate. In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah tribe[37][38] became ruler of the Langah Sultanate in Multan.

Territories of the Sayyid Dynasty.[39][32]

The region of Potohar in north of Punjab was for most of time independent of foreign rule .One of its major chieftains was Jasrath Khokhar who helped Sultan Zain Ul Abideen of Kashmir to gain his throne and ruled over vast tracts of Jammu and North Punjab. He also conquered Delhi for a brief period in 1431 but was driven out by Mubarak Shah.[40] The last Pothohari Sultan, Sultan Muqarrab Khan maintained local independence for most of 18th century by resisting Afghans and Sikhs.[41]

Mughal Period[edit]

In 1525, Babur the first Mughal emperor received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab.[42] He later made alliance with Ghakkar chieftains of Pothohar and invaded Hindustan. This alliance was the reason later Sher Shah Suri invaded Pothohar and Sultan Sarang Khan Ghakkar died fighting against him.[43] Later, he ordered the construction of Rohtas fort in the region to keep an eye on the local tribes, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site now.[44]

Rohtas Fort in Pothohar Plateau is a World Heritage Site
Hakim Alimuddin Wazir Khan, Mughal Subahdar and Vizier-e-Azam

The Mughals divided Punjab into Subah of Lahore and Subah of Multan. During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, belonging to the Thaheem tribe[45] from Chiniot[46] remained Grand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal empire in the period 1645-1656.[47] His sons Lutfullah Khan and Hifzullah Khan were prominent Mughal provincial administrators. Wazir Khan of Chiniot apart from being a Subahdar of Punjab and Agra was also the Grand Vizier in early Shāh Jahani era.[48] Multiple Punjabi Muslims acted as governors and generals during the Mughal Era including Wazir Khan,[49] Adina Beg Arain,[50] and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh.[51] Sayyid brothers, the famous kingmakers of early 18th century had ancestral roots in Punjab,[52] their father Syed Mian was a leading Mughal noble in Aurangzeb's reign and remained the governor of Bijapur and Ajmer. In the late Mughal era, several figures from Punjab became prominent like Isa Khan Main[53] and Ikhlas Khan.[54] Despite such high representation in Mughal nobility, the landlord gentry resisted and challenged the empire on multiple occasions. For instance, Dulla Bhatti was a 16th-century Punjabi folk hero who supposedly led a revolt against Mughal rule during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.[55]

Sa'adullah Khan giving an audience, c. 1655 CE.

During these centuries of Mughal rule, Punjabi Muslims established centers of Islamic civilization in cities and towns such as Lahore and Sialkot, and Punjabi Muslim scholars were "in high demand", teaching the Islamic sciences as far as Central Asia, in cities such as Bukhara, even being considered there as native saints within their lifetimes.[56] Influential Muslim scholars born in Punjab during the Mughal period include Abdul Hakim Sialkot and Ahmad Sirhindi.

After the decline of the Mughal power in the 18th century, Punjab was once again divided into petty chieftancies. Pothohar Plateau and Jhelum were controlled by Gakhars, Salt Range by Janjuas and Awans, Jhang by Sials and Sahiwal by Kharals. The situation remained as such till the Sikh occupation of Punjab in the next century.[57]

Sikh Period[edit]

See also: Sial kingdom and Gakhar kingdom
Map of Doabs in Punjab

The two major Punjabi Muslim states that existed in 18th century Punjab were the Sial and the Gakhar kingdoms in the central Punjab after fall of the Mughals. Sials with their capital at Jhang conquered Lower Rachna and Sindh Sagar Doabs under their chief Inayatullah Khan (r.1747–1787)[58] while Gakhar Sultan Muqarrab Khan (r.1738–1769) established rule over Potohar and Chaj Doab.[59] However, Sikhs gradually expanded westwards. The Bhangi Misl, which also controlled Lahore, launched an invasion of Gakhar ruled region and seized control of the cities of Rawalpindi (1767) and Gujrat (1765). Under Ranjit Singh, Sikhs also conquered Jhelum (1808) and Pharwala (1818) from the Gakhars, ending their rule. The Chattha, Tarar and Bhatti tribes, which controlled Wazirabad, were defeated in 1801.[60] The Sial ruled cities Chiniot (1810) and Jhang (1816) successively fell to the Sikhs after defeat of the last Sial chieftain, Ahmed Khan.[61][62] Sikhs also conquered the cities of Kasur (1807), Attock (1813) and Multan (1818) from the Durrani Empire.

Views of the Sikh Empire rule, are mixed amongst different Punjabi Muslim groups. Ranjit Singh is seen favourably by a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan.[63]

The mid 19th-century Punjabi Muslim historians, such as Shahamat Ali who experienced the Sikh Empire first hand, presented a different view on Ranjit Singh's Empire and governance.[64][65] According to Ali, Ranjit Singh's government was despotic, and he was a mean monarch in contrast to the Mughals.[64] The initial momentum for the Empire building in these accounts is stated to be Ranjit Singh led Khalsa army's "insatiable appetite for plunder", their desire for "fresh cities to pillage", and eliminating the Mughal era "revenue intercepting intermediaries between the peasant-cultivator and the treasury".[66]

According to Ishtiaq Ahmed, Ranjit Singh's rule led to further persecution of Muslims in Kashmir, expanding the previously selective persecution of Shia Muslims and Hindus by Afghan Sunni Muslim rulers between 1752 and 1819 before Kashmir became part of his Sikh Empire.[67] Bikramjit Hasrat describes Ranjit Singh as a "benevolent despot".[68] Chitralekha Zutshi and William Roe Polk write that Sikh governors adopted policies that alienated the Muslim population such as the ban on cow slaughter and the azan (the Islamic call to prayer), the seizure of mosques as property of the state, and imposed ruinous taxes on Kashmiri Muslims causing a famine in 1832. In addition, begar (forced labour) was imposed by the Sikh administration to facilitate the supply of materials to the imperial army, a policy that was augmented by the successive Dogra rulers.[69][70][71] As a symbolic assertion of power, the Sikhs regularly desecrated Muslim places of worship, including closing of the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar and the conversion of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore to an ammunition store and horse stable, but the empire still maintained Persian administrative institutions and court etiquette; the Sikh silver rupees were minted on the Mughal standard with Persian legends.[72][73]

In her 2022-book Muslims under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century, Dr. Robina Yasmin, a Pakistani historian who teaches at the Islamia University Bahawalpur, tries to give a balanced picture of Ranjit Singh, between the contradictory images of "a great secular ruler" and that of "an extremist Sikh who was bent upon eliminating Islam in the Punjab", Dr. Robina Yasmin's own assessment after her study being that Ranjit Singh himself was tolerant and secular and that the mistreatment of the Muslim population often ascribed to him based on dubious anecdotes in fact came from his subordinates.[74]

Colonial Period[edit]

During the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab, Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions of Tazias, in Muharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment of Sabils (shelters where water and sharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus.".[75]:174

— Excerpt from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911 AD

War of Independence (1857)[edit]

The news of Indian Rebellion of 1857 reached in Punjab quite late. Jhelum in Punjab saw a rebellion in which 35 British soldiers were killed on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring.[76] On 9 July, most of a brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi.[77] They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island, they were defeated by Nicholson in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.[78]:290–293 However, the main opponent of the British rule in Punjab was Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal who waged war against it for three months in central Punjab. He was de facto ruler of Jhamra. He was killed on 21 September,1 1857 in the Battle of Noorey di Dall while inflicting heavy losses to the British. However, the rebellion died out eventually.[79]

In the British Indian Army[edit]

Punjabi Muslims, classified as a "martial race" by the British colonialists,[80] made a substantial part of the British Indian Army, British academic David Omissi calling them the single largest group in both World Wars,[81] at the eve of World War II accounting for around 29% of its total numbers.[82]

British appreciation for such support is seen for example through the assessment of Lt-Gen Sir George MacMunn, who wrote in 1932 that the Punjabi Muslim "forms the backbone of the Indian army to-day, and is perhaps the most useful and attractive of any of our soldiers. His fighting reputation has been considerably enhanced by the Great War."[83]

Despite such collaboration, there was also a history of popular resistance from Punjabi Muslims against British colonialism, including during the 1857 Indian Rebellion with the likes of Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal, facts which historian Turab-ul-Hassan Sargana says have been undermined because the elites of Punjab who collaborated with the British are those who still rule Pakistan today.[84]

Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was the first Premier of the Punjab

Administrative Reforms[edit]

The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party under a Punjabi Muslim, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.[85]

Culture[edit]

Sufism[edit]

Sufism has also played a major role in the history of Punjab.[86] Many prominent Sufi saints were born in Punjab, including Waris Shah, Fariduddin Ganjshakar and Bulleh Shah.[87][88]

The shrine of 13th century Punjabi Sufi saint Rukn-e-Alam in Multan

Language[edit]

Punjabi Muslims had a major contribution in the development of Punjabi language. Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179–1266) is generally recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language.[89] Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, many great Sufi saints and poets preached in the Punjabi language, the most prominent being Bulleh Shah. Punjabi Sufi poetry also developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1630–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Waris Shah (1722–1798), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901).

Literature[edit]

File:BullehShah.jpg
Bulleh Shah (1680–1757), a Punjabi Muslim Sufi poet

The Punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of qisse, most of which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system. The qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiban by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassui Punnhun by Hashim Shah (c. 1735–c. 1843), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the Kafi.[90]

Music[edit]

See also: Music of Punjab

Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing with other compositions. Sufi music and Qawali, commonly practiced in Punjab, Pakistan; are other important genres in the Punjab region.[91][92]

Folk music of Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using traditional musical instruments like Tumba, Algoza, Dhadd, Sarangi, Chimta and more. There is a wide range of folk songs for every occasion from birth to death including marriage, festivals, fairs and religious ceremonies.

Demographics[edit]

Numbers[edit]

While the total population of Punjab is 127 million as noted in the 2023 Pakistan census,[93][94] ethnic Punjabis comprise approximately 44.7% of the national population.[95][96] Ethnic Punjabis, that is, discounting the local Kashmiris, Pashtuns and Baloch residents, thus number approximately 111,303,000 million in Pakistan; this makes Punjabis the largest ethnic group in Pakistan by population.[95][96]

Sects and groups[edit]

Punjabi Muslims are found almost exclusively in Pakistan with 98% of Punjabis who live in Pakistan following Islam, in contrast to Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus who predominantly live in India.[97] Thus religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominant Sunni population with Shia, Ahmadiyya and Christian minorities.[98]

Among the Punjabi Muslims in Pakistan in terms of group-affiliation percentages, Barelvis make up 77.95% of the total numbers, Deobandis are at 12.92%, Ahl-i Hadith at 6.50% while Shia's are at 2.62%.[99]

Tribes and clans[edit]

Punjabi Muslim society is centered around the concept of biraderi, social brotherhood within the tribe and clan.

The major tribes and clans among Punjabi Muslims are the Jatts, Rajputs, Arains, Gujjars and Awans.[100]

In his 1911-book The Armies of India, British major Sir George Fletcher MacMunn would write that Muslims of Punjab "are of many mixed races, but who largely consist of Rajput tribes converted to Islam at various times in the past."[101] As per the 1921 census, in the Punjab province of British India, comprising Pakistan's modern provinces of Western Punjab and some parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as well India's modern states and union territories of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh, 70,7% of the Rajputs followed Islam while 27,7% were Hindus.[102]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ "Indian Census 2011". Census Department, Government of India. Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
  2. ↑ Nadia Mushtaq Abbasi. "The Pakistani Diaspora in Europe and Its Impact on Democracy Building in Pakistan" (PDF). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  3. ↑ "American Pakistan Foundation Ready To Engage Pakistani Diaspora". Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2020. (US Embassy, Islamabad Report)
  4. ↑ This estimate is based of 2021 Canadian census, total number of Punjabis in Canada which is 942,170 in year 2021 out of that Sikhs are 86% and rest are other religions including Muslims. And Pakistani Canadians are 303,260 in year 2021 out of that large population is Punjabis.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0.
  6. ↑ "Pakistan Census 2017" (PDF). PBS.
  7. ↑ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 2. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0.
  8. ↑ Margaret Kleffner Nydell Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times, Intercultural Press, 2005, ISBN 1931930252, page xxiii, 14
  9. ↑ roughly 152 million Bengali Muslims in Bangladesh and 36.4 million Bengali Muslims in the Republic of India (CIA Factbook 2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth); about 10 million Bangladeshis in the Middle East, 1 million Bengalis in Pakistan, 5 million British Bangladeshi.
  10. ↑ Heesterman, J. C. (1989). India and Indonesia: General Perspectives. ISBN 9004083650.
  11. ↑ Köprülü, Mehmet Fuat. Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. Psychology Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-415-36686-1.
  12. ↑ Suvorova, Anna. Muslim Saints of South Asia: The Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries. Routledge. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-134-37006-1.
  13. ↑ Lindquist, Steven E. Religion and Identity in South Asia and Beyond: Essays in Honor of Patrick Olivelle. Anthem Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-1-78308-067-0.
  14. ↑ Basham, A. L. A Cultural History of India. OUP India. ISBN 978-0-19-563921-6.
  15. ↑ Parihar, Subhash (2001). "The Dargāh of Bābā Ḥājī Ratan at Bhatinda". Islamic Studies. 40 (1): 105–132. JSTOR 20837077.
  16. ↑ Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. pp. 489–491. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
  17. ↑ Chhabra, G. S. Advanced History of the Punjab: Guru and post-Guru period upto Ranjit Singh. New Academic Publishing Company. p. 37.
  18. ↑ Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century.
  19. ↑ ".GC University Lahore". Gcu.edu.pk. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  20. ↑ James L. Wescoat; Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn. Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-88402-235-0.
  21. ↑ Ikram, S. M (1964). Muslim Civilization in India. New York, USA: Columbia University Press.
  22. ↑ Nicholls, Ruth J.; Riddell, Peter G. Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-5748-2. With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.
  23. ↑ Rajghatta, Chidanand. "View: Most Pakistanis are actually Indians". The Economic Times.
  24. ↑ Mohammad Habib. K. A. Nizami (ed.). Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib. People's Publishing House.
  25. ↑ Satish Chandra. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. p. 267. ISBN 9788124110645.
  26. ↑ Rānā Muḥammad Sarvar K̲h̲ān̲. The Rajputs: History, Clans, Culture, and Nobility · Volume 1. the University of Michigan. p. 490.
  27. ↑ Z̲ākir Ḥusain. Islam and the Modern Age. Islam and the Modern Age Society. p. 19.
  28. ↑ Explorations: Volumes 10-11. Department of English Language and Literature, Government College. p. 19.
  29. ↑ Tariq Rahman. Punjabi Language During British Rule (PDF). Quaid-i Azam University, Islamabad. p. 1. 'Amir Khusro ba Zuban-e-Punjabi ba ibarat-e-marghub muqaddama jang ghazi ul mulk Tughlaq Shah o Nasir uddin Khusro Khan gufta ke aan ra ba Zuban-e-Hind var guvaend' (Amir Khusro in the language of the Punjab wrote an introduction of the battle between Tughlaq [1324-1320] and Khusro which in the language of India is called a var)
  30. ↑ Rukhsana Iftikhar. Indian Feminism: Class, Gender & Identity in Medieval Ages. Notion Press. ISBN 9789386073730.
  31. ↑ Barbara Daly Metcalf. Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam. University of California Press. p. 339. ISBN 9780520046603.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Richard M. Eaton (2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. p. 117. ISBN 978-0520325128. The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...
  33. ↑ Lal, Kishori Saran. Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526. Asia Publishing House. p. 53. Fatehpur, his native town, where it was fixed up at the gate of the city.
  34. ↑ Richard M. Eaton (2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. p. 117. ISBN 978-0520325128.
  35. ↑ Rajvi Amar Singh. Mediaeval History of Rajasthan: Western Rajasthan. the University of Michigan. p. 125.
  36. ↑ Wink, André. Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries. BRILL. p. 143. ISBN 978-90-04-13561-1. Similarly, Zaffar Khan Muzaffar, the first independent ruler of Gujarat was not a foreign Muslim, but a Khatri convert, of a low subdivision called the Tank, originally from southern Pànjab
  37. ↑ Qanungo, Kalika Ranjan; Kānūnago, Kālikā Rañjana. Sher Shah and His Times. Orient Longmans. p. 286. Under the shadow of Rajput Langah dynasty of Multan...
  38. ↑ Kumar, Raj. Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables : Ancient Medieval And Modern. Gyan Publishing House. p. 338. ISBN 978-81-7835-664-8. Meanwhile the Langah Rajputs had established themselves on the throne of Multan...
  39. ↑ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 39, 148. ISBN 0226742210.
  40. ↑ Elliot & Dowson (1872), Chapter XXI Tárikh-i Mubárak Sháhí, of Yahyá bin Ahmad.
  41. ↑ Ali, Ammad (3 May 2020). "A forgotten tale: Bagh Jogian speaks of neglect, disinterest, threats from urbanisation | Footloose | thenews.com.pk". www.thenews.com.pk. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  42. ↑ Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of medieval India : from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. New Delhi: Atlantic Publ. pp. 89–90. ISBN 81-269-0123-3.
  43. ↑ The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period by Henry Miers Elliot, John Dowson, Volume IV, p. 493
  44. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Rohtas Fort". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  45. ↑ Quddus, S.A. (1992). Punjab, the Land of Beauty, Love, and Mysticism. Royal Book Company. p. 402. ISBN 978-969-407-130-5. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  46. ↑ Siddiqui, Shabbir A. "Relations Between Dara Shukoh and Sa'adullah Khan". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 47: 273–276. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141552.
  47. ↑ Siddiqui, Shabbir A. "Relations Between Dara Shukoh and Sa'adullah Khan". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 47: 273–276. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141552.
  48. ↑ Khan, Mohammad Afzal. The Ruling Elite - Iranian Nobility under Shahjahan and Aurangzeb (First ed.). New Delhi Mumbai Chennai: Viva Books. p. 130. ISBN 978-81-309-1370-4.
  49. ↑ Koch, Ebba. The complete Taj Mahal : and the riverfront gardens of Agra. Richard André. Barraud. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-500-34209-1. OCLC 69022179.
  50. ↑ G.S.Chhabra. Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707-1803). Lotus Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8.
  51. ↑ Chisti, AA Sheikh Md Asrarul Hoque (2012). "Shahbaz Khan". In Islam, Sirajul; Miah, Sajahan; Khanam, Mahfuza; Ahmed, Sabbir (eds.). Banglapedia: the National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Online ed.). Dhaka, Bangladesh: Banglapedia Trust, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. ISBN 984-32-0576-6. OCLC 52727562. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
  52. ↑ Kolff, Dirk H. A. Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-521-52305-9. The Barha Sayyids, a celebrated troop of soldiers under the Mughals deserve attention. They were said to be the descendants of families who had at an uncertain date moved from their homes in the Punjab to a sandy and infertile tract of what is now the eastern part of the Muzaffarnagar district
  53. ↑ Grewal, J. S.; Sachdeva, Veena. Kinship and State Formation: The Gills of Nabha. Institute of Pubjab Studies. ISBN 978-81-7304-718-3.
  54. ↑ Awrangābādī, Shāhnavāz Khān. The Maāt̲h̲ir-ul-umarā: Being Biographies of the Muḥammadan and Hindu Officers of the Timurid Sovereigns of India from 1500 to about 1780 A.D. Janaki Prakashan.
  55. ↑ Daniyal, Shoaib. "Lohri legends: the tale of Abdullah Khan 'Dullah' Bhatti, the Punjabi who led a revolt against Akbar". Scroll.in. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  56. ↑ Ziad, Waleed (2021). Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints beyond the Oxus and Indus. Harvard University Press. p. 132.
  57. ↑ Wikeley, J. M. Punjabi Musalmans. Alpha Editions. p. 23. ISBN 978-93-5404-023-8.
  58. ↑ Griffin, Lepel Henry; Massy, Charles Francis. The Panjab Chiefs: Historical and Biographical Notices of the Principal Families in the Lahore and Rawalpindi Divisions of the Panjab, Volume 2. Creative Media Partners, LLC. p. 505. ISBN 978-1-297-73366-6.
  59. ↑ Gazetteer of the Rawalpindi district. "Civil and Military Gazette" Press.
  60. ↑ "Establishment of the Sikh Monarchy". Government of Punjab.
  61. ↑ Gazetteer of the Jhanq District. Punjab Government Press.
  62. ↑ "Government of Pakistan, Map of Jhang" (PDF).
  63. ↑ "Dawn". Is Ranjit Singh’s statue in Lahore worth celebrating?. For a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan and most Sikhs, Ranjit Singh is a local hero — 'son of the soil' — who successfully thwarted aggressors from the north and established a strong centralised government that provided relief to the people of Punjab after decades of chaos and violence.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Christopher Alan Bayly (1996). Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-521-66360-1.
  65. ↑ Chitralekha Zutshi (2004). Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–41. ISBN 978-0-19-521939-5.
  66. ↑ Clive Dewey (1991). D. A. Low (ed.). Political Inheritance of Pakistan. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 263–265. ISBN 978-1-349-11556-3.
  67. ↑ Ishtiaq Ahmed (1998). State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-1-85567-578-0.
  68. ↑ Bikramajit Hasrat (1977). Life and Times of Ranjit Singh: A Saga of Benevolent Despotism. V.V. Research Institute. pp. 83, 198. OCLC 6303625.
  69. ↑ Chitralekha, Zutshi. Kashmir. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 9780190990466.
  70. ↑ Polk, William Roe. Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North. Yale University Press. p. 263. ISBN 9780300222906.
  71. ↑ Bray, John. Modern Ladakh: Anthropological Perspectives on Continuity and Change. Brill. p. 48. ISBN 9789047443346.
  72. ↑ Ziad, Waleed. Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus. Harvard University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-674-24881-6.
  73. ↑ Chida-Razvi, Mehreen. The Friday Mosque in the City: Liminality, Ritual, and Politics. Intellect Books. pp. 91–94. ISBN 978-1-78938-304-1. In addition to the masjid's use as a site for military storage, stables for the cavalry horses, and barracks for soldiers, parts of it were also used as storage for powder magazines.
  74. ↑ Yasmin, Robina (2022). Muslims under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century: Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Religious Tolerance. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 63.
  75. ↑ "Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report". Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  76. ↑ "The River that played god". 13 August 2012.
  77. ↑ Wagner, Kim A. (2018). The Skull of Alum Beg. The Life and Death of a Rebel of 1857. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-19-087023-2.
  78. ↑ Allen, Charles (2001). Soldier Sahibs: The Men Who Made the North-West Frontier. London: Abacus. ISBN 0349114560.
  79. ↑ Saeed Ahmed Butt (2015). "Rai Ahmad Khan Kharral (Myth or Reality)" (PDF). Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society. 28 (2): 173–191. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  80. ↑ Balachandran, P. K. "Ethnicity and Military Recruitment in South Asia". Based on the fighting abilities of the ethnic groups and their loyalty to the British, the army designated some groups as martial (such as Sikhs, Punjabi Muslims, the Baloch, Rajputs from Rajasthan, Jats, Dogras, Gurkhas and the Marathas) and restricted recruitment to them.
  81. ↑ Omissi, David. "Military Planning and Wartime Recruitment (India)". The single most numerous "class" of Indian recruits in both world wars, however, was the Punjabi Muslims
  82. ↑ Khatlani, Sameer Arshad. "In fact: Punjabis dominate the Pakistan Army — but only just". The Indian Express. In 1939, as many as 29% of soldiers in the British Indian Army, which was split between India and Pakistan after Partition, were Punjabi Muslims, mostly from Pakistani Punjab.
  83. ↑ MacMunn, George. "The romance of the martial races of India". Journal of the Royal Society of Arts. 80 (4128): 184. JSTOR 41358941 – via JSTOR.
  84. ↑ Abdul Rehman, Ibrahim. "NON-FICTION: WHEN PUNJAB ROSE UP". Dawn News.
  85. ↑ http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1937-1945.htm Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
  86. ↑ Singh, Surinder; Gaur, Ishwar Dayal (2009). Sufism in Punjab: Mystics, Literature, and Shrines. Delhi: Aakar Books. ISBN 978-81-89833-93-0.
  87. ↑ Quddus, Syed Abdul. Punjab, the Land of Beauty, Love, and Mysticism. Royal Book Company. p. 131. ISBN 978-969-407-130-5.
  88. ↑ Long, Roger D.; Singh, Gurharpal; Samad, Yunas; Talbot, Ian. State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security. Routledge. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-317-44820-4.
  89. ↑ Shiv Kumar Batalvi Archived 2003-04-10 at the Wayback Machine sikh-heritage.co.uk.
  90. ↑ "Articles on Bulleh Shah's Poetry".
  91. ↑ Pande, Alka (1999). Folk music & musical instruments of Punjab : from mustard fields to disco lights. Ahmedabad [India]: Mapin Pub. ISBN 978-18-902-0615-4.
  92. ↑ Thinda, Karanaila Siṅgha (1996). Pañjāba dā loka wirasā (New rev. ed.). Paṭiālā: Pabalikeshana Biūro, Pañjābī Yūniwarasiṭī. ISBN 978-81-7380-223-2.
  93. ↑ "Pakistan's first digital census records 249.5 million population". Pakistan Today. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  94. ↑ "Pakistan population increased by approx 25% in six years". Samaa. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 "South Asia :: Pakistan — The World Fact book - Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 "Ethnic Groups in Pakistan". Worldatlas.com. Punjabi people are the ethnic majority in the Punjab region of Pakistan and Northern India accounting for 44.7% of the population in Pakistan.
  97. ↑ Davis, Wade; Harrison, K. David; Howell, Catherine Herbert. Book of Peoples of the World: A Guide to Cultures. National Geographic Books. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-1-4262-0238-4.
  98. ↑ "Population by Religion" (PDF). pbs.gov.pk. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics.
  99. ↑ Fair, C. Christine and Hamza, Ali (2017) "Rethinking Baloch Secularism: What the Data Say," Peace and Conflict Studies: Vol. 24 : No. 1, Article 1, see Table 2
  100. ↑ "Punjab Province, Pakistan". Encyclopædia Britannica. 483579. Retrieved 22 March 2022.h
  101. ↑ MacMunn, George Fletcher (1911). The Armies of India. London: A & C Black. pp. 131–132.
  102. ↑ Sharma, Subash Chander (1987). Punjab, the Crucial Decade. New Delhi: Nirmal Publishers & Distributors. p. 105. ISBN 9788171561735.

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