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Vaisheshika
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Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक) is one of the six schools of Indian philosophy (Vedic systems) from ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and soteriology.[1] Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyāya school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics.
The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, like Buddhism, accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: perception and inference.[2][3] the Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.
The Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in naturalism.[4][5] It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.[6] It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.[7] Everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces. Ajivika metaphysics included a theory of atoms which was later adapted in the Vaiśeṣika school.[8]
According to the Vaiśeṣika school, knowledge and liberation were achievable by a complete understanding of the world of experience.[7]
Vaiśeṣika darshana was founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 6th to 2nd century BC.[9][10][11]
Overview[edit]
Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya school of Hinduism, the two became similar and are often studied together. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only two.[2][3]
The epistemology of Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism accepted only two reliable means to knowledge – perception and inference.[2]
Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism, that the reality is composed of five substances (examples are earth, water, air, fire, and space). Each of these five are of two types, explains Ganeri,[6] (paramāṇu) and composite. A paramāṇu is that which is indestructible, indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu). A composite is that which is divisible into paramāṇu. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, and even the smallest perceptible thing, namely, a fleck of dust, has parts, which are therefore invisible.[6] The Vaiśeṣikas visualized the smallest composite thing as a “triad” (tryaṇuka) with three parts, each part with a “dyad” (dyaṇuka). Vaiśeṣikas believed that a dyad has two parts, each of which is an atom. Size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of parmanus, their number and their spatial arrangements.
Parama means "most distant, remotest, extreme, last" and aṇu means "atom, very small particle", hence paramāṇu is essentially "the most distant or last small (i.e. smallest) particle".
Vaisheshika postulated that what one experiences is derived from dravya (substance: a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), guna (quality), karma (activity), samanya (commonness), vishesha (particularity) and samavaya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).[7][12]
Epistemology[edit]
Hinduism identifies six Pramāṇas as epistemically reliable means to accurate knowledge and to truths:[13] Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāna (inference), Upamāna (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[2][3][14] Of these IAST (IAST: IAST)
epistemology considered only pratyakṣa (perception) and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(inference) as reliable means of valid knowledge.[15] Nyaya school, related to Vaiśeṣika, accepts four out of these six.[2]
- Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind.[16][17] The ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism identify four requirements for correct perception:[18] Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).[18] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as pramāṇa and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[19] Further, the texts considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[20]
- Anumāna (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[21] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.[16] In all except one Hindu philosophies,[22] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples).[23] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti - the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[23][24] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[25]
Syllogism[edit]
The syllogism of the IAST (IAST: IAST)
school was similar to that of the Nyāya school of Hinduism, but the names given by
IAST (IAST: IAST)
to the 5 members of syllogism are different.[26]
Literature[edit]
The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the [[Vaisheshika Sutra| IAST (IAST: IAST)
]] of
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(or
IAST (IAST: IAST)
). This treatise is divided into ten books. The two commentaries on the
IAST (IAST: IAST)
,
IAST (IAST: IAST)
and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
are no more extant. [[Prashastapada|
IAST (IAST: IAST)
]]’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(c. 4th century) is the next important work of this school. Though commonly known as
IAST (IAST: IAST)
of
IAST (IAST: IAST)
, this treatise is basically an independent work on the subject. The next Vaisheshika treatise, Candra’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(648) based on
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s treatise is available only in Chinese translation. The earliest commentary available on
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s treatise is
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(8th century). The other three commentaries are
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(991), Udayana’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(10th century) and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(11th century).
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
which also belongs to the same period, presents the
IAST (IAST: IAST)
and the
IAST (IAST: IAST)
principles as a part of one whole.
IAST (IAST: IAST)
’s
IAST (IAST: IAST)
on
IAST (IAST: IAST)
is also an important work.[27]
The Categories or Padārtha[edit]
According to the Vaisheshika school, all things that exist, that can be cognized and named are IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories, dravya (substance),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(quality), karma (activity),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(generality),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(particularity) and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(inherence). Later
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (
IAST (IAST: IAST)
and Udayana and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
) added one more category abhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.[28]
- Dravya (substance): The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They are,
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(earth), ap (water), tejas (fire),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(air),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(ether),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(time), dik (space),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(self or soul) and manas (mind). The first five are called
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.[29]
- Guṇa (quality): The
IAST (IAST: IAST)
mentions 17
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (qualities), to which
IAST (IAST: IAST)
added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(quality) cannot exist so. The original 17
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (qualities) are,
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(touch),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(number),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(size/dimension/quantity),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(individuality),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(conjunction/accompaniments),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(disjunction),
paratva (IAST: paratva)
(priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(pain),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(desire),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these
IAST (IAST: IAST)
added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(sound) and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(faculty).[30]
- Karma (activity): The karmas (activities) like
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one.
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(ether),
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(time), dik (space) and
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity).[31]
- Sāmānya (generality): Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called
IAST (IAST: IAST)
.[32]
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(particularity): By means of
IAST (IAST: IAST)
, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s.[33]
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(inherence):
IAST (IAST: IAST)
defined
IAST (IAST: IAST)
as the relation between the cause and the effect.
IAST (IAST: IAST)
defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of
IAST (IAST: IAST)
is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances.[34]
The atomic theory[edit]
According to the IAST (IAST: IAST)
school, the
IAST (IAST: IAST)
are the smallest mahat (perceivable) particles and defined as
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which are defined as
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(dyad). The
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s are conceived as made of two parts, each of which are defined as
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(atom). The
IAST (IAST: IAST)
s (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed.[35] Each
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(atom) possesses its own distinct
IAST (IAST: IAST)
(individuality)[36] and have an inhering relation which is responsible for change and motion.
The measure of the partless atoms is known as parimaṇḍala parimāṇa. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is its own absolutely.[37]
See also[edit]
- Darshanas
- Hindu philosophy
- Hinduism
- Nyaya (philosophy)
- Padārtha
- Tarka-Sangraha
- Vaiśeṣika Sūtra
- Atomism
Notes[edit]
- ↑ Amita Chatterjee (2011), Nyāya-vaiśeṣika Philosophy, The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0012
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, page 172
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2
- Eliot Deutsch (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245-248;
- John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
- ↑ Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 227-246
- ↑ Kak, S. 'Matter and Mind: The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada' (2016), Mount Meru Publishing, Mississauga, Ontario, ISBN 978-1-988207-13-1.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Analytical philosophy in early modern India J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, ISBN 978-0415173629, 1999, page 269.
- ↑ Basham 1951, pp. 262-270.
- ↑ Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002, pp. 98-99.
- ↑ Oliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, ISBN 978-0415173629, page 269
- ↑ J Ganeri (2012), The Self: Naturalism, Consciousness, and the First-Person Stance, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199652365
- ↑ M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120810860, pages 228-237
- ↑ P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy - Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, ISBN 978-94-010-5107-1, pages 137-154
- ↑ Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 225
- ↑ Chattopadhyaya 1986, p. 170
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16
- ↑ B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198239765
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 160-168
- ↑ Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 168-169
- ↑ Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 170-172
- ↑ W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-0362-9, page 26-27
- ↑ Carvaka school is the exception
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47
- ↑ Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0
- ↑ Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, p. 75ff
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, pp. 180–81
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, pp. 183–86
- ↑ Chattopadhyaya 1986, p. 169
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, p. 204
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, pp. 208–09
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, p. 209
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, p. 215
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, pp. 216–19
- ↑ Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp. 169–70
- ↑ Radhakrishnan 2006, p. 202
- ↑ Dasgupta 1975, p. 314
References[edit]
- Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986), Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7007-023-6.
- Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8.
- Radhakrishnan, S. (2006), Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, ISBN 0-19-563820-4.
Further reading[edit]
- Bimal Matilal (1977), A History of Indian Literature - Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447018074, OCLC 489575550
- Gopi Kaviraj (1961), Gleanings from the history and bibliography of the Nyaya-Vaisesika literature, Indian Studies: Past & Present, Volume 2, Number 4, OCLC 24469380
- Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.
- H. Margenau (2012). Physics and Philosophy: Selected Essays. Springer Science. ISBN 978-94-009-9845-2.
- Kak, Subhash: Matter and Mind: The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda ISBN 9781988207148
- Riepe, Dale Maurice (1961). Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint 1996). ISBN 978-81-208-1293-2.
- Bart Labuschagne; Timo Slootweg (2012). Hegel's Philosophy of the Historical Religions. BRILL Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-22618-0.
- Sharma, Chandradhar (2000). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0365-7.
External links[edit]
- Vaisheshika-sutra with three commentaries English translation by Nandalal Sinha, 1923 (includes glossary)
- A summary of Vaisheshika physics
- Shastra Nethralaya - Vaisheshika
- GRETIL e-text of the Vaiśeṣika Sūtras