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Hindu denominations, sampradayas, traditions, movements, and sects are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and so on.^[1] The term sampradaya is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.^[2]

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.^[3] Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.^[1]^[4]^[5]^[6] These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the centre of the tradition.^[7] A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other as henotheistic equivalent.^[8] The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".^[9]

Although Hinduism contains many denominations and philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority.^[10]

Typology

The word Hindu is an exonym. This word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means "a large body of water", covering "river, ocean". It was used as the name of the Indus River and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term 'hindu' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)". Hindus are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent. In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus until about mid 20th century. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent.^[14] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as same).^[4]^[5]^[15] These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.^[10]^[16]

Six generic types (McDaniel)

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:^[17]

Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and extending back to prehistoric times, or at least prior to written Vedas.
Shrauta or "Vedic" Hinduism as practised by traditionalist brahmins (Shrautins).
Vedantic Hinduism, including Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads.
Yogic Hinduism, especially the sect based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
"Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on Karma and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu marriage customs).
Bhakti or devotionalist practices

Sampradaya

In Hinduism, a sampradaya (IAST sampradāya)^{[note 1]} is a denomination.^[19] These are teaching traditions with autonomous practices and monastic centers, with a guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers.^[20] A particular guru lineage is called parampara. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya.

Number of adherents

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.^[21] Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%.^[22] Hillerbrand mentions "70% Vaishnavites, 25% Shaivites, 2% neo-Hindus and reform Hindus."^[23] According to Jones and Ryan, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."^[24]^{[dubious – discuss]}

According to Gavin Flood, the Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.^[25] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.^[26]

Main denominations

Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism is a devotional stream of Hinduism, which worships the god Vishnu as the Supreme Lord (Svayam Bhagavan). As well as Vishnu himself, followers of the denomination also worship Vishnu's ten incarnations (the Dashavatara).^[27] The two most-worshipped incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna (especially within Krishnaism as the Supreme)^[28] and Rama, whose stories are told in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, respectively. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting.^[29] Vaishnavites are deeply devotional. Their religion is rich in saints, temples and scriptures.^[30]

Among Historical Vishnuism are known the Bhagavatism, Pancharatra and Vaikhanasa traditions.

The major living Vaishnava sampradayas include:^[27]^[31]

Sri Vaishnavism (Template:A.k.a. Sri-Vaishnava Sampradaya/Sri Sampradaya/Iyengars/Vishistadvaita) is associated with Lakshmi. The principal acharyas are Ramanujacharya and Vedanta Desikan. Sri subsampradayas:
- Thenkalais. Manavala Mamunigal's sect is the oldest Vaishnava sect in India. This sampradaya was followed by Vyasa, Parasara, Bodhayana. The lineage of Acharya is Lord Narayana, next Lakshmi and then Vishweksenar, Nammalwar, Nathamuni, Uyyakondar, Manakal Nambi, Alavandar, Periya Nambi, Ramanujacharya and finally Vedanta Desikan as per the Vadagalai sampradaya.
- Vadakalais
  - Munitraya
Ramanandi Sampradaya, also known as the Ramayat Sampradaya or the Ramavat Sampradaya adheres to the teachings of the Advaita scholar Ramananda. This is the largest monastic group within Hinduism and in Asia, and these Vaishnava monks are known as Ramanandis, Vairagis or Bairagis.^[32]^[33]^[34]
Brahma Sampradaya is associated with Vishnu, who is the Para-Brahma (Universal Creator), not to be confused with the Brahma deity. The founder of this sampradaya was the Dvaita Vedanta philosopher Madhvacharya. Its modern form is Haridasa and Sadh Vaishnavism.
- Gaudiya Vaishnavism (Template:A.k.a. Chaitanya Sampradaya) is associated with Brahma Sampradaya, and is associated with Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Gaurangacharya):
  - Brahmanic traditional lineages
    - Sri Caitanya Prema Samsthana
  - Gaudiya Math reform lineages
  - Manipuri Vaishnavism is a regional form of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and continues to be followed across Manipur with well-defined traditions and devotional practices.
Kumara Sampradaya (Template:A.k.a. Nimbarka Sampradaya) is the tradition associated with Four Kumaras and the principal acharya Nimbarkacharya.
Rudra Sampradaya. The principal acharya is Vallabhacharya, the founder of Pushtimarg tradition.
Swaminarayan Sampradaya or Swaminarayanism, based on the teachings of Swaminarayan:^[35] Its two original branches are the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (with subordinate bodies, the ISSM, Swaminarayan Gurukul) and the Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (with the subordinate ISSO and NNDYM). Among its other denominations there are the Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS),^[36] Gunatit Samaj, Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar) and SMVS.
Warkari Sampradaya, adheres to teaching of prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra like Namadeva, Jnaneshwara, Eknath, Tukaram as well as Changadeva, Muktabai, Gora Kumbhar, Savata Mali, Narahari Sonar, Janabai, Sena Nhavi and Kanhopatra. The Warkari Sampradaya promotes the worship of god Vithoba, which is a manifestation of Krishna.

Minor and regional Vaishnavite schools and the principal acharyas connected with them are:^[31]

Balmikism, linked to sage Valmiki.
Ekasarana Dharma (Template:A.k.a. Asomiya Vaishnavism), adheres to the teachings of Srimanta Sankaradeva.
Kapadi Sampradaya.
Mahanam Sampradaya, adheres to the teachings of Prabhu Jagadbandu who is considered to be the incarnation of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu the founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism considered to be an avatar of Radha Krishna.
Mahanubhava panth, adheres to the teachings of Sarvajna Shri Chakradhara.
Odia Vaishnavism (Template:A.k.a. Jagannathism), the regional cult of the god Jagannath as abstract form of Krishna.
Pranami (Pranami Sampradaya), adheres to the teachings of Devachandra Maharaj.
Radha Vallabh Sampradaya.
Ramsnehi Sampradaya.
Vaishnava-Sahajiya (tantric).
- Baul.

Shaivism

Shaivas or Shaivites are those who primarily worship Shiva as the supreme god, both immanent and transcendent. Shaivism embraces at the same time monism (specifically nondualism) and dualism. To Shaivites, Shiva is both with and without form; he is the Supreme Dancer, Nataraja; and is linga, without beginning or end. Shiva is sometimes depicted as the fierce god Bhairava. Saivists are more attracted to asceticism than devotees of other Hindu sects, and may be found wandering India with ashen faces performing self-purification rituals.^[29] They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.^[30]

The major schools of Śaivism include:^[37]

Saiva Siddhanta, adheres to the teachings of Tirumular/Sundaranatha (Nandinatha Sampradaya, the monistic school) or of Meykandadeva (Meykandar Sampradaya, the dualistic school).
- Saiva Siddhanta Church in United States.^[38]
Shiva Advaita, adheres to the teachings of Nilakantha (Srikantha) and Appayya Dikshitar.
Kashmir Shaivism, adheres to the teachings of Vasugupta and his disciplinic lineage, including Abhinavagupta.
Pashupata Shaivism, adheres to the teachings of Lakulisa.
Aghori.
Kapalika.
Nath.
- Adinath Sampradaya or Siddha Siddhanta, adheres to the teachings of Gorakhnatha and Matsyendranatha.
- Inchegeri Sampradaya.

Other branches:

Lingayatism or Veerashaivism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna. It makes several departures from mainstream Hinduism and propounds monotheism through worship centered on Lord Shiva in the form of linga or Ishtalinga. It also rejects the authority of the Vedas and the caste system.^[39]^[40]
Aaiyyanism is a religion claiming to be a form of pure Dravidian Hinduism and identifying as a Shaivite branch. It is incorporated in the Aaiyyan World Forum.
Indonesian Shaivism.

Shaktism

Shaktas worship Goddess as Mother Shakti, in different forms. These forms may include Kali, Parvati/Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswati. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess, known as Devi, is called Shaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the supreme power of the universe. Devi is often depicted as Parvati (the consort of Shiva) or as Lakshmi (the consort of Vishnu). She is also depicted in other manifestations, such as the protective Durga or the violent Kali. Shaktism is closely related with Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals and practices for purification of the mind and body.^[29]

Animal sacrifice of cockerels, goats and to a lesser extent water buffaloes is practiced by Shakti devotees, mainly at temples of Goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali.^[41]^[42]

The main traditions are:

Kalikula;
Srikula.^[37]

The Goddess-centric traditions within Kashmir Shaivism are Trika and Kubjika.

Smartism

Smartas treat all deities as the same, and their temples include five deities (Pancopasana) or Panchadevata as personal saguna (divine with form) manifestation of the nirguna (divine without form) Absolute, the Brahman. The choice of the nature of God is up to the individual worshiper since different manifestations of God are held to be equivalent. It is nonsectarian as it encourages the worship of any personal god along with others such as Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya.^[29]

The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are the saguna brahman – the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna brahman – the Brahman without attributes.^[43] The nirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing this nirguna Brahman.^[44] The concept of the saguna Brahman is considered in this tradition to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once he or she realizes the identity of their own soul with that of the nirguna Brahman.^[44] A Smarta may choose any saguna deity (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards meditating on Om and true nature of supreme reality, thereby realizing the nirguna Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman, as in Advaita Vedanta.^[45]

The movement is credited to Shankara (~8th century CE), who is regarded as the greatest teacher^[46]^[47] and reformer of the Smartha.^[48]^[47] According to Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition.^[49] The Sringeri Sharada monastery founded by Adi Shankara Acharya in Karnataka is still the centre of the Smarta sect.^[46]^[47]

Overlap

Halbfass states that, although traditions such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",^[50] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"^[50] of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".^[50] It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one of them, and Hinduism is better understood as polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual.^[9]

The key concepts and practises of the four major denominations of Hinduism can be compared as below:

Comparison of four major traditions of Hinduism
	Shaiva Traditions	Vaishnava Traditions	Shakti Traditions	Smarta Traditions	References
Scriptural authority	Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas	Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas	Vedas and Upanishads	Vedas and Upanishads	^[24]^[51]
Supreme deity	God Shiva	God Vishnu	Goddess Devi	None	^[52]^[53]
Creator	Shiva	Vishnu	Devi	Brahman principle	^[52]^[54]
Avatar	Major	Key concept	Significant	Minor	^[24]^[55]^[56]
Monastic life	Recommends	Accepts	Accepts	Recommends	^[24]^[57]^[58]
Rituals, Bhakti	Affirms^[59]^[60]^[61]	Affirms	Affirms	Optional^[62]	^[63]
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism	Recommends,^[59] Optional	Affirms	Optional	Recommends, Optional	^[64]^[65]
Free will, Maya, Karma	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	^[52]
Metaphysics	Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Soul, Self)	Brahman (Vishnu), Atman	Brahman (Devi), Atman	Brahman, Atman	^[52]
Epistemology (Pramana)	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 4. Self-evident^[66]	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Comparison and analogy 4. Postulation, derivation 5. Negative/cognitive proof 6. Reliable testimony	^[67]^[68]^[69]
Philosophy	Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita	Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita	Shakti-advaita	Advaita	^[70]^[71]
Salvation (Soteriology)	Jivanmukta, Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana^[72]	Videhamukti, Yoga, champions householder life	Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga	Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga, champions monastic life	^[73]^[74]

Other denominations

Suryaism / Saurism

The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE.^[75]^[76] The Konark Sun Temple was built in the mid 13th century.^[77] During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink.^[78]^[79] The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. ^{[citation needed]} Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.

Ganapatism

Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Lord Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the Saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.^{[citation needed]}

Indonesian Hinduism

Hinduism dominated the island of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.

The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.

Shrautism

Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna). The Nambudiri Brahmins are famous for their preservation of the ancient Somayaagam, Agnicayana rituals which have vanished in other parts of India.^{[citation needed]}

Kaumaram

Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Lord Muruga Karttikeya is the Supreme Godhead. Lord Muruga is considered superior to the Trimurti. The worshippers of Lord Muruga are called Kaumaras.^{[citation needed]}

Dattatreya Sampradaya

Dattatreya Sampradaya is a Hindu denomination associated with the worship of Dattatreya as the supreme god. This denomination found in Indian states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand. Dattatreya is often considered as an avatara of three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, collectively known as the Trimurti. Main traditions linked with Dattatreya Sampradaya are:

Gurucharitra tradition - This tradition is named after the Marathi text Gurucharitra and it is based on the teachings of Nrusinha Saraswati as well as Shripada Shrivallabha.^[80] This tradition is widespread in Deccan region.
Avadhuta Tradition.

Sant Mat

The Sant Mat was a group of reformer poet-sants and their adherents within Hinduism during the 14th–17th centuries who had desire for religious pluralism and non-ritualistic spirituality.^[81] Due to Kabir's affiliation with Vaishnavite Ramanandi Sampradaya and certain aspects of the creed, the Sant Mat is sometimes seen as part of Vaishnavism.^[27] Among its living traditions are:

Newer movements

The Hindu new religious movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:^[82]

Sarnaism

Sarna are sacred groves in the Indian religious traditions of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region in the states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam and Chhattisgarh.^[110] Followers of these rituals primarily belong to the Munda, Bhumij, Kharia, Baiga, Ho, Kurukh and Santal.^{[citation needed]} According to local belief, a Gram deoti or village deity resides in the sarna, where sacrifice is offered twice a year. Their belief system is called "Sarnaism", "Sarna Dharma" or "Religion of the Holy Woods".^[111]

Kiratism

The practice is also known as Kirat Veda,^[112]^[113] Kirat-Ko Veda^[114] or Kirat Ko Ved.^[115] According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is shamanism, animistic religion or blend of shamanism, animism (e.g., ancestor worshiping of Yuma Sammang/Tagera Ningwaphumang and Paruhang/Sumnima),^[116] and Shaivism.^[117]

Related denominations

Kalash religion

The Indo-Aryan Kalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as a form of ancient Hinduism.^[118]^[119]^[120]

Contemporary Sant Mat

The contemporary Sant Mat is a 19th-century origin movement.^[121] Scholars are divided as to whether to call Radha Soami a 1) Sikh-derived or 2) Hindu–Sikh-synthesed or 3) independent version of the medieval Sant Mat as new universal religion.^[122]

Slavic Vedism

Slavic, Russian, Peterburgian Vedism or simply Vedism^[123]^[124] are terms used to describe the one of the earliest branch of Slavic Native Faith ("Rodnovery")—contemporary indigenous development of Vedic forms of religion in Russia, especially of Saint Petersburg's communities, other Slavic countries, and generally all the post-Soviet states. The word "Vedism" comes from the verb "to know" (vedatʼ)—a semantic root which is shared in Slavic and Sanskrit languages alike.^[125]

Slavic Vedism involves the worship of Vedic gods, characterised by its use of indigenous Slavic rituals and Slavic names for the deities, distinguishing from other groups which have maintained a stronger bond with modern Hinduism, although Krishnaite groups often identify themselves as "Vedic" too. Also some syncretic groups within Slavic Native Faith (Slavic Neopaganism) use the term "Vedism".^[126]^[127]

Cross-denominational influences

Atman Jnana

Jñāna is a Sanskrit word that means knowledge. In Vedas it means true knowledge, that (atman) is identical with Brahman. It is also referred to as Atma Jnana which is frequently translated as self-realization.

Bhakti movement

The Bhakti movement was a theistic devotional trend that originated in the seventh-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.^[128] It swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.^[128]^[129] The Bhakti movement regionally developed as Hindu denominations around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.^[1]^[7]^[130] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.^[128]^[131] Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.^[132]^[133]

As part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) has developed at the later stages.^[134]

Philosophical schools

Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six āstika (Sanskrit: आस्तिक "orthodox") schools of thought,^[135] or darśanam (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as the supreme revealed scriptures. The schools are:

Samkhya, a non theistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter.
Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation.
Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge. Nyāya Sūtras.
Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism
Mimāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy
Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the 'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section).

The nāstika/heterodox schools are (in chronological order):

However, medieval philosophers like Vidyāraṇya classified Indian philosophy into sixteen schools, where schools belonging to Saiva, Pāṇini and Raseśvara thought are included with others, and the three Vedantic schools Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then) are classified separately.^[136]

In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages and modern times, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy, as follows:^[137]^[138]

Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

Yoga varieties

Notes

↑ Quoted in Böhtlingk's Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary, entry Sampradaya.^[18]

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 562–563
↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 377, 398.
↑ Werner 1994, p. 73.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Bhandarkar 1913.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Tattwananda n.d.
↑ Flood 1996, p. 113, 134, 155–161, 167–168.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti — the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, ISBN 978-3643501301, pp. 35–36.
↑ George Lundskow (2008). The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach. Sage Publ. pp. 252–253. ISBN 978-1-4522-4518-8.
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 Lipner 2009, pp. 371–375.
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 Frazier 2011, pp. 1–15.
↑ Lipner 2009, p. 8, Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.".
↑ Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008.
↑ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
↑ Matthew Clarke (2011). Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Edward Elgar. p. 28. ISBN 9780857930736.
↑ Flood 1996, pp. 113, 154.
↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 17–18, 81–82, 183–201, 206–215, 330–331, 371–375.
↑ J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52–53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0
↑ Apte 1965.
↑ Lipner 2009, p. 398.
↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 375–377, 397–398.
↑ The global religious landscape: Hindus, Pew Research (2012)
↑ Johnson, Todd M; Grim, Brian J (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 400. ISBN 9781118323038.
↑ Hillerbrand 2004, p. 906.
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 ^24.3 Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 474.
↑ Gavin Flood (2008). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7., Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".
↑ Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, pages 40–41, 302–315, 371–375
↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 ^27.2 Dandekar 1987.
↑ Hardy 1987.
↑ ^29.0 ^29.1 ^29.2 ^29.3 Dubois (1 April 2007). Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. Cosimo. p. 111. ISBN 9781602063365.
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 "HimalayanAcademy". Retrieved 7 February 2014.
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 Tattwananda n.d., pp. 13–68.
↑ Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791467084, pages 165–166
↑ James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931804, pages 553–554
↑ Lamb 2008, pp. 317–330.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 429–431.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 430.
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 Tattwananda 1984.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 424–425.
↑ A. K. Ramanujan, ed. (1973). Speaking of Śiva. UNESCO. Indian translation series. Penguin classics. Religion and mythology. Penguin India. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-14-044270-0.
↑ "Lingayat." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09 Jul. 2010.
↑ Fuller Christopher John (2004). "4". The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India (Revised and Expanded ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
↑ J. Fuller, C. (26 July 2004). "4 Sacrifice". The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback] (Revised ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN 0-691-12048-X. Animal sacrifice is still practiced widely and is an important ritual in popular Hinduism
↑ Anantanand Rambachan (2001), Hierarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta, Journal of Hindu–Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1–6
↑ ^44.0 ^44.1 William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University
↑ Hiltebeitel 2013, pp. 29–30.
↑ ^46.0 ^46.1 Doniger 1999, p. 1017.
↑ ^47.0 ^47.1 ^47.2 Popular Prakashan 2000, p. 52.
↑ Rosen 2006, p. 166.
↑ Hiltebeitel 2013.
↑ ^50.0 ^50.1 ^50.2 Halbfass 1991, p. 15.
↑ Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999). Hindu Spirituality. Gregorian Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7.
↑ ^52.0 ^52.1 ^52.2 ^52.3 Gonda 1970.
↑ Christopher Partridge (2013). Introduction to World Religions. Fortress Press. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-8006-9970-3.
↑ Sanjukta Gupta (2013). Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati. Routledge. pp. 65–71. ISBN 978-1-134-15774-7.
↑ Lai Ah Eng (2008). Religious Diversity in Singapore. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. p. 221. ISBN 978-981-230-754-5.
↑ Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002). Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives. Rodopi. p. 63. ISBN 90-420-1510-1.
↑ Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0812692983, p. 332 with note 68.
↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–18. ISBN 978-0195070453.
↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 Flood 1996, pp. 162–167.
↑ "Shaivas". Overview Of World Religions. Philtar. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
↑ Munavalli, Somashekar (2007). Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion) (PDF). Veerashaiva Samaja of North America. p. 83.
↑ Prem Prakash (1998). The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras. Inner Traditions. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-0-89281-664-4.
↑ Frazier, J. (2013). "Bhakti in Hindu Cultures". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 6 (2). Oxford University Press: 101–113. doi:10.1093/jhs/hit028.
↑ Lisa Kemmerer; Anthony J. Nocella (2011). Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern. pp. 27–36. ISBN 978-1-59056-281-9.
↑ Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of Life, Plants of Death. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-299-15904-7.
↑ K. Sivaraman (1973). Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 336–340. ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5.
↑ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
↑ Flood 1996, p. 225.
↑ Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pp. 245-248.
↑ McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls. Oxford University Press. pp. 89–91. ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5.
↑ Matthew James Clark (2006). The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages Into an Order. Brill. pp. 177–225. ISBN 978-90-04-15211-3.
↑ Hurley, Leigh; Hurley, Phillip (2012). Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and the Left-Hand Path. Maithuna Publications. p. 5. ISBN 9780983784722.
↑ Kim Skoog (1996). Andrew O. Fort; Patricia Y. Mumme (eds.). Living Liberation in Hindu Thought. SUNY Press. pp. 63–84, 236–239. ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4.
↑ Rajendra Prasad (2008). A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Concept. p. 375. ISBN 978-81-8069-544-5.
↑ André Wink (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries. BRILL. pp. 292–293. ISBN 0-391-04173-8.
↑ Asha Kalia (1982). Art of Osian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 8th-12th Centuries A.D. Abhinav Publications. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-391-02558-5.
↑ Finbarr Barry Flood (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-691-12594-7.
↑ André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries. BRILL Academic. pp. 327–329. ISBN 90-04-10236-1.
↑ Finbarr Barry Flood (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu–Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. pp. 123–124, 154–156. ISBN 978-0-691-12594-7.
↑ Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Gerald James Larson, Knut A. Jacobsen (eds.), Brill, 2005 pp. 238-242, https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Theory_And_Practice_of_Yoga.html?id=TDGFFNYvrokC&redir_esc=y
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 383.
↑ Farquhar 1915.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 33–34.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 29–30.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 30–31.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 45–46.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 47–48.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 89–91.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 92–93.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 109–110.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 121.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 200–201.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 178.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 183–184.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 185–188.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 361–362.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 492–493.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 248–249.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 26–27.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 483–484.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 389–390.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 392–394.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 31–33.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 108, 431.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 408.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 52–54.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 110–11.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 351.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 451–452.
↑ "Religious Complexity in Northeastern South Asia". GeoCurrents. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
↑ Minahan 2012
↑ p. 56 Kiratese at a Glance By Gopal Man Tandukar
↑ p. xxv A Grammar of Limbu By Geordefine sungge van Driem
↑ Problems of Modern Indian Literature by Statistical Pub. Society: distributor, K. P. Bagchi
↑ p. 323 Kiratas in Ancient India By G. P. Singh, Dhaneswar Kalita, V Sudarsen, M A Kalam
↑ "History and Culture of the Kirat" by I.S.Chemjong
↑ p. 535 Nepal By Tom Woodhatch
↑ Michael, Witzel (2004). "Kalash Religion (extract from 'The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents')" (PDF). In A. Griffiths; J. E. M. Houben (eds.). The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual. Groningen: Forsten. pp. 581–636.
↑ West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 357. ISBN 9781438119137. The Kalasha ... religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash... However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
↑ "Peshawar HC orders government to include Kalash religion in census". The Indian Express. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 383–384.
↑ ^122.0 ^122.1 Zoccarelli, Pierluigi (2006). "Radhasoami movements". In Clarke, Peter B. (ed.). Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 507–509. ISBN 9-78-0-415-26707-6.
↑ Michael F. Strmiska. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 222: "In addition to Ukrainian Paganism, Russian and Pan-Slavic varieties of Paganism and "Slavic Vedism" can also be found in Ukraine."
↑ Portal "Religion and Law". Монастырь «Собрание тайн» или «Дивья лока»: второе пришествие индуизма в России? Archived 2 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 2013-04-30
↑ Aitamurto, Kaarina (2016). Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie. London and New York: Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 9781472460271.
↑ Robert A. Saunders, Vlad Strukov. Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2010. p. 412.
↑ Aitamurto, Kaarina. Russian Rodnoverie: Negotiating Individual Traditionalism. Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki, 2007.
↑ ^128.0 ^128.1 ^128.2 Schomer and McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802773, pp. 1–2.
↑ Lorenzen, David N. (1995). Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2025-6.
↑ Wendy Doniger (2009), Bhakti, Encyclopædia Britannica; The Four Denomination of Hinduism Himalayan Academy (2013)
↑ Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255–272
↑ Catherine Robinson (2005), Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415346719, pages 28–30
↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 26–32, 217–218
↑ Mittal, S. G. R. Thursby (2006). Religions of South Asia: An Introduction. Routledge.
↑ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see:(Mādhava Āchārya 1882)(Dasgupta 1922–1955, Vol. 1)(Radhakrishnan 1927)
↑ Mādhava Āchārya 1882, p. xii.
↑ Dasgupta 1922–1955.
↑ Radhakrishnan 1927.
↑ Lamb 2008.
↑ Singleton & Goldberg 2014.

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External links

[19] Quoted in Böhtlingk's Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary, entry Sampradaya.^[18]

[lancenelson-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 562–563

[FOOTNOTELipner2009377,_398-2] Lipner 2009, pp. 377, 398.

[FOOTNOTEWerner199473-3] Werner 1994, p. 73.

[FOOTNOTEBhandarkar1913-4] 4.0 ^4.1 Bhandarkar 1913.

[FOOTNOTETattwanandan.d.-5] 5.0 ^5.1 Tattwananda n.d.

[FOOTNOTEFlood1996113,_134,_155–161,_167–168-6] Flood 1996, p. 113, 134, 155–161, 167–168.

[sskumar-7] 7.0 ^7.1 SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti — the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, ISBN 978-3643501301, pp. 35–36.

[8] George Lundskow (2008). The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach. Sage Publ. pp. 252–253. ISBN 978-1-4522-4518-8.

[FOOTNOTELipner2009371–375-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Lipner 2009, pp. 371–375.

[FOOTNOTEFrazier20111–15-10] 10.0 ^10.1 Frazier 2011, pp. 1–15.

[FOOTNOTELipner20098Quote:_"(...)_one_need_not_be_religious_in_the_minimal_sense_described_to_be_accepted_as_a_Hindu_by_Hindus,_or_describe_oneself_perfectly_validly_as_Hindu._One_may_be_polytheistic_or_monotheistic,_monistic_or_pantheistic,_even_an_agnostic,_humanist_or_atheist,_and_still_be_considered_a_Hindu."-11] Lipner 2009, p. 8, Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.".

[12] Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008.

[13] MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."

[14] Matthew Clarke (2011). Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Edward Elgar. p. 28. ISBN 9780857930736.

[FOOTNOTEFlood1996113,_154-15] Flood 1996, pp. 113, 154.

[FOOTNOTELipner200917–18,_81–82,_183–201,_206–215,_330–331,_371–375-16] Lipner 2009, pp. 17–18, 81–82, 183–201, 206–215, 330–331, 371–375.

[17] J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52–53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0

[FOOTNOTEApte1965-18] Apte 1965.

[FOOTNOTELipner2009398-20] Lipner 2009, p. 398.

[FOOTNOTELipner2009375–377,_397–398-21] Lipner 2009, pp. 375–377, 397–398.

[22] The global religious landscape: Hindus, Pew Research (2012)

[johnson400-23] Johnson, Todd M; Grim, Brian J (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 400. ISBN 9781118323038.

[FOOTNOTEHillerbrand2004906-24] Hillerbrand 2004, p. 906.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007474-25] 24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 ^24.3 Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 474.

[flood200shakti-26] Gavin Flood (2008). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7., Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".

[27] Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, pages 40–41, 302–315, 371–375

[FOOTNOTEDandekar1987-28] 27.0 ^27.1 ^27.2 Dandekar 1987.

[FOOTNOTEHardy1987-29] Hardy 1987.

[Dubois-30] 29.0 ^29.1 ^29.2 ^29.3 Dubois (1 April 2007). Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. Cosimo. p. 111. ISBN 9781602063365.

[Himalaya_Academy-31] 30.0 ^30.1 "HimalayanAcademy". Retrieved 7 February 2014.

[FOOTNOTETattwanandan.d.13–68-32] 31.0 ^31.1 Tattwananda n.d., pp. 13–68.

[33] Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791467084, pages 165–166

[34] James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931804, pages 553–554

[FOOTNOTELamb2008317–330-35] Lamb 2008, pp. 317–330.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007429–431-36] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 429–431.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007430-37] Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 430.

[FOOTNOTETattwananda1984-38] 37.0 ^37.1 Tattwananda 1984.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007424–425-39] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 424–425.

[40] A. K. Ramanujan, ed. (1973). Speaking of Śiva. UNESCO. Indian translation series. Penguin classics. Religion and mythology. Penguin India. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-14-044270-0.

[41] "Lingayat." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09 Jul. 2010.

[Fuller_Christopher_John_2004_83-42] Fuller Christopher John (2004). "4". The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India (Revised and Expanded ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.

[43] J. Fuller, C. (26 July 2004). "4 Sacrifice". The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback] (Revised ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN 0-691-12048-X. Animal sacrifice is still practiced widely and is an important ritual in popular Hinduism

[dx.doi.org-44] Anantanand Rambachan (2001), Hierarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta, Journal of Hindu–Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1–6

[williamw-45] 44.0 ^44.1 William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University

[FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel201329–30-46] Hiltebeitel 2013, pp. 29–30.

[FOOTNOTEDoniger19991017-47] 46.0 ^46.1 Doniger 1999, p. 1017.

[FOOTNOTEPopular_Prakashan200052-48] 47.0 ^47.1 ^47.2 Popular Prakashan 2000, p. 52.

[FOOTNOTERosen2006166-49] Rosen 2006, p. 166.

[FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2013-50] Hiltebeitel 2013.

[FOOTNOTEHalbfass199115-51] 50.0 ^50.1 ^50.2 Halbfass 1991, p. 15.

[Dhavamony1999p33-52] Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999). Hindu Spirituality. Gregorian Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7.

[FOOTNOTEGonda1970-53] 52.0 ^52.1 ^52.2 ^52.3 Gonda 1970.

[54] Christopher Partridge (2013). Introduction to World Religions. Fortress Press. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-8006-9970-3.

[55] Sanjukta Gupta (2013). Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati. Routledge. pp. 65–71. ISBN 978-1-134-15774-7.

[laiengavatar-56] Lai Ah Eng (2008). Religious Diversity in Singapore. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. p. 221. ISBN 978-981-230-754-5.

[Dhavamony2002p63-57] Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002). Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives. Rodopi. p. 63. ISBN 90-420-1510-1.

[58] Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0812692983, p. 332 with note 68.

[59] Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–18. ISBN 978-0195070453.

[FOOTNOTEFlood1996162–167-60] 59.0 ^59.1 Flood 1996, pp. 162–167.

[61] "Shaivas". Overview Of World Religions. Philtar. Retrieved 13 December 2017.

[62] Munavalli, Somashekar (2007). Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion) (PDF). Veerashaiva Samaja of North America. p. 83.

[63] Prem Prakash (1998). The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras. Inner Traditions. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-0-89281-664-4.

[64] Frazier, J. (2013). "Bhakti in Hindu Cultures". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 6 (2). Oxford University Press: 101–113. doi:10.1093/jhs/hit028.

[65] Lisa Kemmerer; Anthony J. Nocella (2011). Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern. pp. 27–36. ISBN 978-1-59056-281-9.

[66] Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of Life, Plants of Death. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-299-15904-7.

[67] K. Sivaraman (1973). Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 336–340. ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5.

[68] John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238

[FOOTNOTEFlood1996225-69] Flood 1996, p. 225.

[70] Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pp. 245-248.

[71] McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls. Oxford University Press. pp. 89–91. ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5.

[72] Matthew James Clark (2006). The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages Into an Order. Brill. pp. 177–225. ISBN 978-90-04-15211-3.

[73] Hurley, Leigh; Hurley, Phillip (2012). Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and the Left-Hand Path. Maithuna Publications. p. 5. ISBN 9780983784722.

[Kim_Skoog_1996_63–84,_236–239-74] Kim Skoog (1996). Andrew O. Fort; Patricia Y. Mumme (eds.). Living Liberation in Hindu Thought. SUNY Press. pp. 63–84, 236–239. ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4.

[75] Rajendra Prasad (2008). A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Concept. p. 375. ISBN 978-81-8069-544-5.

[76] André Wink (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries. BRILL. pp. 292–293. ISBN 0-391-04173-8.

[77] Asha Kalia (1982). Art of Osian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 8th-12th Centuries A.D. Abhinav Publications. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-391-02558-5.

[78] Finbarr Barry Flood (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-691-12594-7.

[79] André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries. BRILL Academic. pp. 327–329. ISBN 90-04-10236-1.

[80] Finbarr Barry Flood (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu–Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. pp. 123–124, 154–156. ISBN 978-0-691-12594-7.

[81] Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Gerald James Larson, Knut A. Jacobsen (eds.), Brill, 2005 pp. 238-242, https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Theory_And_Practice_of_Yoga.html?id=TDGFFNYvrokC&redir_esc=y

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007383-82] Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 383.

[FOOTNOTEFarquhar1915-83] Farquhar 1915.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200733–34-84] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 33–34.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200729–30-85] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 29–30.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200730–31-86] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 30–31.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200745–46-87] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 45–46.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200747–48-88] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 47–48.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200789–91-89] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 89–91.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200792–93-90] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 92–93.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007109–110-91] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 109–110.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007121-92] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 121.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007200–201-93] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 200–201.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007178-94] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 178.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007183–184-95] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 183–184.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007185–188-96] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 185–188.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007361–362-97] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 361–362.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007492–493-98] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 492–493.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007248–249-99] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 248–249.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200726–27-100] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 26–27.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007483–484-101] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 483–484.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007389–390-102] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 389–390.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007392–394-103] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 392–394.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200731–33-104] Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 31–33.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007108,_431-105] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 108, 431.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007408-106] Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 408.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan200752–54-107] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 52–54.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007110–11-108] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 110–11.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007351-109] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 351.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007451–452-110] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 451–452.

[111] "Religious Complexity in Northeastern South Asia". GeoCurrents. Retrieved 21 October 2021.

[112] Minahan 2012

[113] . 56 Kiratese at a Glance By Gopal Man Tandukar

[114] . xxv A Grammar of Limbu By Geordefine sungge van Driem

[115] Problems of Modern Indian Literature by Statistical Pub. Society: distributor, K. P. Bagchi

[116] . 323 Kiratas in Ancient India By G. P. Singh, Dhaneswar Kalita, V Sudarsen, M A Kalam

[117] "History and Culture of the Kirat" by I.S.Chemjong

[p._535_Nepal_By_Tom_Woodhatch-118] . 535 Nepal By Tom Woodhatch

[119] Michael, Witzel (2004). "Kalash Religion (extract from 'The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents')" (PDF). In A. Griffiths; J. E. M. Houben (eds.). The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual. Groningen: Forsten. pp. 581–636.

[120] West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 357. ISBN 9781438119137. The Kalasha ... religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash... However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.

[121] "Peshawar HC orders government to include Kalash religion in census". The Indian Express. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2017.

[FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2007383–384-122] Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 383–384.

[Zoccarelli-123] 122.0 ^122.1 Zoccarelli, Pierluigi (2006). "Radhasoami movements". In Clarke, Peter B. (ed.). Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 507–509. ISBN 9-78-0-415-26707-6.

[124] Michael F. Strmiska. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 222: "In addition to Ukrainian Paganism, Russian and Pan-Slavic varieties of Paganism and "Slavic Vedism" can also be found in Ukraine."

[religionip.ru-125] Portal "Religion and Law". Монастырь «Собрание тайн» или «Дивья лока»: второе пришествие индуизма в России? Archived 2 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 2013-04-30

[126] Aitamurto, Kaarina (2016). Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie. London and New York: Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 9781472460271.

[127] Robert A. Saunders, Vlad Strukov. Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2010. p. 412.

[Aitamurto2007-128] Aitamurto, Kaarina. Russian Rodnoverie: Negotiating Individual Traditionalism. Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki, 2007.

[schomer-129] 128.0 ^128.1 ^128.2 Schomer and McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802773, pp. 1–2.

[lorenzen-130] Lorenzen, David N. (1995). Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2025-6.

[131] Wendy Doniger (2009), Bhakti, Encyclopædia Britannica; The Four Denomination of Hinduism Himalayan Academy (2013)

[132] Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255–272

[133] Catherine Robinson (2005), Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415346719, pages 28–30

[karen26-134] Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 26–32, 217–218

[Mittal2004-135] Mittal, S. G. R. Thursby (2006). Religions of South Asia: An Introduction. Routledge.

[136] For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see:(Mādhava Āchārya 1882)(Dasgupta 1922–1955, Vol. 1)(Radhakrishnan 1927)

[FOOTNOTEMādhava_Āchārya1882xii-137] Mādhava Āchārya 1882, p. xii.

[FOOTNOTEDasgupta1922–1955-138] Dasgupta 1922–1955.

[FOOTNOTERadhakrishnan1927-139] Radhakrishnan 1927.

[FOOTNOTELamb2008-140] Lamb 2008.

[FOOTNOTESingletonGoldberg2014-141] Singleton & Goldberg 2014.

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v t e Hindu reform movements
Adi Dharm/Brahmoism Brahmo Samaj Sadharan Brahmo Samaj Advait Mat Divine Light Mission American Meditation Institute Ananda Ananda Ashrama Ananda Marga Anandamayee Sangha Art of Living Arya Samaj Ayyavazhi Brahma Kumaris Chinmaya Mission Datta Yoga Divine Life Society Hanuman Foundation Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy Hindu nationalism Hindutva Hindu Janajagruti Samiti Hindu Mahasabha Hindu Munnani Hindu Sena Hindu Yuva Vahini Sanatan Sanstha Sangh Parivar Vishva Hindu Parishad Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh International Vedanta ISKCON ISKCON Revival Isha Foundation Kriya Yoga Mahima Dharma Mata Amritanandamayi Math Matua Mahasangha Narayana Dharma Prarthana Samaj Radha Soami RSSB RSSS RSSD SOS Ramakrishna Mission / Vedanta Societies Ravidassia Sahaja Yoga Sathya Sai Satsang Satya Dharma Satyashodhak Samaj Science of Identity Self-Realization Fellowship / Yogoda Satsanga Siddha Yoga Sivananda yoga Sri Aurobindo Ashram Sri Ramana Ashram Abidance in Truth Swadhyay Parivar NNDYM Transcendental Meditation
Topics	Bhakti Brahmacharya Caste Neo-Vedanta Persecution of Hindus Shuddhi Women in Hinduism
Gurus and revivalist writers	Amritanandamayi Ananda Yogi Anandamayi Ma Anukulchandra Chakravarty Arumuka Navalar Athavale Aurobindo Boro Maa Chatterjee Chinmayananda Saraswati Chinmoy Dayananda Saraswati Daya Mata Ganapathi Sachchidananda Haidakhan Babaji Hariharananda Giri Jaggi Vasudev Jyotirao Phule Kalki Bhagawan Kelkar, N. C. Kriyananda Lekhraj Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Mahatma Gandhi Mirra Alfassa Narayana Guru Neem Karoli Nirmala Paramananda Prem Rawat Ram Chandra Ram Dass Ram Mohan Roy Ramakrishna Ramana Maharshi Ravi Shankar Sarkar Sathya Sai Baba Savarkar Sen, K. C. Shraddhanand Sister Nivedita Sivananda Swami Rama Tagore, D. Tilak Vaswani Vipulananda Vishnudevananda Vivekananda Yogananda more