Indian Culture

From Bharatpedia, an open encyclopedia
A depiction of Indian (mostly orange) and its influence on neighbouring parts of Asia (lighter-orange).


Indian culture is a rich blend of various traditions of Ancient India. The foundation of ancient Indian culture was largely rooted in Hindu Dharma, which evolved from Vedic traditions combined with small local customs and later incorporated some Buddhist influences. Beginning in the medieval period, the culture began to absorb elements from the Muslim world, especially from Central Asia and the Near west (Middle East), as well as European influences, particularly from the British, due to repeated Islamic invasions and the colonisation of India by European christian powers.[1][2][3]

Indian culture has influenced other parts of Asia, particularly Southeast Asia (see Greater India).[4]

History

This section is an excerpt from Culture of Asia § Indian subcontinent[edit]
Language families in South Asia
Traditional Rajasthani garments from Jaipur, Rajasthan

Evidence of Neolithic culture has been found throughout the Indian subcontinent). Since 3,300 B.C. in modern-day northeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India a sophisticated Bronze Age cultural tradition emerged, that after only a few centuries fully flourished in urban centers. Due to the high quality of its arts, crafts, metallurgy and buildings, the accomplishments in urban planning, governance, trade and technology etc. it has been classified as one of the principal Cradles of civilization. Referred to as the Indus Valley civilisation or Harappan Civilisation it thrived for almost 2000 years until the onset of the Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 B.C.).[5][6] The great significance of the Vedic texts (that don't mention cities or urban life) for Indian culture, their impact on family, societal organisation, religion, morale, literature etc. has never been contested. The Indus Valley Civilisation on the other hand has only come to light by means of 20th century archaeology. Scholars, who employ several periodisation models argue over whether Indian tradition is consciously committed to the Harappan culture.[7][8]

Declining climatic conditions, (aridification) and population displacement (Indo-Aryan migration) are regarded as to have caused the fatal disruption of the Harappa culture, that was superseded by the Vedic culture.[9][10]

Following the Indo-Aryan settlement in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the establishment of the characteristic social groups (Brāhmaṇa , Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra)[lower-alpha 1] in the Varṇa system, the tribal entities variously consolidated into oligarchic chiefdoms or kingdoms (the 16 Mahajanapadas), beginning in the sixth century B.C. The late Vedic political progress results in urbanisation, strict social hierarchy, commercial and military rivalries among the settlers, that have spread all over the entire subcontinent.[11] The large body of Vedic texts and literature, supported by the archaeological sequence allows researchers to reconstruct a rather accurate and detailed image of the Vedic culture and political organisation. The Vedas constitute the oldest work of Saṃskr literature and form the basis of religious, ethic and philosophic ideas in South Asia. They are widely, but not exclusively regarded the basics and scriptural authority on worship, rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge for the future Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Commentaries and discussions also focus on the development of valid political ideas and concepts of societal progress and ethic conformity.[12]

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are major religions of South Asia. After a long and complex history of cosmological and religious development, adoption and decline, the Hindu-synthesis[13] and the late but thorough introduction of Islam about 80% of modern-day Indians and Nepalis identify as Hindus.[14] In Sri Lanka and Bhutan most people adhere to various forms of Buddhism.[15] Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan, the Maldives (99%), Pakistan (96%) and Bangladesh (90%).[16][17][18]

Badshahi Mosque built under the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan

Afghanistan and Pakistan are situated at the western periphery of South Asia, where the cultural character has been made by both the Indosphere and Persia.[19] Pakistan is split with its two western regions of Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sharing a greater Iranic heritage due to the native Pashtuns and Baloch people of the regions. Its two eastern regions of Punjab and Sindh share cultural links to Northwest India. Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal share a common heritage and culture based on the Bengali language. The Culture of India is diverse and a complex mixture of many influences. Nepal is culturally linked to both India and Tibet and the varied ethnic groups of the country share many of the festivals and cultural traditions used and celebrated in North and East India and Tibet. Nepali, the dominant language of Nepal uses the Devanagari alphabet which is also used to write many North Indian languages.[20][21] Bhutan is a culturally linked to Tibet and India. Tibetan Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan and the Tibetan alphabet is used to write Dzongkha, the dominant language of Bhutan. There is a cultural and linguistic divide between North and South India. Sri Lanka is culturally tied to both India and Southeast Asia.[22] Sinhala, the dominant language in the country is written in Sinhala script which is derived from the Kadamba-Pallava alphabet, certain cultural traditions, and aspects of its cuisine, for example, show South Indian influences. Cultural festivals, aspects of its cuisine and Theravada Buddhism, the dominant religion in Sri Lanka, show a Southeast Asian affinity.[23]

Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sinhala of Sri Lanka and most of North, West and East India and Nepal. Dravidian languages namely Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam languages are spoken across South India and in Sri Lanka by the Tamil community. Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in Nepal, Bhutan, and North & North East India. Iranic Languages are spoken in Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in PakistanThe main languages of Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Indian subcontinent

Languages

This section is an excerpt from Languages of the Indian subcontinent[edit]

Ancient India or Indian subcontinent is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.

Indian English is considered the international lingua franca of the Indian subcontinent.

The influence of these languages stretches beyond the Indian subcontinent into East and Southeast Asia, collectively referred to as the Indosphere. More specifically, the grouping of Indic languages along with other languages from nearby geopolitical regions is known as Indian subcontinental languages. This classification also includes Eastern-Iranic and Nuristani languages, as well as connections to Central and Western Tibeto-Burman languages.

The Iranian Plateau, situated to the west of the Indian subcontinent, is inhabited by Iranic languages. On the eastern side of the plateau, Pashto is spoken in Pashtunistan and Balochi in Balochistan. In the central region, Persian is the primary language, with different varieties such as Dari in Afghanistan, Farsi in Iran, and Tajik in Tajikistan. Additionally, Kafiri languages can be found in small groups at the northern junction of the plateau and the subcontinent.

In the regions surrounding the Himalayan and Indo-Burman Ranges, the Tibeto-Burman languages from the Trans-Himalayan family and Khasi–Palaungic languages from the Austroasiatic family are prevalent, especially on the Tibetan Plateau and in Burma. Meanwhile, the Andaman Islands are home to various Andamanese languages.

Cinema

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Cuisine

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Sports

This section is an excerpt from Sport in the Indian subcontinent[edit]
A commemorative stamp depicting kabaddi in its inaugural appearance at the Asian Games in 1990.
Many sports are played in the Indian subcontinent, with cricket being the most popular of them; 90% of the sport's worldwide fans live in the Indian subcontinent.[24] Football is followed passionately in some parts of India, such as Kerala and Bengal.[25][26][27] Field hockey was popular for several decades, with some of the India's greatest sporting accomplishments having taken place in this sport.[28] Some native Indian games are played professionally in the region, such as kabaddi and kho-kho, and also feature in regional competitions such as the South Asian Games and Asian Games.[29][30]

Traditional sports

This section is an excerpt from Traditional games of India § History[edit]
An Indian stamp from 1990 commemorating the introduction of kabaddi, India's most popular traditional sport, into the Asian Games.

Kabaddi and kho-kho may have had certain aspects of their gameplay mentioned in the Mahabharata, which was written before 300 AD.[31][32] Atya-patya is mentioned in the Naṟṟiṇai, written in 300 AD or before.[33] Chaturanga is an ancient board game which experienced various modifications as it was transmitted from India toward Europe and became the modern game of chess.[34]

Traditional Indian games served various purposes throughout and had various connections to Indian history; for example, certain aspects of the Bengali hopscotch game of ekka-dokka may have represented concepts of social division of property,[35] and kabaddi may have been used as a preparation for hunting.[36]

During the time of the British Raj, Indians began to focus more on playing British sports such as cricket, hockey, and football rather than their traditional sports.[37] Part of the reason behind this was so that they could rise up the ranks by imitating the culture of the colonisers;[38] later on, some Indians also started to see British sports as an activity in which they could "beat" their colonisers.[39] A notable traditional Indian sport which continued to be played during this time was polo, which the British helped to codify and support as an official sport.[40] Some British board games, such as Snakes and Ladders and Ludo, were also inspired by Indian board games.[41]

In post-Independence India, kabaddi is the most popular traditional sport, with the highest viewership and most career opportunities; its growth was spurred on by the creation of the Pro Kabaddi League.[42] Kho-kho has also had a franchise league started for it, Ultimate Kho Kho;[43] the Pro Kabaddi League and Ultimate Kho Kho are respectively the most and third-most viewed non-cricket competitions in India.[44]

In addition, the Indian government is starting the ‘Bhāratīya Games’ [lower-alpha 2] initiative to revive traditional Indian games with the view that they are more affordable for rural Indians to play, and are important for reviving Indian culture as well as increasing team spirit.[45][46]

Martial arts

This section is an excerpt from Indian martial arts[edit]

Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases “Indian martial arts”, usually deriving from Dravidian sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. archery, armed combat), by Classical times they were used generically for all fighting systems.

Among the most common terms today, śastra-vidyā, is a compound of the words śastra (weapon) and vidyā (knowledge).[47] Dhanurveda derives from the words for bow (dhanushya) and knowledge (veda), the “science of archery” in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts in general.[48][self-published source?] The Vishnu Purana text describes dhanuveda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of “applied knowledge” or upaveda, along with shastrashastra or military science.[49] A later term, yuddha kalā, comes from the words yuddha meaning fight or combat and kalā meaning art or skill. The related term śastra kalā (lit. weapon art) usually refers specifically to armed disciplines. Another term, yuddha-vidyā or “combat knowledge”, refers to the skills used on the battlefield, encompassing not only actual fighting but also battle formations and strategy. Martial arts are usually learnt and practiced in the traditional akharas.[50][51]

Music

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Architecture

Afghan architecture

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Pakistani architecture

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Indian architecture

This section is an excerpt from Architecture of India[edit]

Indian architecture is rooted in its history, culture and religion. Among a number of architectural styles and traditions, the best-known include the many varieties of Hindu temple architecture, Indo-Islamic architecture, especially Mughal architecture, Rajput architecture and Indo-Saracenic architecture. Much early Indian architecture was in wood, which has not survived. Instead the earliest survivals are from the many sites with Indian rock-cut architecture, most Buddhist but some Hindu and Jain.

Hindu temple architecture is mainly divided into the Dravidian style of the south and the Nagara style of the north, with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, partly depending on the different climates. Haveli is a general term for a large townhouse.

The first major Islamic kingdom in India was the Delhi Sultanate, which led to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture, combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the Mughal Empire, when Mughal architecture evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the Taj Mahal being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the Rajput and Sikh styles as well.

During the British colonial period, European styles including neoclassical, gothic revival, and baroque became prevalent across India. The amalgamation of Indo-Islamic and European styles led to a new style, known as the Indo-Saracenic style. After independence, modernist ideas spread among Indian architects as a way of progressing from the colonial culture. Le Corbusier, who designed the city of Chandigarh influenced a generation of architects towards modernism in the 20th century. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with the world's economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture during the contemporary era.[52]

Dravidian architecture

This section is an excerpt from Dravidian architecture[edit]

Dravidian architecture, or the South Indian temple style, is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India and in Sri Lanka, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. It is seen in Hindu temples, and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana, where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikharas. However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high gopura or gatehouse at the edge of the compound; large temples have several, dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha.

Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu shastra, the majority of the existing structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, some parts of Maharashtra, Odisha and Sri Lanka.[53][54] Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas, the Cholas, the Chera, the Kakatiyas, the Reddis, the Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas, and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of the Dravida architecture.

Bengali architecture

This section is an excerpt from Architecture of Bengal[edit]

Template:Bengalis The architecture of Bengal, which comprises the modern country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam's Barak Valley, has a long and rich history, blending indigenous elements from the Indian subcontinent, with influences from different parts of the world. Bengali architecture includes ancient urban architecture, religious architecture, rural vernacular architecture, colonial townhouses and country houses and modern urban styles. The bungalow style is a notable architectural export of Bengal. The corner towers of Bengali religious buildings were replicated in medieval Southeast Asia. Bengali curved roofs, suitable for the very heavy rains, were adopted into a distinct local style of Indo-Islamic architecture, and used decoratively elsewhere in north India in Mughal architecture.

Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and traditional Bengali architecture mostly uses brick and wood, often reflecting the styles of the wood, bamboo and thatch styles of local vernacular architecture for houses. Decorative carved or moulded plaques of terracotta (the same material as the brick) are a special feature. The brick is extremely durable and disused ancient buildings were often used as a convenient source of materials by local people, often being stripped to their foundations over the centuries.

Clothing

This section is an excerpt from History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent[edit]
The Buddha wearing kāṣāya robes, Gandhara, 1st-2nd century CE. Height about 1 meter. Tokyo National Museum
History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization or earlier. Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BCE during the Harappan era. The remnants of the ancient Indian clothing can be found in the figurines discovered from the sites near the Indus Valley civilisation, the rock-cut sculptures, the cave paintings, and human art forms found in temples and monuments. These scriptures view the figures of human wearing clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the sari to that of turban and the dhoti, the traditional Indian wears were mostly tied around the body in various ways.

Literature

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Philosophy

This section is an excerpt from Indian philosophy[edit]

Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas.[55][56][57]

There are six major (āstika) schools of Vedic philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta—and five major heterodox (nāstika or sramanic) schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka. The āstika group embraces the Vedas as an essential source of its foundations, while the nāstika group does not. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.[58][59]

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era.[citation needed] Competition and integration between the various schools was intense, despite later claims of Hindu unity. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and Vedanta survived, but others, like Ajñana, Charvaka and Ājīvika did not.

Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.[60][61][62]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "From the Achaemenids to the Mughals: A look at India's lost Persian history". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  2. ↑ "How the British influenced Indian culture". DAWN.COM. 2010-06-06. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  3. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20250128052255/https://jansankalp.org/influence-of-colonialism-on-indian-culture/
  4. ↑ Pillalamarri, Akhilesh. "How India Influenced Southeast Asian Civilization". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  5. ↑ Liviu Giosan, Peter D. Clift, Mark G. Macklin, Dorian Q. Fuller, Stefan Constantinescu, Julie A. Durcan, Thomas Stevens, Geoff A. T. Duller, Ali R. Tabrez, Kavita Gangal, Ronojoy Adhikari, Anwar Alizai, Florin Filip, Sam VanLaningham, James P. M. Syvitski (June 26, 2012). "Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. PNAS. 109 (26): E1688–E1694. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112743109. PMC 3387054. PMID 22645375.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ John L. Brooke (2014-03-17). Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521871648. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  7. ↑ Kenoyer 1991.
  8. ↑ Coningham & Young 2015, p. 27.
  9. ↑ Mark McClish, Patrick Olivelle (2012-09-07). The Arthaśāstra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft. M.S. Koṭhārī. ISBN 9781603849036. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  10. ↑ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the ... Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131711200. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  11. ↑ Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Mediaeval India 2008, p. 200.
  12. ↑ Michael Witzel. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" (PDF). Harvard University. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  13. ↑ "Hindu synthesis and smriti". Speaking Tree. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  14. ↑ "The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism". A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Pew Research Foundation. 18 December 2012. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  15. ↑ Pew Research Center (18 December 2012). "Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists". Pew Research Center. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  16. ↑ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013-01-01). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9780415448512.
  17. ↑ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050date=2015-04-02". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  18. ↑ Diplomat, Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The. "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Retrieved April 21, 2018.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Peter R. Blood. "Pakistan : a country study". Library of Congress. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  20. ↑ Bista, Dor Bahadur (1991). Fatalism and Development: Nepal's Struggle for Modernization - Dor Bahadur Bista - Google Books. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 9788125001881. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
  21. ↑ http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_26_02_01.pdf Template:Bare URL PDF
  22. ↑ Mendis, V.L.B (1985). Foreign Relations of Sri Lanka: Earliest Times to 1965. Tisara Prakasakayo. pp. 113–16.
  23. ↑ Sirisena, W. M. (1978-01-01). Sri Lanka and South-East Asia: Political, Religious and Cultural Relations ... - W. M. Sirisena - Google Books. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-9004056602. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
  24. ↑ "Explained snippets: Cricket has 1 billion fans, 90% of them in subcontinent". The Indian Express. 2018-06-28. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  25. ↑ Bastian, Ron (2022-11-13). "For football-crazy Kerala, FIFA World Cup is its biggest festival". thefederal.com. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  26. ↑ "Why Bengal is obsessed with football?". The Indian Express. 2018-06-14. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  27. ↑ "50 years of Victory: What has Bangladesh achieved in the field of sports?". The Business Standard. 2021-12-16. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  28. ↑ History of hockey in India: Taught by the British, India conquered the world https://olympics.com/ Rahul Venkat
  29. ↑ Taneja, Nidhima (2023-01-27). "Pro kabaddi, kho-kho leagues chase IPL viewership. India rediscovering regional sports". ThePrint. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  30. ↑ "OCA » Ancient tag game of kho kho catching on fast". ocasia.org. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  31. ↑ Jadia, Varun (2016-05-08). "15 Forgotten Indian Childhood Games That Need to Be Revived Before They Are Lost Forever". The Better India. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  32. ↑ Kho Kho, a kabaddi-like sport linked with Indian epic Mahabharata - know all about it Olympics.com
  33. ↑ Arasu, S. T. (2020-07-04). "Galah Panjang and its Indian roots". On the sport. Be part of it. Retrieved 2022-11-01.
  34. ↑ "World Chess Day 2022: History, Significance And Quotes About The Game". News18. 2022-07-20. Retrieved 2023-01-14.
  35. ↑ A Historical Study of the Origin and Features of Some Selected Folk Games in North Bengal Badal Roy https://ir.nbu.ac.in/
  36. ↑ "kabaddi | sport | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-01-09.
  37. ↑ Love, Adam; Dzikus, Lars (26 February 2020). "How India came to love cricket, favored sport of its colonial British rulers". The Conversation. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  38. ↑ Disappearance of Traditional games by the imitation of Colonial Culture through the Historical parameters of Cultural Colonialism Md Abu Nasim https://dergipark.org.tr/
  39. ↑ "'The Revenge of Plassey': Football in the British Raj puviarasu". LSE International History. 2020-07-20. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  40. ↑ Sen, Ronojoy (2015-10-27). Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-53993-7.
  41. ↑ "Reviving traditional games of India". The Hindu. 2012-06-10. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
  42. ↑ "Pro Kabaddi leagues rising fortunes rub off on prospects of the rural game". Business Standard. 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  43. ↑ Saini, Lavanya Lakshmi Narayanan & Abhishek (2022-09-17). "Ultimate Kho Kho — Welcome revival or departure from roots?". sportstar.thehindu.com. Retrieved 2022-11-06.
  44. ↑ Khosla, Varuni (2023-01-17). "Ultimate Kho Kho S1 claims total reach of 41 million viewers from India". mint. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  45. ↑ Aditya Wadhawan (Jan 20, 2023). "Bharatiya Games initiative to popularise traditional Indian sports ecosystem in schools - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
  46. ↑ "'Gilli danda' among 75 'Bharatiya sports' set to be introduced in schools". Hindustan Times. 2022-07-30. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
  47. ↑ attested in Classical Sanskrit only, specifically in the Anargharāghava.
  48. ↑ attested from Epic Sanskrit; see Luijendijk, D.H. (2008). Kalarippayat: The Essence and Structure of an Indian Martial Art. Oprat (LuLu.com). ISBN 978-1-58160-480-1.[self-published source]
  49. ↑ "Actualizing Power and Crafting a Self in Kalarippayattu". Spa.ex.ac.uk. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
  50. ↑ James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 23–4. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  51. ↑ Agrawal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120805927.
  52. ↑ See Raj Jadhav, pp. 7–13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
  53. ↑ Fergusson, James (1864). The Rock-cut Temples of India: Illustrated by Seventy-four Photographs Taken on the Spot by Major Gill. J. Murray.
  54. ↑ Hardy, Adam (2007). The Temple Architecture of India. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-02827-8.
  55. ↑ John Bowker, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 259
  56. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2014). On Hinduism. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-936008-6.
  57. ↑ Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, Chapter 9
  58. ↑ Cowell and Gough, p. xii.
  59. ↑ Nicholson, pp. 158-162.
  60. ↑ Roy W. Perrett (2001). Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8153-3608-2.
  61. ↑ Stephen H Phillips (2013). Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-51898-0.
  62. ↑ Arvind Sharma (1982). The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. ISBN 9789993624318.;
    Purusottama Bilimoria; Joseph Prabhu; Renuka M. Sharma (2007). Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3.

Template:South Asian topics


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