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{{Short description|Hindu deity}} | {{Short description|Hindu deity}} | ||
{{Infobox deity | {{Infobox deity | ||
| type = Hindu | | type = Hindu | ||
| name = Perumal | | name = Perumal | ||
| image = | | image = Murti of Perumal with Sridevi and Bhudevi.jpg | ||
| caption = Perumal | | caption = [[Murti]] of Perumal (centre) with Sridevi (left) and Bhudevi (right), Tirunelveli | ||
| god_of = God of [[Vaikuntha]]<ref>{{cite book | url=https:// | | god_of = God of [[Vaikuntha]]<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nh2tgAACAAJ | isbn=9781935677208 | title=The Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram | year=2009 | publisher=Prakriti Foundation }}</ref> | ||
| venerated_in = [[Vaishnavism]] ([[Sri Vaishnavism]]) | | venerated_in = [[Vaishnavism]] ([[Sri Vaishnavism]]) | ||
| abode = [[ | | abode = 108 [[Divya Desam]]s, 108 [[Abhimana Kshethram]]s and ''Purana Kshethram'' of [[Vishnu]]. | ||
| mantra = [[Om Namo Narayanaya]] | | mantra = [[Om Namo Narayanaya]] | ||
| symbol = [[ | | symbol = [[Panchajanya|Shanku]], [[Sudarshana Chakra|Chakram]] | ||
| texts = [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham]] | | texts = [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham ]] | ||
| | | consorts = [[Lakshmi|Sridevi]], [[Bhudevi]], and [[Niladevi]] (three aspects of [[Lakshmi|Mahalakshmi]]) | ||
| mount = [[Garuda]] and [[Shesha]] | | mount = [[Garuda]] and [[Shesha]] | ||
| festivals = [[Vaikuntha Ekadashi]] | | festivals = [[Vaikuntha Ekadashi]] | ||
| other_names = Govinda, Srinivasa, Narayana, Gopala, Venkateshvara, Vishnu | | other_names = Govinda, Srinivasa, Narayana, Gopala, Venkateshvara, Vishnu | ||
}} | }}{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}} | |||
'''Perumal''' ({{ | '''Perumal''' ({{langx|ta|பெருமாள் |translit=Perumāl}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramachandran |first=Nalini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AtBEAAAQBAJ&dq=perumal+god+great+one&pg=PT113 |title=Gods, Giants and the Geography of India |year=2021 |publisher=Hachette UK |isbn=978-93-91028-27-5 |language=en}}</ref> or '''Tirumal''' ({{langx|ta|திருமால்|translit=Tirumāl}} {{Pronunciation|Ta-திருமால்.ogg}}) is a [[Hindu deities|Hindu deity]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tieken |first=Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyNXEAAAQBAJ&dq=Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA186 |title=Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry |date=2021 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-48609-6 |pages=186 |language=en}}</ref> Perumal is worshipped mainly among [[Tamil Hindus]] in [[South India]] and the [[Tamil diaspora]], who consider Perumal to be a form of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qplaAAAAcAAJ&dq=perumal+tamil+name++vishnu&pg=PA532 |title=Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial, Industrial and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. Ed. by Edward Balfour |date=1873 |publisher=[Dr.:] Scottish and Adelphi Press |pages=532 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Some of the earliest known mentions of Perumal, and the Tamil devotional poems ascribed to him, are found in ''[[Paripāṭal]]'' – the [[Sangam literature|Sangam era]] poetic anthology.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher= | Some of the earliest known mentions of Perumal, and the Tamil devotional poems ascribed to him, are found in ''[[Paripāṭal]]'' – the [[Sangam literature|Sangam era]] poetic anthology.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=90-04-03591-5|page=124}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=V.N. Muthukumar|author2=Elizabeth Rani Segran|title=The River Speaks: The Vaiyai Poems from the Paripatal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnwruNVgFUkC |year=2012|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-81-8475-694-4|pages=1–7}}</ref> He is a popular [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity particularly among Tamils in [[Tamil Nadu]] and the Tamil diaspora, and in [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] temples.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Who's who in non-classical mythology|last=Sykes, Egerton |others=Kendall, Alan, 1939–|date=2014 |isbn=9781136414442|edition=2nd|location=London|oclc=872991268}}</ref> One of the richest and largest Hindu temples complexes dedicated to Perumal is the [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala|Venkateswara temple]] in [[Tirupati]], Andhra Pradesh. Other significant institutions include Srirangam's [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy]] temple, Kanchipuram's [[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram|Varadaraja]] Perumal temple, and Thiruvananthapurum's [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Padmanabhaswamy]] Perumal temple.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael D. Coogan|title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedguide00coog|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-521997-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedguide00coog/page/148 148]–149}}</ref> | ||
== Etymology == | == Etymology == | ||
Scholars believe that both Perumal and Tirumal ultimately trace their origin to a tribal confederacy known as the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallas]] in ancient India, whose name was [[Proto-Dravidian language|Dravidian]] for "people of the mountains".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=H. Heras |title=The Dravidian Tribes of Northern India |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=10 |date=1947 |pages=83 | | Scholars believe that both Perumal and Tirumal ultimately trace their origin to a tribal confederacy known as the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallas]] in ancient India, whose name was [[Proto-Dravidian language|Dravidian]] for "people of the mountains".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=H. Heras |title=The Dravidian Tribes of Northern India |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=10 |date=1947 |pages=83 |jstor=44137107 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44137107}}</ref> Both of these terms were originally titles conferred by the Mallas upon their great chiefs and kings. This title was eventually employed as an epithet for the deity Vishnu, until its original meaning was widely forgotten over the course of time. However, in some regions of Kerala, ''Perumal'' continued to be employed as its original usage as an honorific for a ruler.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oppert |first=Gustav Salomon |title=On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa Or India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajNKCvWtdE4C&dq=perumal+mal&pg=PA30 |date=1893 |publisher=Constable |pages=30 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
'''Perumal''' is also considered to be formed by two words ''Perum'' and ''al''. ''Perum'' means great and ''al'' means person (used for god here). Therefore ''Perumal'' means the "great god" who showers his divine grace on people. He is considered the supreme god of [[Vaishnavism]]. Another derivation is the syncretic Tamil / Sanskrit 'Perum' - 'mā' - 'l' , literally "Great Measurer".{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} | |||
[[File:Aerial view of Sri Rangam temple near Tiruchirapalli 1.jpg|thumb|Srirangam temple complex across the river on left.]] | |||
[[File:Thiruvellarai (13).jpg|thumb|The temple tank in front of the main gateway|alt=temple tank in front of the gateway tower of [[Pundarikakshan PerumalTemple]] ]] | |||
== Veneration == | == Veneration == | ||
The deity Perumal is identified with Mayon, sometimes translated as "the dark-complexioned one", or more literally, "He whose power is Maya" (i.e. the [[Saguna brahman|Saguna Brahman]]) who is first referenced in the texts [[Purananuru]] and [[Pattupattu]]. Regarded to be the Tamil equivalent of [[Krishna]], poetry from this period compares his dark skin to the ocean.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raman |first=Srilata |chapter=Reflections on the King of Ascetics (''Yatirāja''): Rāmānuja in the Devotional Poetry of Vedānta Deśika |jstor=10.1163/j.ctv2gjwvrz.16 |jstor-access=free |editor=Dominic Goodall |editor2=Shaman Hatley |editor3=Harunaga Isaacson |editor4=Srilata Raman |title=Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson |year=2020 |page=201|publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004432666 }}</ref> Originally a [[Dravidian folk religion|folk deity]], he was syncretised with Krishna and Vishnu, gaining popularity in the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&dq=mayon+perumal&pg=PT797 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-81-8475-277-9 |pages=797 |language=en}}</ref> His consort is [[Lakshmi]], the goddess of fortune, beauty, and prosperity, appearing in even the earliest strata of Tamil poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raman |first=K. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vb2fAAAAMAAJ&q=Tirum%C4%81l |title=Temple Art, Icons and Culture of India and South-East Asia |date=2006 |publisher=Sharada Publishing House |isbn=978-81-88934-31-7 |pages=141 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
The deity Perumal is identified with Mayon, | |||
Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the ''mullai tiṇai'' (pastoral landscape) in the [[Tolkāppiyam|Tolkappiyam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hardy |first=Friedhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XY42EAAAQBAJ | Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the ''mullai tiṇai'' (pastoral landscape) in the [[Tolkāppiyam|Tolkappiyam]].<ref name="Hardy 156">{{Cite book |last=Hardy |first=Friedhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XY42EAAAQBAJ&dq=mayon+mullai&pg=PA156 |title=Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion |date=2015 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3816-1 |pages=156 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Clothey 34">{{Cite book |last=Clothey |first=Fred W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PC2aDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA34 |title=The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan |date=2019 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-080410-2 |pages=34 |language=en}}</ref> He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of ''Paramporul'' (achieving oneness with [[Paramatman|Paramatma]]) during the [[Sangam period|Sangam age]]. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in [[Sangam literature]].<ref name="Padmaja 2002 27">{{Cite book |last=Padmaja |first=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&dq=mayon+sangam&pg=PA27 |title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu |date=2002 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-398-4 |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref> A reference to ''"Mukkol Pakavars"'' in Sangam literature indicates that only [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] saints were holding ''Tridanda'' and were prominent during the period. Tirumal was glorified as "the supreme deity", whose divine lotus feet could burn all evil and grant [[moksha]]. During the post-Sangam period, his worship was further glorified by the poet-saints called the [[Alvars]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramesh |first=M. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAdJAQAAIAAJ&q=perumal+paramporul |title=108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams |date=1997 |publisher=T.T. Devasthanams |pages=152 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Nagendra Kr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uec1E8DpiH8C&dq=Perum%C4%81l+Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA34 |title=Encyclopaedia of Oriental Philosophy and Religion: A Continuing Series |last2=Mishra |first2=A. P. |date=2005 |publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8220-072-2 |pages=34 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
=== Festivals === | |||
[[File:Perumal in athur.j.jpg|thumb|Moolavar of Vishnu in athur during Vaikuntha Ekadashi]] | |||
In the contemporary period, a major feature of the temple [[Utsava|festivals]] of Perumal is the temple car procession. During this generally multiple-day event, an image of the processional deity (''[[Utsava murti|utsavar]]'') and his consorts are adorned with lavish jewellery and garments. The image is accompanied by royal paraphernalia, such as elaborate umbrellas (''[[Chatra (umbrella)|chatra]]'') and fly-whisks (''[[Fly-whisk|chamara]]'') flanking the deity on either side. The images are carried to and fro from the temple on a [[Ratha|chariot]] along the streets in great pomp, halting at places to receive the obeisance of devotees. Adherents bearing sacred banners march at the head of the procession, followed by drummers and trumpeters to announce the presence of the deity. The car ([[vahana]]m) is accompanied by Vaishnava [[Pujari|temple priests]], beating cymbals and singing the praises of the deity. The vehicle is often in the form of [[Garuda]], [[Hanuman]], lions, swans, and horses on varying days of the festival. At the tail of the procession is a group of singers, reciting verses from sacred texts such as the [[Vedas]] and the [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham|Nalayira Divya Prabandham]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raman |first=K. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myK8ZYEIu4YC&dq=car+festival+vahana&pg=PA103 |title=Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture |date=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-026-6 |pages=101–104 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kapoor |first=Subodh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJ6O8nwsFWgC&dq=perumal+tirumal&pg=PA293 |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism: Including Its Mythology, Religion, History, Literature, and Pantheon |date=2004 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-81-7755-874-6 |pages=293 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Waghorne |first=Joanne Punzo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHo8DwAAQBAJ&dq=Perumal+garuda+vahana&pg=PA71 |title=Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World |date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-515663-8 |pages=71 |language=en}}</ref>{{Vaishnavism}} | |||
== Hymns == | == Hymns == | ||
Among the most renowned verses that hail Perumal is the ''Tirupallantu'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&q=a+history+of+tamil+literature+kamil |title=Tamil Literature |date=1974 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-01582-0 |pages=103 |language=en}}</ref> composed by [[Periyalvar]], one of the twelve | Among the most renowned verses that hail Perumal is the ''[[Tirupallantu]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&q=a+history+of+tamil+literature+kamil |title=Tamil Literature |date=1974 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-01582-0 |pages=103 |language=en}}</ref> composed by [[Periyalvar]], one of the twelve Alvars of the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] tradition:{{Blockquote|text=Reverence, reverence be unto thee, O thou mighty One, who didst overcome the wrestlers, thou like to the sapphire in glory! Infinitely blest be the beauty of thy holy feet for many many years, for thousands of years, for crores of years, for ever!<br /><br />All hail! Oh may no rift come 'twixt thy slaves and thee! All hail to Sri, who dwells, thy lustre, on thy right! All hail, the glorious discus in thy fair right hand! All hail to Panchajanyam sounding in the fight!}}{{Hinduism}} | ||
{{ | |||
'''Legend of Narasimha according to Paripāṭal''' | |||
<poem> | |||
O Lord with faultless red eyes! With | |||
burning hatred in his heart and drying up the | |||
sandal paste on his chest, [[Hiranyakashipu|Hiranyan]] the evil king | |||
tortured his son [[Prahlada|Prahalathan]] for singing your | |||
praises, inflicting on him great sorrow. The young | |||
man was not disrespectful to his father who deserved | |||
disrespect. You embraced Prahalathan’s fine chest | |||
because of your love for him. You attacked and ruined | |||
[[Hiranyakashipu|Hiranyan]] with great strength, leaping upon his | |||
mountain-like chest as drums roared like thunder. | |||
You tore him apart with your split claws and scattered | |||
his flesh, along with broken pieces of pillar which you | |||
split and came out, in your [[Narasimha]]n form. | |||
''Paripāṭal, poem 4, Verses 10–21''<ref name="ReferenceF">{{cite web | url=https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-paripadal/ | title=Ettuthokai – Paripādal | date=19 May 2022 }}</ref> | |||
</poem> | |||
==Mention of Vishnu in Sangam literature== | |||
{{Main article|Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam}} | |||
Vishnu or Perumal is considered the most mentioned god in the Sangam literature.<ref name="Padmaja 2002 27"/> Further examples can be seen as resources and references of the Sangam literature dedicated to [[Lord Vishnu|Vishnu]]. | |||
===Tolkāppiyam=== | |||
Perumal is considered to be another name of [[Vishnu]], and was traditionally the deity associated with the forests. Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the ''mullai tiṇai'' (pastoral landscape) in the [[Tolkāppiyam|Tolkappiyam]].<ref name="Hardy 156"/><ref name="Clothey 34"/> | |||
===Paripāṭal=== | |||
{{See also|Paripāṭal}} | |||
Tamil [[Sangam literature]] (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions ''Mayon'' or the "dark one," as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the mountains of [[Tamilakam]]. The verses of [[Paripāṭal|Paripadal]] describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the [[Paripāṭal|Paripadal]] consider Perumal as the Supreme god of [[Tamils]]. | |||
{{Verse translation|{{lang|ta|தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ; | |||
பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ; | |||
கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ; | |||
சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ; | |||
அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ; | |||
மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ; | |||
வேதத்து மறை நீ; | |||
பூதத்து முதலும் நீ; | |||
வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ; | |||
திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ; | |||
அனைத்தும் நீ; | |||
அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ;}}|In fire, you are the heat; | |||
in blossoms, the fragrance; | |||
among the stones, you are the diamond; | |||
in speech, truth; | |||
among virtues, you are love; | |||
in valour—strength; | |||
in the Veda, you are the secret; | |||
among elements, the primordial; | |||
in the burning sun, the light; | |||
in moonshine, its sweetness; | |||
you are all, | |||
and you are the substance and meaning of all.|italicsoff=y|attr1=''Paripadal, iii: 63–68''|attr2=F Gros, K Zvelebil<ref name=kz49>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA48 |year=1974| publisher =Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01582-0|page=49}}</ref>}} | |||
===Akanaṉūṟu=== | |||
{{See also|Akanaṉūṟu}} | |||
Number of poems echo the Hindu puranic legends about [[Parashurama]], [[Rama]], [[Krishna]] and others in the Akanaṉūṟu.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=53–54}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Raoul McLaughlin|title=Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzJf1KgqrWQC|year=2010|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-84725-235-7|pages=48–50}}</ref> According to Alf Hiltebeitel – an Indian Religions and Sanskrit Epics scholar, the ''Akanaṉūṟu'' has the earliest known mentions of some stories such as "Krishna stealing sarees of Gopis" which is found later in north Indian literature, making it probable that some of the ideas from Tamil Hindu scholars inspired the Sanskrit scholars in the north and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', or vice versa.<ref name="Hiltebeitel1991p188">{{cite book|author=Alf Hiltebeitel|title=The Cult of Draupadī: Mythologies from Gingee to Kurukserta |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VncomfRVVhoC|year= 1988|publisher= University of Chicago Press (Motilal Banarsidass 1991 Reprint)|isbn= 978-81-208-1000-6|pages= 188–190}}</ref> However the text [[Harivamsa]] which is complex, containing layers that go back to the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE, consists the parts of Krishna playing with Gopis and stealing sarees. | |||
The Akanāṉūṟu has a reference to the [[Ramayana]] in poem 70. The poem places a triumphant [[Rama]] at [[Dhanushkodi]], sitting under a [[Banyan tree]], involved in some secret discussions, when the birds are chirping away.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dakshinamurthy |first1=A |title=Akananuru: Neytal – Poem 70 |url=https://adakshinamurthy.wordpress.com/2015/07/01/akananuru-neythal-poem-70/ |website=Akananuru |access-date=22 July 2019|date=July 2015 }}</ref> This seems to indicate that the story of the Ramayana was familiar in the Tamil lands before the [[Ramavataram|Kamba Ramayanam]] of the 12th century. | |||
===Manimekalai=== | |||
{{See also|Manimekalai}} | |||
Vishnu is described to be a major deity in the epic [[Manimekalai]], such as the Canto XIII:<ref>{{Cite book |last=சாத்தனார் |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wl7T45yhh1sC |title=Manimekhalai: The Dancer with the Magic Bowl |date=1989 |publisher=New Directions Publishing |isbn=978-0-8112-1098-0 |pages=52–55 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
Aputra then meets and accuses the Brahmins of twisting the meaning of the Veda verses taught by [[Brahma]] born from the navel of [[Maha Vishnu]] who holds a golden disc as his weapon. Aputra reminds the Brahmins that the greatest Vedic teachers such as Vasishtha and Agastya were born of low birth. | |||
===Cilappatikaram=== | |||
{{See also|Cilappatikaram}} | |||
{{Quote box | |||
| quote = ஆயிரம் விரித்தெழு தலையுடை அருந்திறற் | |||
பாயற் பள்ளிப் பலர்தொழு தேத்த | |||
விரிதிரைக் காவிரி வியன்பெருந் துருத்தித் | |||
திருவமர் மார்பன் கிடந்த வண்ணமும் | |||
''āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ'' | |||
''pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta'' | |||
''viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit'' | |||
''tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum'' | |||
On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, | |||
worshipped and praised by many, | |||
in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with billowing waves, | |||
is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chest | |||
| align = right | |||
| source = ''Cilappatikaram'' (book 11, lines 35–40) | |||
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}} | |||
The 17th canto of the epic extols the beauty and greatness of Vishnu. The epic states that "Vain are the ears which do not hear the glory of [[Rama]] who is Vishnu, vain are the eyes which do not see the dark-hued Lord, the great God, the Mayavan Vishnu, vain is the tongue that will not praise him who triumphed over the deceit of the foolish schemer Kamsa ([[Krishna]]), vain is the tongue which does not say ‘[[Narayana]]’". The epic also praises the various incarnations of [[Vishnu]] namely Rama, Krishna, Balarama, [[Lakshmana]], [[Narasimha]], [[Vamana]], and others. It also mentions prominent [[Sri Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] temples like the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]], [[Koodal Azhagar temple]], [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]], and [[Kallalagar Temple]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201802/page/n251/mode/2up | title=The Silappadikaram | date=1939 }}</ref> | |||
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| quote = '''Canto XVII of ''Cilappatikaram''''', '''Praise of Narayana'''<br /> | |||
O wearer of the luxurious [[Tulasi]] garland When the host of the Devas praised you reverentially as the One Supreme Being, you, who could never know hunger, ate up the whole universe. Your mouth which swallowed thus the whole universe, ate by stealth the butter from the pot in the uri. Is it your maya? Deceptive indeed is your work. Vain is the tongue that will not praise Him who triumphed over the deceit of the foolish schemer Kamsa and who went as the messenger of the five [[Pandavas]] to the Hundred [[Kauravas]], praised by the Devas in all four directions, to the accompaniment of Vedic chanting, Vain is the tongue which does not say ‘[[Narayana]]’ | |||
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| source = —[[V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201802/page/n251/mode/2up | title=The Silappadikaram | date=1939 }}</ref> | |||
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According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions and Tamil literature scholar, the ''Cilappatikaram'' is the earliest and first complete Tamil reference to Pillai (Nila, Nappinnai, Radha), who is described in the epic as the cowherd lover of Krishna.<ref name="HawleyWulff1982a"/> The epic includes abundant stories and allusions to Krishna and his stories, which are also found in ancient Sanskrit Puranas. In the canto where Kannaki is waiting for Kovalan to return after selling her anklet to a Madurai merchant, she is in a village with cowgirls.<ref name="HawleyWulff1982a"/> These cowherd girls enact a dance, where one plays Mayavan (Krishna), another girl plays Tammunon (Balarama), while a third plays Pinnai (Radha). The dance begins with a song listing Krishna's heroic deeds and his fondness for Radha, then they dance where sage Narada plays music. Such scenes where cowgirls imitate Krishna's life story are also found in Sanskrit poems of ''[[Harivamsa]]'' and ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', both generally dated to be older than ''Cilappatikaram''.<ref name="HawleyWulff1982a"/> The Tamil epic calls portions of it as ''vāla caritai nāṭaṅkaḷ'', which mirrors the phrase ''balacarita nataka'' – dramas about the story of the child [[Krishna]]" – in the more ancient Sanskrit ''kavyas''.<ref name="HawleyWulff1982a">{{cite book|author=Dennis Hudson|editor=John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff|title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C&pg=PA238 |year=1982|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89581-102-8 |pages=238–242}}</ref> | |||
===Kural=== | |||
{{See also|Thiruvalluvar|Kural}} | |||
[[Kural]] is a classic [[Tamil language]] text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or [[Kural (poetic form)|kural]]s, of seven words each. In the introductory chapters of the Kural, [[Thiruvalluvar|Valluvar]] cites [[Indra]], the king of heaven, to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses. According to Tamil Hindu scholars such as Parimelalakar, other concepts and teachings found in Valluvar's text and also found in Hindu texts include Vedas,<ref>{{Cite journal |first=A.K. |last=Ananthanathan |year=1994 |title=Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural |journal=East and West |volume=44 |jstor=29757156 |number=2/4 |page=321}}</ref> {{citation needed span |text=gods (''Trimurti''), sattva, [[guṇa]], munis and sadhus (renouncers), rebirth, affirmation of a primordial God, among others. |date=August 2023}} According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Valluvar's work suggests that he was a Hindu, and not a Jain.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} Similarly, [[Yurij Yakovlevitch Glazov|J. J. Glazov]], a Tamil literature scholar and the translator of the Kural text into the [[Russian language]], sees "Thiruvalluvar as a Hindu by faith", according to a review by [[Kamil Zvelebil]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Kamil |last=Zvelebil |year=1984 |title=Tirukural, translated from Tamil into Russian by J. Glazov |journal=Archiv Orientální |volume=32 |pages=681–682}}</ref> | |||
{{citation needed span |text=Valluvar's mentioning of God [[Maha Vishnu]] in couplets 610 and 1103 and [[Goddess Lakshmi]] in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints at the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] beliefs of Valluvar.|date=August 2023}} | |||
'''Example:-''' | |||
'''குறள் 610:''' | |||
மடியிலா மன்னவன் எய்தும் அடியளந்தான் | |||
தாஅய தெல்லாம் ஒருங்கு. | |||
'''Couplet Explanation:''' | |||
The king who never gives way to idleness will obtain entire possession of (the whole earth) passed over by Vishnu who measured (the worlds) with His foot. [https://www.ytamizh.com/thirukural/kural-610/ (Kural Number 610)] | |||
There are many more references which shows the Rama, Krishna, Parashurama, Vamana, Varaha and Narasimha in [[Cilappatikaram]], [[Purananuru]], [[Naṟṟiṇai]] and many other books. | |||
==Temples== | ==Temples== | ||
{{See also|Divya Desam}}Of the 108 [[Divyadesam|Divya Desam]]s that are revered according to the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints, 106 are stated to exist on earth. Prominent among these Divya Desams are:[[File:Varadharaja Perumal Temple 8.jpg|thumb|[[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram]]]] | {{See also|Divya Desam}}{{See also|Abhimana Kshethram}}Of the 108 [[Divyadesam|Divya Desam]]s that are revered according to the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints, 106 are stated to exist on earth. Prominent among these Divya Desams are:[[File:Varadharaja Perumal Temple 8.jpg|thumb|[[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram]]]] | ||
* Sri Navamukundan Temple in Thirunavaya, Kerala, India | * Sri Navamukundan Temple in Thirunavaya, Kerala, India | ||
* Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, India | * Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, India | ||
* Sri [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Ananthapadmanabhaswamy Temple]] in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India | * Sri [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Ananthapadmanabhaswamy Temple]] in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India | ||
* Sri [[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram|Varadaraja Perumal temple]] in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India | * Sri [[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram|Varadaraja Perumal temple]] in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India | ||
* Sri [[Uppiliappan temple|Oppiliappan Perumal Temple]] near Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, India | * Sri [[Uppiliappan temple|Oppiliappan Perumal Temple]] near Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, India | ||
* Sri Narashima Perumal Temple in Ahobilam, India | * Sri Narashima Perumal Temple in Ahobilam, India | ||
* Sri [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple]] in Srirangam, India | * Sri [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple]] in Srirangam, India | ||
* Thirumaliruncholai ([[Kallazhagar Temple]]) in Madurai, India | * Thirumaliruncholai ([[Kallazhagar Temple]]) in Madurai, India | ||
* Thiruvengadam ([[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala|Sri Venkateswara Temple]]), in Tirupathi, India | * Thiruvengadam ([[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala|Sri Venkateswara Temple]]), in Tirupathi, India | ||
* Aadhi Thiruvellarai (Pundarikatchan) in Thiruvellarai, India. | * Aadhi Thiruvellarai (Pundarikatchan) in Thiruvellarai, India. | ||
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===Sri Lanka=== | ===Sri Lanka=== | ||
* | * Sri Venkateswara Temple, [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka | ||
* Vishnu Devalaya, [[Kandy]], Sri Lanka | |||
* [[Tenavaram temple|Devinuwara Devalaya]], [[Dondra]], Sri Lanka | |||
* Vallipuram Alwar Temple, [[Vallipuram]], Sri Lanka | |||
===Malaysia=== | ===Malaysia=== | ||
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{{HinduMythology}} | {{HinduMythology}} | ||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Perumal}} | |||
[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]] | [[Category:Regional Hindu gods]] | ||
[[Category:Tamil deities]] | [[Category:Tamil deities]] | ||
[[Category:Forms of Vishnu]] | [[Category:Forms of Vishnu]] | ||
Latest revision as of 03:52, 2 February 2026
| Perumal | |
|---|---|
 Murti of Perumal (centre) with Sridevi (left) and Bhudevi (right), Tirunelveli | |
| Other names | Govinda, Srinivasa, Narayana, Gopala, Venkateshvara, Vishnu |
| Venerated in | Vaishnavism (Sri Vaishnavism) |
| Abode | 108 Divya Desams, 108 Abhimana Kshethrams and Purana Kshethram of Vishnu. |
| Mantra | Om Namo Narayanaya |
| Symbol | Shanku, Chakram |
| Mount | Garuda and Shesha |
| Texts | Naalayira Divya Prabandham |
| Festivals | Vaikuntha Ekadashi |
| Consorts | Sridevi, Bhudevi, and Niladevi (three aspects of Mahalakshmi) |
Perumal (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.)[2] or Tirumal (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. Template:Pronunciation) is a Hindu deity.[3] Perumal is worshipped mainly among Tamil Hindus in South India and the Tamil diaspora, who consider Perumal to be a form of Vishnu.[4]
Some of the earliest known mentions of Perumal, and the Tamil devotional poems ascribed to him, are found in Paripāṭal – the Sangam era poetic anthology.[5][6] He is a popular Hindu deity particularly among Tamils in Tamil Nadu and the Tamil diaspora, and in Vaishnava temples.[7] One of the richest and largest Hindu temples complexes dedicated to Perumal is the Venkateswara temple in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. Other significant institutions include Srirangam's Ranganathaswamy temple, Kanchipuram's Varadaraja Perumal temple, and Thiruvananthapurum's Padmanabhaswamy Perumal temple.[8]
Etymology[edit | edit source]
Scholars believe that both Perumal and Tirumal ultimately trace their origin to a tribal confederacy known as the Mallas in ancient India, whose name was Dravidian for "people of the mountains".[9] Both of these terms were originally titles conferred by the Mallas upon their great chiefs and kings. This title was eventually employed as an epithet for the deity Vishnu, until its original meaning was widely forgotten over the course of time. However, in some regions of Kerala, Perumal continued to be employed as its original usage as an honorific for a ruler.[10]
Perumal is also considered to be formed by two words Perum and al. Perum means great and al means person (used for god here). Therefore Perumal means the "great god" who showers his divine grace on people. He is considered the supreme god of Vaishnavism. Another derivation is the syncretic Tamil / Sanskrit 'Perum' - 'mā' - 'l' , literally "Great Measurer".[citation needed]
.jpg)
Veneration[edit | edit source]
The deity Perumal is identified with Mayon, sometimes translated as "the dark-complexioned one", or more literally, "He whose power is Maya" (i.e. the Saguna Brahman) who is first referenced in the texts Purananuru and Pattupattu. Regarded to be the Tamil equivalent of Krishna, poetry from this period compares his dark skin to the ocean.[11] Originally a folk deity, he was syncretised with Krishna and Vishnu, gaining popularity in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.[12] His consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, beauty, and prosperity, appearing in even the earliest strata of Tamil poetry.[13]
Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.[14][15] He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatma) during the Sangam age. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature.[16] A reference to "Mukkol Pakavars" in Sangam literature indicates that only Vaishnava saints were holding Tridanda and were prominent during the period. Tirumal was glorified as "the supreme deity", whose divine lotus feet could burn all evil and grant moksha. During the post-Sangam period, his worship was further glorified by the poet-saints called the Alvars.[17][18]
Festivals[edit | edit source]
In the contemporary period, a major feature of the temple festivals of Perumal is the temple car procession. During this generally multiple-day event, an image of the processional deity (utsavar) and his consorts are adorned with lavish jewellery and garments. The image is accompanied by royal paraphernalia, such as elaborate umbrellas (chatra) and fly-whisks (chamara) flanking the deity on either side. The images are carried to and fro from the temple on a chariot along the streets in great pomp, halting at places to receive the obeisance of devotees. Adherents bearing sacred banners march at the head of the procession, followed by drummers and trumpeters to announce the presence of the deity. The car (vahanam) is accompanied by Vaishnava temple priests, beating cymbals and singing the praises of the deity. The vehicle is often in the form of Garuda, Hanuman, lions, swans, and horses on varying days of the festival. At the tail of the procession is a group of singers, reciting verses from sacred texts such as the Vedas and the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.[19][20][21]
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Hymns[edit | edit source]
Among the most renowned verses that hail Perumal is the Tirupallantu,[22] composed by Periyalvar, one of the twelve Alvars of the Sri Vaishnava tradition:
Reverence, reverence be unto thee, O thou mighty One, who didst overcome the wrestlers, thou like to the sapphire in glory! Infinitely blest be the beauty of thy holy feet for many many years, for thousands of years, for crores of years, for ever!
All hail! Oh may no rift come 'twixt thy slaves and thee! All hail to Sri, who dwells, thy lustre, on thy right! All hail, the glorious discus in thy fair right hand! All hail to Panchajanyam sounding in the fight!
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Legend of Narasimha according to Paripāṭal
O Lord with faultless red eyes! With
burning hatred in his heart and drying up the
sandal paste on his chest, Hiranyan the evil king
tortured his son Prahalathan for singing your
praises, inflicting on him great sorrow. The young
man was not disrespectful to his father who deserved
disrespect. You embraced Prahalathan’s fine chest
because of your love for him. You attacked and ruined
Hiranyan with great strength, leaping upon his
mountain-like chest as drums roared like thunder.
You tore him apart with your split claws and scattered
his flesh, along with broken pieces of pillar which you
split and came out, in your Narasimhan form.
Paripāṭal, poem 4, Verses 10–21[23]
Mention of Vishnu in Sangam literature[edit | edit source]
Vishnu or Perumal is considered the most mentioned god in the Sangam literature.[16] Further examples can be seen as resources and references of the Sangam literature dedicated to Vishnu.
Tolkāppiyam[edit | edit source]
Perumal is considered to be another name of Vishnu, and was traditionally the deity associated with the forests. Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.[14][15]
Paripāṭal[edit | edit source]
Tamil Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or the "dark one," as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the mountains of Tamilakam. The verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the Paripadal consider Perumal as the Supreme god of Tamils.
தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ; |
In fire, you are the heat; |
| —Paripadal, iii: 63–68 | —F Gros, K Zvelebil[24] |
Akanaṉūṟu[edit | edit source]
Number of poems echo the Hindu puranic legends about Parashurama, Rama, Krishna and others in the Akanaṉūṟu.[25][26] According to Alf Hiltebeitel – an Indian Religions and Sanskrit Epics scholar, the Akanaṉūṟu has the earliest known mentions of some stories such as "Krishna stealing sarees of Gopis" which is found later in north Indian literature, making it probable that some of the ideas from Tamil Hindu scholars inspired the Sanskrit scholars in the north and the Bhagavata Purana, or vice versa.[27] However the text Harivamsa which is complex, containing layers that go back to the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE, consists the parts of Krishna playing with Gopis and stealing sarees.
The Akanāṉūṟu has a reference to the Ramayana in poem 70. The poem places a triumphant Rama at Dhanushkodi, sitting under a Banyan tree, involved in some secret discussions, when the birds are chirping away.[28] This seems to indicate that the story of the Ramayana was familiar in the Tamil lands before the Kamba Ramayanam of the 12th century.
Manimekalai[edit | edit source]
Vishnu is described to be a major deity in the epic Manimekalai, such as the Canto XIII:[29]
Aputra then meets and accuses the Brahmins of twisting the meaning of the Veda verses taught by Brahma born from the navel of Maha Vishnu who holds a golden disc as his weapon. Aputra reminds the Brahmins that the greatest Vedic teachers such as Vasishtha and Agastya were born of low birth.
Cilappatikaram[edit | edit source]
பாயற் பள்ளிப் பலர்தொழு தேத்த விரிதிரைக் காவிரி வியன்பெருந் துருத்தித் திருவமர் மார்பன் கிடந்த வண்ணமும்
āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum
On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with billowing waves,
is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chestCilappatikaram (book 11, lines 35–40)
The 17th canto of the epic extols the beauty and greatness of Vishnu. The epic states that "Vain are the ears which do not hear the glory of Rama who is Vishnu, vain are the eyes which do not see the dark-hued Lord, the great God, the Mayavan Vishnu, vain is the tongue that will not praise him who triumphed over the deceit of the foolish schemer Kamsa (Krishna), vain is the tongue which does not say ‘Narayana’". The epic also praises the various incarnations of Vishnu namely Rama, Krishna, Balarama, Lakshmana, Narasimha, Vamana, and others. It also mentions prominent Vaishnavite temples like the Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam, Koodal Azhagar temple, Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, and Kallalagar Temple.[30]
O wearer of the luxurious Tulasi garland When the host of the Devas praised you reverentially as the One Supreme Being, you, who could never know hunger, ate up the whole universe. Your mouth which swallowed thus the whole universe, ate by stealth the butter from the pot in the uri. Is it your maya? Deceptive indeed is your work. Vain is the tongue that will not praise Him who triumphed over the deceit of the foolish schemer Kamsa and who went as the messenger of the five Pandavas to the Hundred Kauravas, praised by the Devas in all four directions, to the accompaniment of Vedic chanting, Vain is the tongue which does not say ‘Narayana’
According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions and Tamil literature scholar, the Cilappatikaram is the earliest and first complete Tamil reference to Pillai (Nila, Nappinnai, Radha), who is described in the epic as the cowherd lover of Krishna.[32] The epic includes abundant stories and allusions to Krishna and his stories, which are also found in ancient Sanskrit Puranas. In the canto where Kannaki is waiting for Kovalan to return after selling her anklet to a Madurai merchant, she is in a village with cowgirls.[32] These cowherd girls enact a dance, where one plays Mayavan (Krishna), another girl plays Tammunon (Balarama), while a third plays Pinnai (Radha). The dance begins with a song listing Krishna's heroic deeds and his fondness for Radha, then they dance where sage Narada plays music. Such scenes where cowgirls imitate Krishna's life story are also found in Sanskrit poems of Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana, both generally dated to be older than Cilappatikaram.[32] The Tamil epic calls portions of it as vāla caritai nāṭaṅkaḷ, which mirrors the phrase balacarita nataka – dramas about the story of the child Krishna" – in the more ancient Sanskrit kavyas.[32]
Kural[edit | edit source]
Kural is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. In the introductory chapters of the Kural, Valluvar cites Indra, the king of heaven, to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses. According to Tamil Hindu scholars such as Parimelalakar, other concepts and teachings found in Valluvar's text and also found in Hindu texts include Vedas,[33] gods (Trimurti), sattva, guṇa, munis and sadhus (renouncers), rebirth, affirmation of a primordial God, among others.[citation needed] According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Valluvar's work suggests that he was a Hindu, and not a Jain.[citation needed] Similarly, J. J. Glazov, a Tamil literature scholar and the translator of the Kural text into the Russian language, sees "Thiruvalluvar as a Hindu by faith", according to a review by Kamil Zvelebil.[34]
Valluvar's mentioning of God Maha Vishnu in couplets 610 and 1103 and Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints at the Vaishnavite beliefs of Valluvar.[citation needed]
Example:-
குறள் 610: மடியிலா மன்னவன் எய்தும் அடியளந்தான் தாஅய தெல்லாம் ஒருங்கு.
Couplet Explanation: The king who never gives way to idleness will obtain entire possession of (the whole earth) passed over by Vishnu who measured (the worlds) with His foot. (Kural Number 610)
There are many more references which shows the Rama, Krishna, Parashurama, Vamana, Varaha and Narasimha in Cilappatikaram, Purananuru, Naṟṟiṇai and many other books.
Temples[edit | edit source]
Of the 108 Divya Desams that are revered according to the Alvar saints, 106 are stated to exist on earth. Prominent among these Divya Desams are:
- Sri Navamukundan Temple in Thirunavaya, Kerala, India
- Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, India
- Sri Ananthapadmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
- Sri Varadaraja Perumal temple in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India
- Sri Oppiliappan Perumal Temple near Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, India
- Sri Narashima Perumal Temple in Ahobilam, India
- Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, India
- Thirumaliruncholai (Kallazhagar Temple) in Madurai, India
- Thiruvengadam (Sri Venkateswara Temple), in Tirupathi, India
- Aadhi Thiruvellarai (Pundarikatchan) in Thiruvellarai, India.
Prominent Perumal Temples in India[edit | edit source]
- Sri Sathya-Narayana Perumal Temple in T-Nagar, Chennai, India
- Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple (TTD), in T-Nagar, Chennai, India
- Sri Vinavaraya Perumal Temple, in Ambattur, Chennai, India
- Sri Santhana Srinivasa Perumal Kovil, in Mogappair, Chennai, India
- Udumalai Tirupathi, Dhali Road, Udumalpet, India
Sri Lanka[edit | edit source]
- Sri Venkateswara Temple, Colombo, Sri Lanka
- Vishnu Devalaya, Kandy, Sri Lanka
- Devinuwara Devalaya, Dondra, Sri Lanka
- Vallipuram Alwar Temple, Vallipuram, Sri Lanka
Malaysia[edit | edit source]
- Sri Sunderaraja Perumal Temple Klang, Malaysia
- Sri Alarmelamanga Samedha Shri Srinivasa Perumal Temple, Batu Caves, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sri Renganathar Temple, Kawasan Institusi Bangi, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sri Varatharajah Perumal Temple, Persiaran Kewajipan, SS13, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sri Perumal Temple, Simpang Morib, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple Devastanam, Pusat Bandar Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia
- Hari Krishna Perumal Temple, Port Klang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Sri Krishna Temple, Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- Shree Lakshmi Narayan Mandir, Jalan Kasipillay, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
United States[edit | edit source]
- Sri Venkateswara Perumal temple in the USA
- Sri Ranganatha temple in the USA
Singapore[edit | edit source]
- Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple, Singapore
See also[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ The Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram. Prakriti Foundation. 2009. ISBN 9781935677208.
- ↑ Ramachandran, Nalini (2021). Gods, Giants and the Geography of India. Hachette UK. ISBN 978-93-91028-27-5.
- ↑ Tieken, Herman (2021). Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry. Brill. p. 186. ISBN 978-90-04-48609-6.
- ↑ Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial, Industrial and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. Ed. by Edward Balfour. [Dr.:] Scottish and Adelphi Press. 1873. p. 532.
- ↑ Kamil Zvelebil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. Brill Academic. p. 124. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.
- ↑ V.N. Muthukumar; Elizabeth Rani Segran (2012). The River Speaks: The Vaiyai Poems from the Paripatal. Penguin Books. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-81-8475-694-4.
- ↑ Sykes, Egerton (2014). Who's who in non-classical mythology. Kendall, Alan, 1939– (2nd ed.). London. ISBN 9781136414442. OCLC 872991268.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Michael D. Coogan (1998). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford University Press. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-0-19-521997-5.
- ↑ H. Heras (1947). "The Dravidian Tribes of Northern India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 10: 83. JSTOR 44137107.
- ↑ Oppert, Gustav Salomon (1893). On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa Or India. Constable. p. 30.
- ↑ Raman, Srilata (2020). "Reflections on the King of Ascetics (Yatirāja): Rāmānuja in the Devotional Poetry of Vedānta Deśika". In Dominic Goodall; Shaman Hatley; Harunaga Isaacson; Srilata Raman (eds.). Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson. Brill. p. 201. ISBN 9789004432666. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctv2gjwvrz.16.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin UK. p. 797. ISBN 978-81-8475-277-9.
- ↑ Raman, K. V. (2006). Temple Art, Icons and Culture of India and South-East Asia. Sharada Publishing House. p. 141. ISBN 978-81-88934-31-7.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Hardy, Friedhelm (2015). Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 156. ISBN 978-81-208-3816-1.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Clothey, Fred W. (2019). The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 34. ISBN 978-3-11-080410-2.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Padmaja, T. (2002). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Abhinav Publications. p. 27. ISBN 978-81-7017-398-4.
- ↑ Ramesh, M. S. (1997). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams. T.T. Devasthanams. p. 152.
- ↑ Singh, Nagendra Kr; Mishra, A. P. (2005). Encyclopaedia of Oriental Philosophy and Religion: A Continuing Series. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 34. ISBN 978-81-8220-072-2.
- ↑ Raman, K. V. (2003). Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture. Abhinav Publications. pp. 101–104. ISBN 978-81-7017-026-6.
- ↑ Kapoor, Subodh (2004). A Dictionary of Hinduism: Including Its Mythology, Religion, History, Literature, and Pantheon. Cosmo Publications. p. 293. ISBN 978-81-7755-874-6.
- ↑ Waghorne, Joanne Punzo (2004). Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World. Oxford University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-19-515663-8.
- ↑ Zvelebil, Kamil (1974). Tamil Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 103. ISBN 978-3-447-01582-0.
- ↑ "Ettuthokai – Paripādal". 19 May 2022.
- ↑ Kamil Zvelebil (1974). Tamil Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 49. ISBN 978-3-447-01582-0.
- ↑ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 53–54.
- ↑ Raoul McLaughlin (2010). Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. A&C Black. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7.
- ↑ Alf Hiltebeitel (1988). The Cult of Draupadī: Mythologies from Gingee to Kurukserta. University of Chicago Press (Motilal Banarsidass 1991 Reprint). pp. 188–190. ISBN 978-81-208-1000-6.
- ↑ Dakshinamurthy, A (July 2015). "Akananuru: Neytal – Poem 70". Akananuru. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
- ↑ சாத்தனார் (1989). Manimekhalai: The Dancer with the Magic Bowl. New Directions Publishing. pp. 52–55. ISBN 978-0-8112-1098-0.
- ↑ "The Silappadikaram". 1939.
- ↑ "The Silappadikaram". 1939.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Dennis Hudson (1982). John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (ed.). The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 238–242. ISBN 978-0-89581-102-8.
- ↑ Ananthanathan, A.K. (1994). "Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural". East and West. 44 (2/4): 321. JSTOR 29757156.
- ↑ Zvelebil, Kamil (1984). "Tirukural, translated from Tamil into Russian by J. Glazov". Archiv Orientální. 32: 681–682.
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