Islam in Kerala: Difference between revisions

Islam in Kerala
	Muslim women of Kerala (1901)
Total population
	c. 9 million (26.56%) in 2011
Regions with significant populations
	Kerala, Lakshadweep, States of Persian Gulf, Europe, Tulu Nadu, Kodagu, Nilgiris, Malaysia, Singapore
Religions
	Islam
Languages
	Malayalam, Arabi Malayalam

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Latest revision as of 05:59, 19 March 2026

Islam arrived in Kerala, the Malayalam-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.^[8]^[9] The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period.

Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.^[10] According to historian M. G. S. Narayanan and other scholars, the early members of Muslim Mappila community originated from the descendants of children born to non muslim Arab traders and native women along the Malabar coast, before Islam.^[11] These early individuals were referred to as ma-ppila, as they did not belong to any existing caste group. Arab traders often stayed on the Malabar coast for extended periods, sometimes up to three months, while waiting for the reverse monsoon winds, during which some formed temporary relationships with local women, often in exchange for money.^[12] The offspring of such unions were not accepted into any Hindu caste and came to be known as ma-ppila.

After the rise of Islam in Arabia, many among these mappilas embraced the new faith. However, the majority of present-day Mappilas estimated to constitute around 90 percent are considered descendants of lower-caste Hindus, mainly Dalits, who converted to Islam at a later stage to escape caste based oppression.^[13] Conversion to non-Hindu religions offered them social freedom, as the Brahmanical order did not define how such converts should be treated. Scholars note that these conversions were motivated primarily by the desire for social emancipation rather than by theological comparison between the Bhagavad Gita and the Qur’an.^[14]

Even after India’s independence, the practice known as Arabikalyanam (“Arab marriage”) remained prevalent in the districts of Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, and Malappuram, where visiting Arabs offered money or wealth in exchange for temporary marriages with Mappila women.^[15]^[16] Several Mappila families in Kozhikode and Malappuram accumulated considerable wealth through these arrangements.^[12]^[8]^[9] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former Malabar District) of different origins.^[17]^[10] Some were called 'Moors' in Kasargod district.^[18] Unlike the common misconception, the caste system does exist among the Muslims of Kerala.^[19] Muslims in Malabar are also known as Jonakar (similar to Tamil name – Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. – for Sri Lankan Moors), Koya, and Kaka (meaning “crow,” referring to its characteristics).^[20] During the colonial period, an unusual practice called Hal-ilakkam (running amok) was reportedly common among the Mappilas of Malappuram, in which a priest would select a mentally disturbed or emotionally vulnerable person, such as someone whose wife had been abducted, to incite him into attacking non-Muslims as a means of regaining his lost honour. This practice is described in detail by Lance Corporal Vincent J. Ryder of the Cheshire Regiment, in his 1907 book 'Two Years in Malabar'.^[21]^[22]^[23] The Muslims of Southern and Central Kerala or the erstwhile Kingdom of Travancore are known as Methanmar and Rowthers.

Muslims in Kerala share a common language (Malayalam) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.^[24]^[25]^[1]^[8] Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow Sunni Islam of Shāfiʿī School of thought. Kerala's Muslim community has a higher Total Fertility Rate (TFR) compared to other religious groups in the state, with a TFR of 2.25, nearly double that of other religious groups in Kerala. If a typical Hindu family has 2 children, a typical Muslim family in Kerala, based on the TFR ratio, would have around 3 children.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[10]

History[edit | edit source]

Silk Road trade routes. The spice trade was mainly by water (blue).

Names, routes and locations of the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* (1st century CE)

Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".^[29]^[30]^:79 Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.^[31] Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.^[31] The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries.^[31] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.^[31] The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.^[31]

In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.^[32] There had been considerable trade relations between Middle East and Malabar Coast even before the time of Muhammad (c. 570 – 632 AD).^[33]^[34] Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast.^[9] Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.^[35]^[36] Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the Hindu King that moved to Arabia to meet the Islamic prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam.^[37]^[38]^[39] Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.^[10]^[40] According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632).^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44] According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian subcontinent.^[45] It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.^[46] According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott.^[47] A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.^[48]

The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is the Quilon Syrian copper plates (9th century AD)

Shafiʽi school (shaded in dark blue) is the most-prominent school among the Muslims of Kerala, coastal Karnataka, and Sri Lanka unlike from rest of South Asia

The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of Kollam.^[49] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the Malabar Coast. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 AD), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 AD), Abulfeda (1273–1331 AD), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.^[50] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia.^[43]^[51] Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call Malabar Coast as Malabar.^[52] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.^[53] The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills.^[3] According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent).^[3] The Kodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.^[53] The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.^[54]^[48]^[53]

The monopoly of overseas spice trade from Malabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.^[55] The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts.^[56]^[55] Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.^[8] Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.^[9]^[17] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.^[57] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala.^[57] A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.^[58]

The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.^[2] By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala.^[17] Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims.^[59] The port commissioner, the Shah Bandar, represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut as well as Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).^[2]^[59] The Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, based at Kannur, ruled the Lakshadweep Islands.^[52] Arabs had the monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast and Indian Ocean until the Portuguese Age of Discovery.^[52] The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.^[17]^[9]

The arrival of the Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.^[60] Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.^[61]^[62] The Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast.^[63] It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.^[64]^[65]^[66] Tuhfatul Mujahideen also describes the history of Mappila Muslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition of Malabar Coast in the 16th century CE.^[64] With the end of Portuguese era, Arabs lost their monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast.^[52] As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.^[67]^[68] The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.^[69]^[70] Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.^[60]

By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".^[60] The community tried to reverse the trend during the Mysore invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).^[71] The victory of the English East India Company and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.^[60]^[72] The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the Mappila Uprising (1921–22).^[60]^[73]^[24]^[74] The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.^[9]

A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the Persian Gulf countries in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.^[8] The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.^[9] University of Calicut, with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.^[75] Calicut International Airport, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.^[76]^[77] An Indian Institute of Management (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.^[78]

Demography[edit | edit source]

The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the 2011 Census of India, the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:^[79]

District	Total Pop	Muslims	% of Pop	% of Muslims
Kerala	33,406,061	8,873,472	26.56%	100.0%
Kasargod	1,307,375	486,913	37.24%	5.49%
Kannur	2,523,003	742,483	29.43%	8.37%
Wayanad	817,420	234,185	28.65%	2.64%
Kozhikode	3,086,293	1,211,131	39.24%	13.65%
Malappuram	4,112,920	2,888,849	70.24%	32.56%
Palakkad	2,809,934	812,936	28.93%	9.16%
Thrissur	3,121,200	532,839	17.07%	6.00%
Ernakulam	3,282,388	514,397	15.67%	5.80%
Idukki	1,108,974	82,206	7.41%	0.93%
Kottayam	1,974,551	126,499	6.41%	1.43%
Alappuzha	2,127,789	224,545	10.55%	2.53%
Pathanamthitta	1,197,412	55,074	4.60%	0.62%
Kollam	2,635,375	508,500	19.30%	5.73%
Thiruvananthapuram	3,301,427	452,915	13.72%	5.10%

Distribution of Muslims in Kerala – District-wise.

Theological orientations and denominations[edit | edit source]

Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow Sunni Islam of Shāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within Sunni Islam.^[8]^[9] The latter section consists of majority Salafists (the Mujahids) and the minority Islamists. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.^[80]^[8]^[9]

Sunnī Islam^[81]
- Shāfi'ī^[81]—mainly two groups (majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are ShafiTemplate:Ayinis).
- Ḥanafī
Salafists (the Mujahids)—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism).^[81] Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen (K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala.^[81]
Islamists (the Jama'at-i-Islami India)—representing political Islam in Kerala.^[81]
Shīiah Islam
Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at – Head Quarters of Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in Kerala is located at Baitul Quddoos,^[82] G.H Road Kozhikode (Calicut). Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.

Communities[edit | edit source]

Mappilas: The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.^[10] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.^[10]

A Mappila is either,

A descendant of any native convert^[83]) to Islam^[10]^[84] (or)
A descendant of a marriage alliance between a Middle Eastern individual and a native low caste woman^[10]^[85]

The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law".^[10]

Pusalans: Mostly converts from the Mukkuvan caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala.^[86] The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar.^[10]

In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy.^[10]

Ossans: the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala.^[10]
Thangals (the Sayyids): Claiming descent from the family of Muhammed. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected Thangal families often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.^[10]
Rowthers: The Muslim community originated in Tamilakam. Mainly they settled in Trivandrum, Alapuzha, Kochi, kottayam, kollam, Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Pandalam, Palakkad regions in kerala. Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.^[87]
Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or Navayats: ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering Karnataka.^[10]
Nahas: The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in Parappanangadi, south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to Persian ship owners.^[10]^[88]
Marakkars: once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "Kunjali Marakkars", or the naval captains of the Zamorin of Calicut. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars.^[10]
Keyis: community of wealthy merchants, mainly settled in Kannur, Thalassery and Parappanangadi with Iranian origin.^[10]^[89]
Koyas: Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of Omani origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.^[10]^[90]
Kurikkals: a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around Manjeri in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar.^[10]
Nainars: a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in Cochin, Mattanchery, Fort Kochi and Kodungallur. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin.^[10]
Dakhnis or Pathans: "Dakhni" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the Khaljis. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen.^[10]
Kutchi Memons: They are a Kutchi speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the Kutch region. They are descended from the Lohana community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.^[91]^[92]
Beary/Byary: Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called Beary language. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant).
Bohras (Daudi Bohras): Western (Mustaalis) Ismaili Shiah community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi and Alappuzha. Bohras migrated from Gujarat to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala.^[10]^[93]

Culture[edit | edit source]

Literature[edit | edit source]

Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famous folklore tradition emerged in c. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.^[94] Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.^[9]

As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.^[9]

Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.^[9] Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.^[9]

Kerala Muslim folk arts[edit | edit source]

Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps.
Kolkkali was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the Dandiya dance of Gujarat in Western India.
Duff Muttu^[95] (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or daf, also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
Arabana muttu was an art form named after the aravana, a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger.
Muttum Viliyum was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu".
Vattappattu was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.

Mappila cuisine[edit | edit source]

Pathiri, a pancake made of rice flour, is one of the common breakfast dishes in Malabar

Kallummakkaya nirachathu or arikkadukka (mussels stuffed with rice)

Thalassery biryani with raita

Halwas are popular in towns like Kannur, Thalassery, Kozhikode, and Ponnani

The Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional Kerala, Persian, Yemenese and Arab food culture.^[96] This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.^[96] Kallummakkaya (mussels) curry, irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat), parottas (soft flatbread),^[96] Pathiri (a type of rice pancake)^[96] and ghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—black pepper, cardamom and clove are used profusely.

The Malabar version of biryani, popularly known as kuzhi mandi in Malayalam is another popular item, which has an influence from Yemen. Various varieties of biriyanis like Thalassery biriyani, Kannur biriyani,^[97] Kozhikode biriyani^[98] and Ponnani biriyani^[99] are prepared by the Mappila community.^[96]

The snacks include unnakkaya (deep-fried, boiled ripe banana paste covering a mixture of cashew, raisins and sugar),^[100] pazham nirachathu (ripe banana filled with coconut grating, molasses or sugar),^[100] muttamala made of eggs,^[96] chatti pathiri, a dessert made of flour, like a baked, layered chapati with rich filling, arikkadukka,^[101] and more.^[96]

Religious education[edit | edit source]

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Bibliography[edit | edit source]

P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43, doi:10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907

References[edit | edit source]

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" The Hindu August 26, 2015 [1]
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Miller, Roland E. (27 April 2015). Mappila Muslim Culture. State University of New York Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-1-4384-5601-0.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 William Logan (1887). Malabar Manual (Volume-I). Madras Government Press. p. 1.
↑ Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- ix . ISBN 81-86668-06-3 . First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973
↑ Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam, Malayala Manorama Yearbook 1990;
↑ Kottaparamban, Musadhique (1 October 2019). "Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar". Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities: 406–416. doi:10.33306/mjssh/31. ISSN 2590-3691.
↑ Kuzhiyan, Muneer Aram (24 July 2015). "Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India". University. The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. hdl:10603/213506.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 ^8.5 ^8.6 Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.
↑ ^9.00 ^9.01 ^9.02 ^9.03 ^9.04 ^9.05 ^9.06 ^9.07 ^9.08 ^9.09 ^9.10 ^9.11 ^9.12 Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 [2]
↑ ^10.00 ^10.01 ^10.02 ^10.03 ^10.04 ^10.05 ^10.06 ^10.07 ^10.08 ^10.09 ^10.10 ^10.11 ^10.12 ^10.13 ^10.14 ^10.15 ^10.16 ^10.17 ^10.18 ^10.19 ^10.20 ^10.21 Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [3]
↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Trivandrum: Kerala Historical Society. pp. 45–48.
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 Miller, Roland E. (1992). Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Hyderabad: Orient Longman. pp. 27–31.
↑ Panikkar, K. N. (1989). Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921. Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 14–19.
↑ Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (2008). Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–25.
↑ "Visitors' pastime, women's tragedy". The Hindu. 7 September 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2025.
↑ Jain, Saumya (1 August 2020). "The Arabikalyanam: Kerala's Forgotten Story of Temporary Marriages". The Week. Retrieved 4 October 2025.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
↑ Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)
↑ "Caste system exists among Muslims though not overtly". The New Indian Express. 31 August 2019. Retrieved 2023-04-22.
↑ "Islamophobia Clinic: Analyse Kerala Events March, 'Love Jihad' etc". Keraleeyam Masika. 10 June 2025. Retrieved 16 October 2025.
↑ Ryder, Vincent J. (1907). Two Years in Malabar: Being a Description of the Military Station and Cantonment of Malappuram, South Malabar; an Account of the Moplah Caste and Their Superstitions; the History and Origin of the Great Moplah Feast of the "Nurcha"; Moplah Risings from 1840 to 1900 and Other Interesting Information Concerning This Important Caste. Thacker Spink, Calcutta. Retrieved 16 October 2025.
↑ Razak, P. P. Abdul (2007). "From Communitas to the Structure of Islam: The Mappilas of Malabar". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 68: 895–911. JSTOR 44147898.
↑ Abdul Razak, P. P. (2007). Colonialism and Community Formation in Malabar: A Study of Muslims of Malabar (PhD thesis). University of Calicut.
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988
↑ Panikkar, K. N., Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921
↑ Bhat, P. N. Mari (14 June 2023). "Hindu-Muslim fertility differentials in India: An update". Ideas for India. Retrieved 4 March 2025.
↑ "Trends in Fertility among Hindus and Muslims in India" (PDF). Gujarat Institute of Development Research. GIDR. Retrieved 4 March 2025.
↑ Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.
↑ Pradeep Kumar, Kaavya (28 January 2014). "Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
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↑ Fuller, C. J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New Series. 11 (1). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 53–70. doi:10.2307/2800388. JSTOR 2800388.
↑ P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [4]
↑ Sethi, Atul (24 June 2007). "Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India". Times of India. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
↑ Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
↑ Varghese, Theresa (2006). Stark World Kerala. Stark World Pub. ISBN 9788190250511.
↑ Kumar, Satish (27 February 2012). India's National Security: Annual Review 2009. Routledge. ISBN 9781136704918.
↑ Minu Ittyipe; Solomon to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012
↑ Chitra Divakaruni (16 February 2011). The Palace of Illusions. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-47865-6. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
↑ Jonathan Goldstein (1999). The Jews of China. M. E. Sharpe. p. 123. ISBN 9780765601049.
↑ Edward Simpson; Kai Kresse (2008). Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean. Columbia University Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-231-70024-5. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
↑ ^43.0 ^43.1 Uri M. Kupferschmidt (1987). The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine. Brill. pp. 458–459. ISBN 978-90-04-07929-8. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
↑ Husain Raṇṭattāṇi (2007). Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles. Other Books. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-81-903887-8-8. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
↑ Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.
↑ Pg 58, Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978
↑ "History". lakshadweep.nic.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
↑ ^48.0 ^48.1 Miller, Roland E. (1988). "Mappila". The Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. VI. E. J. Brill. pp. 458–66.
↑ Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447059374.
↑ Razak, Abdul (2013). Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar.
↑ A. Rā Kulakarṇī (1996). Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. Popular Prakashan. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-81-7154-579-7. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
↑ ^52.0 ^52.1 ^52.2 ^52.3 A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007)
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↑ Charles Alexander Innes (1908). Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I). Madras Government Press. pp. 423–424.
↑ ^55.0 ^55.1 Mehrdad Shokoohy (29 July 2003). Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). Psychology Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-415-30207-4. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
↑ Menon, A. Sreedhara (1982). The Legacy of Kerala (Reprinted ed.). Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala. ISBN 978-8-12643-798-6. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
↑ ^57.0 ^57.1 Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.
↑ M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) ISBN 978-81-8267-114-0
↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
↑ ^60.0 ^60.1 ^60.2 ^60.3 ^60.4 Nossiter, Thomas Johnson (January 1982). Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520046672. Retrieved 2012-11-15.
↑ Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288
↑ Knox, Robert (1681). An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon. London: Reprint. Asian Educational Services. pp. 19–47.
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↑ Henry Morse Stephens (1897). "Chapter 1". Albuquerque. Rulers of India series. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1524-3.
↑ Mehrdad Shokoohy (29 July 2003). Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). Psychology Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-415-30207-4. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
↑ The Edinburgh review: or critical journal – Sydney Smith, Lord Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Macvey Napier, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, William Empson, Harold Cox, Henry Reeve, Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (Hon.). 1922. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
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External links[edit | edit source]

Template:Islam in India by region

[thehindu.com-1] 1.0 ^1.1 T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" The Hindu August 26, 2015 [1]

[Miller1-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Miller, Roland E. (27 April 2015). Mappila Muslim Culture. State University of New York Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-1-4384-5601-0.

[Logan-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 William Logan (1887). Malabar Manual (Volume-I). Madras Government Press. p. 1.

[Upadhyaya,_U._Padmanabha_1996-4] Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- ix . ISBN 81-86668-06-3 . First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973

[5] Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam, Malayala Manorama Yearbook 1990;

[6] Kottaparamban, Musadhique (1 October 2019). "Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar". Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities: 406–416. doi:10.33306/mjssh/31. ISSN 2590-3691.

[7] Kuzhiyan, Muneer Aram (24 July 2015). "Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India". University. The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. hdl:10603/213506.

[Miller13-8] 8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 ^8.5 ^8.6 Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.

[TheEncyclopediaofIslam22-9] 9.00 ^9.01 ^9.02 ^9.03 ^9.04 ^9.05 ^9.06 ^9.07 ^9.08 ^9.09 ^9.10 ^9.11 ^9.12 Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 [2]

[KunhaliV2-10] 10.00 ^10.01 ^10.02 ^10.03 ^10.04 ^10.05 ^10.06 ^10.07 ^10.08 ^10.09 ^10.10 ^10.11 ^10.12 ^10.13 ^10.14 ^10.15 ^10.16 ^10.17 ^10.18 ^10.19 ^10.20 ^10.21 Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [3]

[Narayanan1972-11] Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Trivandrum: Kerala Historical Society. pp. 45–48.

[Miller1992-12] 12.0 ^12.1 Miller, Roland E. (1992). Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Hyderabad: Orient Longman. pp. 27–31.

[Panikkar1989-13] Panikkar, K. N. (1989). Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921. Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 14–19.

[Osella2008-14] Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (2008). Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–25.

[Hindu_KozhikodeVisitorsPastime-15] "Visitors' pastime, women's tragedy". The Hindu. 7 September 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2025.

[Jain2020-16] Jain, Saumya (1 August 2020). "The Arabikalyanam: Kerala's Forgotten Story of Temporary Marriages". The Week. Retrieved 4 October 2025.

[:3-17] 17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018.

[Subrahmanyam2-18] Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)

[19] "Caste system exists among Muslims though not overtly". The New Indian Express. 31 August 2019. Retrieved 2023-04-22.

[20] "Islamophobia Clinic: Analyse Kerala Events March, 'Love Jihad' etc". Keraleeyam Masika. 10 June 2025. Retrieved 16 October 2025.

[21] Ryder, Vincent J. (1907). Two Years in Malabar: Being a Description of the Military Station and Cantonment of Malappuram, South Malabar; an Account of the Moplah Caste and Their Superstitions; the History and Origin of the Great Moplah Feast of the "Nurcha"; Moplah Risings from 1840 to 1900 and Other Interesting Information Concerning This Important Caste. Thacker Spink, Calcutta. Retrieved 16 October 2025.

[22] Razak, P. P. Abdul (2007). "From Communitas to the Structure of Islam: The Mappilas of Malabar". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 68: 895–911. JSTOR 44147898.

[23] Abdul Razak, P. P. (2007). Colonialism and Community Formation in Malabar: A Study of Muslims of Malabar (PhD thesis). University of Calicut.

[brill-24] 24.0 ^24.1 Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988

[25] Panikkar, K. N., Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921

[26] Bhat, P. N. Mari (14 June 2023). "Hindu-Muslim fertility differentials in India: An update". Ideas for India. Retrieved 4 March 2025.

[27] "Trends in Fertility among Hindus and Muslims in India" (PDF). Gujarat Institute of Development Research. GIDR. Retrieved 4 March 2025.

[brill12-28] Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.

[29] Pradeep Kumar, Kaavya (28 January 2014). "Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 November 2015.

[ChattopadhyayFranke2006-30] Chattopadhyay, Srikumar; Franke, Richard W. (2006). Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-294-9.

[Menon57-31] 31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 ^31.3 ^31.4 A Sreedhara Menon (1 January 2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6. Retrieved 10 October 2012.

[32] Muhammed, Hedayuthabdulla (January 2009). kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity. Motilal Banarasidess. p. 47. ISBN 9788120833739.

[33] Fuller, C. J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New Series. 11 (1). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 53–70. doi:10.2307/2800388. JSTOR 2800388.

[PPRazakAbdul2-34] P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [4]

[indiatimes3-35] Sethi, Atul (24 June 2007). "Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India". Times of India. Retrieved 24 September 2014.

[autogenerated20002-36] Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.

[37] Varghese, Theresa (2006). Stark World Kerala. Stark World Pub. ISBN 9788190250511.

[38] Kumar, Satish (27 February 2012). India's National Security: Annual Review 2009. Routledge. ISBN 9781136704918.

[39] Minu Ittyipe; Solomon to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012

[Divakaruni20112-40] Chitra Divakaruni (16 February 2011). The Palace of Illusions. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-47865-6. Retrieved 18 November 2012.

[41] Jonathan Goldstein (1999). The Jews of China. M. E. Sharpe. p. 123. ISBN 9780765601049.

[SimpsonKresse2008-42] Edward Simpson; Kai Kresse (2008). Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean. Columbia University Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-231-70024-5. Retrieved 24 July 2012.

[Kupferschmidt1987-43] 43.0 ^43.1 Uri M. Kupferschmidt (1987). The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine. Brill. pp. 458–459. ISBN 978-90-04-07929-8. Retrieved 25 July 2012.

[Raṇṭattāṇi2007-44] Husain Raṇṭattāṇi (2007). Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles. Other Books. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-81-903887-8-8. Retrieved 25 July 2012.

[45] Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.

[ch-46] Pg 58, Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978

[47] "History". lakshadweep.nic.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012.

[TheEncyclopediaofIslam2-48] 48.0 ^48.1 Miller, Roland E. (1988). "Mappila". The Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. VI. E. J. Brill. pp. 458–66.

[49] Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447059374.

[50] Razak, Abdul (2013). Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar.

[Kulakarṇī1996-51] A. Rā Kulakarṇī (1996). Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. Popular Prakashan. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-81-7154-579-7. Retrieved 24 July 2012.

[askh-52] 52.0 ^52.1 ^52.2 ^52.3 A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007)

[K.M.-53] 53.0 ^53.1 ^53.2 Muhammad, K. M. (1999). Arab Relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. pp. 226–234.

[Madayi-54] Charles Alexander Innes (1908). Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I). Madras Government Press. pp. 423–424.

[:0-55] 55.0 ^55.1 Mehrdad Shokoohy (29 July 2003). Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). Psychology Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-415-30207-4. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[google2-56] Menon, A. Sreedhara (1982). The Legacy of Kerala (Reprinted ed.). Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala. ISBN 978-8-12643-798-6. Retrieved 2012-11-16.

[Okay-57] 57.0 ^57.1 Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.

[Narayanan2017-58] M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) ISBN 978-81-8267-114-0

[KrishnaIyer2-59] 59.0 ^59.1 K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.

[google1-60] 60.0 ^60.1 ^60.2 ^60.3 ^60.4 Nossiter, Thomas Johnson (January 1982). Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520046672. Retrieved 2012-11-15.

[61] Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288

[62] Knox, Robert (1681). An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon. London: Reprint. Asian Educational Services. pp. 19–47.

[Noorani-63] AG Noorani "Islam in Kerala". Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2013.

[A._Sreedhara_Menon_2011-64] 64.0 ^64.1 A. Sreedhara Menon. Kerala History and its Makers. D C Books (2011)

[frontline.in-65] A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Books [5]

[66] Roland E. Miller. Mappila Muslim Culture SUNY Press, 2015

[Subrahmanyam1998-67] Sanjay Subrahmanyam (29 October 1998). The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama. Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–294. ISBN 978-0-521-64629-1. Retrieved 26 July 2012.

[MorseStephens1897-68] Henry Morse Stephens (1897). "Chapter 1". Albuquerque. Rulers of India series. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1524-3.

[69] Mehrdad Shokoohy (29 July 2003). Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). Psychology Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-415-30207-4. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Overview of Islam in the Indian state of Kerala}}
+{{Short description|none}}
+{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
 {{Infobox religious group
 | group    = Islam in Kerala
-| image    = Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg
+| image    = File:Muslim women of Kerala (1901) (cropped).jpg
-| caption  = A rebuilt structure of the old [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]], [[Kodungallur]]
+| caption  = Muslim women of Kerala (1901)
-| population = {{Circa|'''10 million'''|lk=yes}} (30%) in 2011<ref>T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller1"/>
+| population = {{Circa|'''9 million'''|lk=yes}} (26.56%) in 2011<ref name="thehindu.com">T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller1"/>
-| popplace = [[Kerala]], [[Lakshadweep]],<ref>{{cite book
+| popplace = [[Kerala]], [[Lakshadweep]],<ref name="Logan"/><ref name="Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha 1996">Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- '''ix''' .  {{ISBN|81-86668-06-3}} .
- | author = William Logan | year=1887
+First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973</ref> [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|States of Persian Gulf]], [[Europe]], [[Tulu Nadu]], [[Kodagu]], [[Nilgiris district|Nilgiris]],<ref>''Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam'', [[Malayala Manorama]] Yearbook 1990;</ref> [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]]
- | title= Malabar Manual (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press
- | url= https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up
-}}</ref> [[Tulu Nadu]],<ref name="Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha 1996">Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- '''ix''' .  {{ISBN|81-86668-06-3}} .
-First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973</ref> [[Kodagu]], [[Nilgiris district|Nilgiris]], [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|States of Persian Gulf]]<ref>''Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam'', [[Malayala Manorama]] Yearbook 1990;</ref>
 | native_name =
 | native_name_lang =
-| languages = [[Malayalam]], [[Arabi Malayalam]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kottaparamban|first=Musadhique|date=1 October 2019|title=Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar|url=https://mjsshonline.com/index.php/journal/article/view/97|journal=Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities|language=en|pages=406–416|doi=10.33306/mjssh/31|issn=2590-3691|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuzhiyan|first=Muneer Aram|title=Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/213506|publisher=The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad|hdl=10603/213506}}</ref>
+| languages = [[Malayalam]], [[Arabi Malayalam]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kottaparamban|first=Musadhique|date=1 October 2019|title=Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar|url=https://mjsshonline.com/index.php/journal/article/view/97|journal=Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities|language=en|pages=406–416|doi=10.33306/mjssh/31|issn=2590-3691|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuzhiyan|first=Muneer Aram|title=Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India|journal=University |date=24 July 2015 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/213506|publisher=The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad|hdl=10603/213506}}</ref>
 | religions = [[Islam]]
 }}
@@ Line 19: / Line 16: @@
 {{Sunni Islam}}
 {{Islam in India}}
 [[Islam]] arrived in [[Kerala]], the [[Malayalam]]-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.<ref name="Miller13">Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.</ref><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period.
-Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref> According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.<ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22">Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'' Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBkMSIZ2LYC&dq=editions:lTASeHyksMsC&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwik6pvDw-vbAhWLKo8KHdNqBeUQ6AEIKzAB]</ref> As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former [[Malabar District]]) of different origins.<ref name=":3"/><ref name="KunhaliV2"/> Native Muslims of [[Kerala]] were known as Mouros da Terra, or Mouros Malabares in medieval period. Settled foreign Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)</ref> Very much unlike other parts of South Asia, the [[Caste|caste system]] does not exist among the Muslims of Kerala.
+Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref> According to historian [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] and other scholars, the early members of Muslim Mappila community originated from the descendants of children born to non muslim Arab traders and native women along the Malabar coast, before Islam.<ref name="Narayanan1972">{{cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |title=Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |location=Trivandrum |year=1972 |pages=45–48}}</ref> These early individuals were referred to as ma-ppila, as they did not belong to any existing caste group. Arab traders often stayed on the Malabar coast for extended periods, sometimes up to three months, while waiting for the reverse monsoon winds, during which some formed temporary relationships with local women, often in exchange for money.<ref name="Miller1992">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |title=Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends |publisher=Orient Longman |location=Hyderabad |year=1992 |pages=27–31}}</ref> The offspring of such unions were not accepted into any Hindu caste and came to be known as ma-ppila.
-Muslims in Kerala share a common language ([[Malayalam]]) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.<ref name="brill">[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI , Brill 1988]</ref> Islam is the second largest practised religion in Kerala (26.56%) next to [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]].<ref>Panikkar, K. N., ''Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921''</ref> The calculated Muslim population (Indian Census, 2011) in Kerala state is 8,873,472.<ref>T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller13" /> Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow [[Sunni Islam]] of [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī School]] of thought, while a large minority follow modern movements (such as [[Salafi movement|Salafism]]) that developed within [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name="brill12">Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.</ref><ref name="KunhaliV2" />
+After the rise of Islam in Arabia, many among these mappilas embraced the new faith. However, the majority of present-day Mappilas estimated to constitute around 90 percent are considered descendants of lower-caste Hindus, mainly Dalits, who converted to Islam at a later stage to escape caste based oppression.<ref name="Panikkar1989">{{cite book |last=Panikkar |first=K. N. |title=Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |year=1989 |pages=14–19}}</ref> Conversion to non-Hindu religions offered them social freedom, as the Brahmanical order did not define how such converts should be treated. Scholars note that these conversions were motivated primarily by the desire for social emancipation rather than by theological comparison between the Bhagavad Gita and the Qur’an.<ref name="Osella2008">{{cite book |last=Osella |first=Caroline |author2=Osella, Filippo |title=Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |pages=22–25}}</ref>
+Even after India’s independence, the practice known as [[Arabikalyanam]] (“Arab marriage”) remained prevalent in the districts of Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, and Malappuram, where visiting Arabs offered money or wealth in exchange for temporary marriages with Mappila women.<ref name="Hindu_KozhikodeVisitorsPastime">{{cite news |last= |first= |title=Visitors' pastime, women's tragedy |work=The Hindu |date=7 September 2013 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/visitors-pastime-womens-tragedy/article5075036.ece |access-date=4 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="Jain2020">{{cite news |last=Jain |first=Saumya |title=The Arabikalyanam: Kerala's Forgotten Story of Temporary Marriages |url=https://www.theweek.in/theweek/cover/2020/08/01/the-arabikalyanam.html|work=The Week |date=1 August 2020 |access-date=4 October 2025}}</ref> Several Mappila families in Kozhikode and Malappuram accumulated considerable wealth through these arrangements.<ref name="Miller1992" /><ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22">Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'' Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBkMSIZ2LYC&q=editions:lTASeHyksMsC]</ref> As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former [[Malabar District]]) of different origins.<ref name=":3"/><ref name="KunhaliV2"/> Some were called 'Moors' in Kasargod district.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)</ref> Unlike the common misconception, the [[Caste|caste system]] does exist among the Muslims of Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caste system exists among Muslims though not overtly |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/sep/01/caste-system-exists-among-muslims-though-not-overtly-2027243.html |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=The New Indian Express |date=31 August 2019 }}</ref> Muslims in Malabar are also known as ''Jonakar'' (similar to Tamil name {{Spaced en dash}} {{Langx|ta|சோனகர்|Cōṉakar|links=no|label=none}} {{Spaced en dash}} for [[Sri Lankan Moors]]), [[Koya (Malabar)|''Koya'']], and ''Kaka'' (meaning “crow,” referring to its characteristics).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamophobia Clinic: Analyse Kerala Events March, 'Love Jihad' etc |website=Keraleeyam Masika |date=10 June 2025 |url=https://www.keraleeyammasika.com/islamophobia-clinic-analyse-kerala-events-march-love-jihad-pc-george-casa-kk-shahina-thusgar-gandhi-erattupetta/ |access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> During the colonial period, an unusual practice called Hal-ilakkam ([[Amok syndrome|running amok]]) was reportedly common among the Mappilas of [[Malappuram]], in which a priest would select a mentally disturbed or emotionally vulnerable person, such as someone whose wife had been abducted, to incite him into attacking non-Muslims as a means of regaining his lost honour. This practice is described in detail by Lance Corporal Vincent J. Ryder of the [[Cheshire Regiment]], in his 1907 book 'Two Years in Malabar'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ryder |first=Vincent J. |title=Two Years in Malabar: Being a Description of the Military Station and Cantonment of Malappuram, South Malabar; an Account of the Moplah Caste and Their Superstitions; the History and Origin of the Great Moplah Feast of the "Nurcha"; Moplah Risings from 1840 to 1900 and Other Interesting Information Concerning This Important Caste |year=1907 |publisher=Thacker Spink, Calcutta |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.06912 |access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Razak|first1= P. P. Abdul|title=From Communitas to the Structure of Islam: The Mappilas of Malabar |journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|date= 2007|volume= 68|issue= |pages= 895–911|doi= |jstor=44147898 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44147898}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Abdul Razak |first=P. P. |title=Colonialism and Community Formation in Malabar: A Study of Muslims of Malabar |publisher=University of Calicut |year=2007 |type=PhD thesis |url=https://scholar.uoc.ac.in/server/api/core/bitstreams/c5f374c6-dcd5-4dcd-91f9-f931fe150066/content}}</ref> The Muslims of Southern and Central Kerala or the erstwhile Kingdom of Travancore are known as ''Methanmar'' and [[Rowther]]s.
+Muslims in Kerala share a common language ([[Malayalam]]) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.<ref name="brill">[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988]</ref><ref>Panikkar, K. N., ''Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921''</ref><ref name="thehindu.com">T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller13" /> Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow [[Sunni Islam]] of [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī School]] of thought. Kerala's Muslim community has a higher [[Total Fertility Rate]] (TFR) compared to other religious groups in the state, with a TFR of 2.25, nearly double that of other religious groups in Kerala. If a typical [[Hindu]] family has 2 children, a typical Muslim family in Kerala, based on the TFR ratio, would have around 3 children.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhat |first1=P. N. Mari |title=Hindu-Muslim fertility differentials in India: An update |url=https://www.ideasforindia.in/topics/social-identity/hindu-muslim-fertility-differentials-in-india-an-update.html |website=Ideas for India |date=14 June 2023 |access-date=4 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1= |title=Trends in Fertility among Hindus and Muslims in India |url=https://gidr.ac.in/pdf/WP-167.pdf#:~:text=groups.%20According%20to%20the%20NFHS%2D1%2C%20the%20TFR,fertility%20was%20relatively%20higher%20(TFR%20of%202.97). |website=Gujarat Institute of Development Research |publisher=GIDR |access-date=4 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="brill12">Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.</ref><ref name="KunhaliV2" />
 ==History==
-[[File:Silk route.jpg|left|thumb|Ancient [[Silk Road]] map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).]]
+[[File:Mappilas of Malabar 1914.jpg|thumb|Mappilas of Malabar 1914]]
+[[File:Silk route.jpg|left|thumb|[[Silk Road]] trade routes. The spice trade was mainly by water (blue).]]
 [[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|left|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]]
 Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000&nbsp;BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]] and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |first=Kaavya |last=Pradeep Kumar |work=The Hindu |title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link |date=28 January 2014 |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{Cite book|title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Srikumar|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2006|isbn=978-81-8069-294-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC|last2=Franke|first2=Richard W.}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Kerala's spices attracted ancient [[Arab]]s, [[Babylonians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Egyptians]] to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Phoenicians]] established trade with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57 |access-date=10 October 2012 |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-81-264-1578-6 |pages=57–58}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter [[Malabar Coast]] to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57"/> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57"/> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57"/>
-In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.<ref>{{cite book|last=Muhammed |first=Hedayuthabdulla|title=kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity|date=January 2009|publisher=Motilal Banarasidess|page=47|isbn=9788120833739}}</ref>There had been considerable trade relations between [[Middle East]] and [[Malabar Coast]] even before the time of [[Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570 – 632 AD).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fuller|first=C. J.|date=March 1976|title=Kerala Christians and the Caste System|journal=Man|series=New Series|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=11|issue=1|pages=53–70|doi=10.2307/2800388|jstor=2800388}}</ref><ref name="PPRazakAbdul2">P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [http://hdl.handle.net/10603/13105]</ref> Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Islam arrived in [[Kerala]], a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of [[Islam]] being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=Times of India |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the Hindu King that moved to [[Arabia]] to meet the Islamic [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |date=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=9788190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |date=27 February 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en|isbn=9781136704918 }}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |date=16 February 2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-47865-6 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref> According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of [[Malabar Coast]], by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |article=Mappila |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VI |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1988 |pages=458–66}}</ref>
+In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.<ref>{{cite book|last=Muhammed |first=Hedayuthabdulla|title=kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity|date=January 2009|publisher=Motilal Banarasidess|page=47|isbn=9788120833739}}</ref> There had been considerable trade relations between [[Middle East]] and [[Malabar Coast]] even before the time of [[Muhammad]] (c. 570 – 632 AD).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fuller|first=C. J.|date=March 1976|title=Kerala Christians and the Caste System|journal=Man|series=New Series|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=11|issue=1|pages=53–70|doi=10.2307/2800388|jstor=2800388}}</ref><ref name="PPRazakAbdul2">P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [http://hdl.handle.net/10603/13105]</ref> Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Islam arrived in [[Kerala]], a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of [[Islam]] being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=Times of India |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the Hindu King that moved to [[Arabia]] to meet the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |date=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=9788190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |date=27 February 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en|isbn=9781136704918 }}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |date=16 February 2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-47865-6 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref> According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of [[Malabar Coast]], by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |article=Mappila |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VI |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1988 |pages=458–66}}</ref>
 [[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|left|thumb|The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] (9th century AD)|214x214px]]
-[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|300px|thumbnail|[[Shafiʽi school]] (shaded in dark blue) is the most-prominent school among the [[Muslim]]s of [[Kerala]], coastal [[Karnataka]], southern [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Sri Lanka]] unlike from rest of [[South Asia]]]]
+[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|300px|thumbnail|[[Shafiʽi school]] (shaded in dark blue) is the most-prominent school among the [[Muslim]]s of [[Kerala]], coastal [[Karnataka]], and [[Sri Lanka]] unlike from rest of [[South Asia]]]]
-The known earliest mention about [[Muslim]]s of Kerala is in the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=9783447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the [[Malabar Coast]]. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 AD), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 AD), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 AD), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar|last=Razak|first=Abdul|publisher=|year=2013}}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1996|isbn=978-81-7154-579-7|pages=54–55|access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call [[Malabar Coast]] as ''Malabar''.<ref name="askh"/> Authors such as [[Ibn Khordadbeh]] and [[Al-Baladhuri]] mention Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="K.M."/> The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''.<ref name="Logan">{{cite book
+The known earliest mention about [[Muslim]]s of Kerala is in the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=9783447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the [[Malabar Coast]]. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 AD), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 AD), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 AD), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar|last=Razak|first=Abdul|publisher=|year=2013}}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987"/><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1996|isbn=978-81-7154-579-7|pages=54–55|access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call [[Malabar Coast]] as ''Malabar''.<ref name="askh"/> Authors such as [[Ibn Khordadbeh]] and [[Al-Baladhuri]] mention Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="K.M."/> The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''.<ref name="Logan">{{cite book |author=William Logan |url=https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I) |publisher=Madras Government Press |year=1887 |pages=1}}</ref> According to [[William Logan (author)|William Logan]], the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word ''Mala'' (hill) and the [[Persian Language|Persian]]/[[Arabic]] word ''Barr'' (country/continent).<ref name="Logan"/> The [[Cheraman Juma Mosque|Kodungallur Mosque]], has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.<ref name="K.M.">{{Cite book|title=Arab Relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries|last=Muhammad|first=K. M.|publisher=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=1999|pages=226–234}}</ref> The [[Arabic]] inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] in [[Kannur]] records its foundation year as 1124 CE.<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book
- | author = William Logan | year=1887
- | title= Malabar Manual (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press
- | url= https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up
-}}</ref> According to [[William Logan (author)|William Logan]], the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the [[Malayalam]] word ''Mala'' (hill) and the [[Persian Language|Persian]]/[[Arabic]] word ''Barr'' (country/continent).<ref name="Logan"/> The [[Cheraman Juma Mosque|Kodungallur Mosque]], has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.<ref name="K.M.">{{Cite book|title=Arab Relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries|last=Muhammad|first=K. M.|publisher=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=1999|pages=226–234}}</ref> The [[Arabic]] inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] in [[Kannur]] records its foundation year as 1124 CE.<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book
   | author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908
-  | title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press |page=423-424
+  | title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press |pages=423–424
   | url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up
 }}</ref><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="K.M."/>
 The monopoly of overseas spice trade from [[Malabar Coast]] was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA144|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|pages=144|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] royal courts.<ref name="google2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC|title=The Legacy of Kerala|last=Menon|first=A. Sreedhara|publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala|year=1982|isbn=978-8-12643-798-6|edition=Reprinted|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.<ref name="Miller13"/> Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/><ref name=":3">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast''. Cambridge University Press, 2018.</ref> The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/> A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and [[Arabic]], at [[Muchundi Mosque]] in [[Kozhikode]] mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.<ref name="Narayanan2017">M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) {{ISBN|978-81-8267-114-0}}</ref>
-The [[Morocco|Moroccan]] traveller [[Ibn Battuta|Ibn Battutah]] (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |authorlink=Roland E. Miller |title=Mappila Muslim Culture |date=27 April 2015 |publisher=State University of New York Press |page=xi |isbn=978-1-4384-5601-0}}</ref> By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of [[Kozhikode|Calicut (Kozhikode)]] as the major port city in Kerala.<ref name=":3" /> Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of [[Zamorin of Calicut]], such as that of the port commissioner, were held by [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> The port commissioner, the ''Shah Bandar'', represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in [[Calicut]] as well as [[Kollam|Quilon]] (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).<ref name="Miller1"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> The [[Ali Raja]]s of [[Arakkal kingdom]], based at [[Kannur]], ruled the [[Lakshadweep]] Islands.<ref name="askh"/> [[Arab]]s had the monopoly of trade in [[Malabar Coast]] and [[Indian Ocean]] until the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery]].<ref name="askh"/> The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
+The [[Morocco|Moroccan]] traveller [[Ibn Battuta]]h (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |authorlink=Roland E. Miller |title=Mappila Muslim Culture |date=27 April 2015 |publisher=State University of New York Press |page=xi |isbn=978-1-4384-5601-0}}</ref> By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of [[Kozhikode|Calicut (Kozhikode)]] as the major port city in Kerala.<ref name=":3" /> Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of [[Zamorin of Calicut]], such as that of the port commissioner, were held by [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> The port commissioner, the ''Shah Bandar'', represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in [[Calicut]] as well as [[Kollam|Quilon]] (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).<ref name="Miller1"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> The [[Ali Raja]]s of [[Arakkal kingdom]], based at [[Kannur]], ruled the [[Lakshadweep]] Islands.<ref name="askh"/> [[Arab]]s had the monopoly of trade in [[Malabar Coast]] and [[Indian Ocean]] until the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery]].<ref name="askh"/> The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
-The arrival of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.<ref name="google1" /> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author = Knox, Robert | author-link = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages = 19–47 |publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place = London| title-link = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref> The ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="Noorani">AG Noorani {{cite web|url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221021629/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |archive-date=21 December 2012 }}</ref> It was first printed and published in [[Lisbon]]. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of [[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]].<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
+The arrival of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.<ref name="google1" /> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author = Knox, Robert | author-link = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages = 19–47 |publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place = London| title-link = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref> The ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="Noorani">AG Noorani {{cite web|url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |title=Islam in Kerala |access-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221021629/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |archive-date=21 December 2012 }}</ref> It was first printed and published in [[Lisbon]]. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of [[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]].<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
   Books [http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm]</ref><ref>Roland E. Miller.
-  ''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> ''Tuhfatul Mujahideen'' also describes the history of [[Mappila]] [[Muslim]] community of Kerala as well as the general condition of [[Malabar Coast]] in the 16th century CE.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> With the end of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] era, [[Arab]]s lost their monopoly of trade in [[Malabar Coast]].<ref name="askh">A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007)</ref> As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.<ref name="Subrahmanyam1998">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AA3bu058pI4C&pg=PA294|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama|author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam|date=29 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64629-1|pages=293–294|access-date=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|title=Albuquerque|author=Henry Morse Stephens|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1897|isbn=978-81-206-1524-3|series=[[Rulers of India series]]|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA147|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|page=147|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfbNcIXQwSAC&q=moplahs&pg=PA181|title=The Edinburgh review: or critical journal – Sydney Smith, Lord Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Macvey Napier, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, William Empson, Harold Cox, Henry Reeve, Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (Hon.)|year=1922|access-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.<ref name="google1" />
+  ''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> ''Tuhfatul Mujahideen'' also describes the history of [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila Muslim]] community of Kerala as well as the general condition of [[Malabar Coast]] in the 16th century CE.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> With the end of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] era, [[Arab]]s lost their monopoly of trade in [[Malabar Coast]].<ref name="askh">A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007)</ref> As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.<ref name="Subrahmanyam1998">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AA3bu058pI4C&pg=PA294|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama|author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam|date=29 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64629-1|pages=293–294|access-date=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|title=Albuquerque|author=Henry Morse Stephens|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1897|isbn=978-81-206-1524-3|series=[[Rulers of India series]]|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA147|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|page=147|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfbNcIXQwSAC&q=moplahs&pg=PA181|title=The Edinburgh review: or critical journal – Sydney Smith, Lord Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Macvey Napier, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, William Empson, Harold Cox, Henry Reeve, Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (Hon.)|year=1922|access-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.<ref name="google1" />
-By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".<ref name="google1" /> The community tried to reverse the trend during the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).<ref name="Elgood1995">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=epaMx7jSZjIC&pg=PA164|title=Firearms of the Islamic World: in the Tared Rajab Museum, Kuwait|author=Robert Elgood|date=15 November 1995|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-963-9|pages=164–|access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> The victory of the [[East India Company|English East India Company]] and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&q=Muslims+Kerala |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |date=January 1982 |isbn=9780520046672 |access-date=2012-11-15}}</ref><ref name="Kurien2002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA51|title=Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India|author=Prema A. Kurien|date=7 August 2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3089-5|pages=51–|access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities brought the land-less Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the [[Malabar Rebellion|Mappila Uprising]] (1921–22).<ref name="google1" /><ref name="gazette">Pg 179–183, Kerala district gazetteers: Volume 4 Kerala (India), [[A. Sreedhara Menon]], Superintendent of Govt. Presses https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF0bAAAAIAAJ</ref><ref name="brill" /><ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&q=history+muslims+kerala|title=Cultural heritage of Kerala – A Sreedhara Menon – Google Books|isbn=9788126419036|access-date=2012-11-16|last1=Sreedhara Menon|first1=A.|year=2008}}</ref> The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
+By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".<ref name="google1" /> The community tried to reverse the trend during the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).<ref name="Elgood1995">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=epaMx7jSZjIC&pg=PA164|title=Firearms of the Islamic World: in the Tared Rajab Museum, Kuwait|author=Robert Elgood|date=15 November 1995|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-963-9|pages=164–|access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> The victory of the [[East India Company|English East India Company]] and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&q=Muslims+Kerala |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |date=January 1982 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520046672 |access-date=2012-11-15}}</ref><ref name="Kurien2002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA51|title=Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India|author=Prema A. Kurien|date=7 August 2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3089-5|pages=51–|access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the [[Malabar Rebellion|Mappila Uprising]] (1921–22).<ref name="google1" /><ref name="gazette">{{Cite book |last=Kerala (India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF0bAAAAIAAJ |title=Kerala District Gazetteers: Kozhikode (supplement) |date=1962 |publisher=Superintendent of Government Presses |language=en}}</ref><ref name="brill" /><ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&q=history+muslims+kerala|title=Cultural heritage of Kerala – A Sreedhara Menon – Google Books|isbn=9788126419036|access-date=2012-11-16|last1=Sreedhara Menon|first1=A.|year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books }}</ref> The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
-A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]] in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.<ref name="Miller13"/> The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> [[University of Calicut]], with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.universityofcalicut.info/|title=Official website of Calicut University – Home|website=www.universityofcalicut.info|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> [[Calicut International Airport]], currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kozhikodeairport.com/#|title=Kozhikode Calicut International Airport (CCJ)|website=www.kozhikodeairport.com|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms|title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> An [[Indian Institutes of Management|Indian Institute of Management]] (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.<ref name="About IIM K">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|title=Archived copy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508141700/http://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|archive-date=8 May 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=10 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
+A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]] in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.<ref name="Miller13"/> The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> [[University of Calicut]], with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.universityofcalicut.info/|title=Official website of Calicut University – Home|website=www.universityofcalicut.info|access-date=2018-10-11|archive-date=2018-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111210221/http://www.universityofcalicut.info/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Calicut International Airport]], currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kozhikodeairport.com/#|title=Kozhikode Calicut International Airport (CCJ)|website=www.kozhikodeairport.com|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms|title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> An [[Indian Institutes of Management|Indian Institute of Management]] (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.<ref name="About IIM K">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|title=The Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508141700/http://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|archive-date=8 May 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=10 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 == Demography ==
@@ Line 161: / Line 159: @@
 [[File:Distribution of Muslim population in Kerala (2011 Census of India).svg|thumb|right|350px|Distribution of [[Muslim]]s in [[Kerala]] – District-wise.]]
-== Theological orientations/denominations ==
+== Theological orientations and denominations ==
 Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow [[Sunni Islam]] of [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī]] school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> The latter section consists of majority [[Salafi movement|Salafists (the Mujahids)]] and the minority [[Islamism|Islamists]]. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.<ref>Shajahan Madampat, "Malappuram Isn't Mini Kashmir" ''Outlook'' 21 August 2017 [https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/malappuram-isnt-mini-kashmir/299195]</ref><ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
 * [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī Islam]]<ref name=":2">[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/2788279.pdf Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India] Modern Asian Studies</ref>
-**[[Shafi'i|Shāfi'ī]]<ref name=":2"/>—mainly [[Undivided Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama|two groups]] (majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are Shafi{{ayin}}is).
+**[[Shafi'i|Shāfi'ī]]<ref name=":2"/>—mainly [[Samastha (disambiguation)|two groups]] (majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are Shafi{{ayin}}is).
 **[[Hanafi|Ḥanafī]]
 *[[Salafi movement|Salafists (the Mujahids)]]—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism).<ref name=":2"/> [[Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen]] (K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala.<ref name=":2" />
@@ Line 174: / Line 172: @@
 == Communities ==
-* '''[[Mappila]]s:''' The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> As per some studies , the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
+* '''[[Mappila Muslims|Mappilas]]:''' The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
 A Mappila is either,
-# A descendant of any native convert<ref>{{Cite journal|title=MAPPILA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673|access-date=2021-03-22|website=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673}}</ref>) to Islam<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=E.|first=Miller, Roland|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/928782482|title=Mappila muslim culture.|date=2016|publisher=State Univ Of New York Pr|isbn=978-1-4384-5600-3|oclc=928782482}}</ref> (or)
+# A descendant of any native convert<ref>{{Cite journal|title=MAPPILA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673|access-date=2021-03-22|website=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673|url-access=subscription}}</ref>) to Islam<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=E.|first=Miller, Roland|title=Mappila muslim culture.|date=2016|publisher=State Univ Of New York Pr|isbn=978-1-4384-5600-3|oclc=928782482}}</ref> (or)
-# A descendant of a marriage alliance between a [[Middle Eastern]] individual and a native low caste woman<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|title=MAPPILA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Encyclopédie de l’Islam|doi=10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673}}</ref>
+# A descendant of a marriage alliance between a [[Middle Eastern]] individual and a native low caste woman<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|title=MAPPILA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Encyclopédie de l’Islam|doi=10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
 The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law".<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
@@ Line 186: / Line 184: @@
 In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
 * '''[[Ossan]]s:''' the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
-* '''[[thangal|Thangals]] (the [[Sayyid]]s):''' Claiming descent from the family of [[Muhammed]]. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected [[Thangal|Thangal families]] often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
+* '''[[Thangal]]s (the [[Sayyid]]s):''' Claiming descent from the family of [[Muhammed]]. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected [[Thangal|Thangal families]] often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
+* [[Rowther]]s: The Muslim community originated in [[Tamilakam]]. Mainly they settled in [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]], [[Alappuzha|Alapuzha]], [[Kochi]], [[kottayam]], [[kollam]], [[Idukki district|Idukki]], [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]], [[Pandalam]], [[Palakkad]] regions in kerala. Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pottamkulam |first=George Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kvYyEAAAQBAJ&dq=Rawthers+kerala+travancore&pg=PT322 |title=Kerala A Journey in Time Part II: Kingdom Of Cochin & Thekamkoor Rajyam; People Places and Potpourri |date=2021-06-11 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-63873-514-4 |language=en}}</ref>
 * '''Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or [[Nawayath|Navayats]]:''' ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering [[Karnataka]].<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
-* '''[[Labbay|Labbais]]:''' merchant community of partly Tamil origin, claiming Arab origin, found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In Thanjavur, the Labbais are called "Kodikkalkaran". It seems that they migrated through Shenkottai to South Kerala. They form the majority of Muslims from the [[Kollam district]]<ref>{{Cite journal|title=LABBAI|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_sim_4602|access-date=2021-03-22|website=Encyclopédie de l’Islam|doi=10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_sim_4602}}</ref>.They are said to be the "Mappilas of the Coromandel Coast".<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
+* '''[[Nakhuda|Nahas]]:''' The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in [[Parappanangadi]], south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to [[Persians|Persian]] ship owners.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Citation|last=Chakravarti|first=Ranabir|title=Nakhuda Nuruddin Firuz at Somanātha: AD 1264|date=2020-06-09|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003084129-11|work=Trade and Traders in Early Indian Society|pages=220–242|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781003084129-11|isbn=978-1-003-08412-9|s2cid=225771373|access-date=2021-03-22|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
-* '''[[Nakhuda|Nahas]]:''' The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in [[Parappanangadi]], south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to [[Persians|Persian]] ship owners.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Citation|last=Chakravarti|first=Ranabir|title=Nakhuda Nuruddin Firuz at Somanātha: AD 1264|date=2020-06-09|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003084129-11|work=Trade and Traders in Early Indian Society|pages=220–242|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781003084129-11|isbn=978-1-003-08412-9|s2cid=225771373|access-date=2021-03-22}}</ref>
+* '''[[Marakkar]]s:''' once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "[[Kunjali Marakkar]]s", or the naval captains of the [[Zamorin of Calicut]]. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
-* '''[[Marakkar]]s:''' once powerful multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "[[Kunjali Marakkar|Kunjali Marakkars]]", or the naval captains of the [[Zamorin of Calicut]]. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars and Marakkars considered themselves superior to Labbais.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
 * '''[[Keyi family|Keyis]]:''' community of wealthy merchants, mainly settled in [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]] and [[Parappanangadi]] with [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] origin.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=Santhosh|date=2017-10-04|title=The Keyi Mappila Muslim Merchants of Tellicherry and the Making of Coastal Cosmopolitanism on the Malabar Coast|journal=Asian Review of World Histories|volume=5|issue=2|pages=145–162|doi=10.1163/22879811-12340009|issn=2287-965X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-* '''Koyas:''' Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of [[Omani people|Omani]] origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ravindranath|first1=D.|last2=Injeti|first2=M.S.|last3=Busi|first3=B.R.|date=1984|title=Anthropometric Variation among Koyas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000153449|journal=Human Heredity|volume=34|issue=2|pages=131–132|doi=10.1159/000153449|pmid=6745953|issn=1423-0062}}</ref>
+* '''[[Koya (Malabar)|Koyas]]:''' Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of [[Omani people|Omani]] origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ravindranath|first1=D.|last2=Injeti|first2=M.S.|last3=Busi|first3=B.R.|date=1984|title=Anthropometric Variation among Koyas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000153449|journal=Human Heredity|volume=34|issue=2|pages=131–132|doi=10.1159/000153449|pmid=6745953|issn=1423-0062|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
 * '''Kurikkals''': a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around [[Manjeri]] in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
 * '''[[Nainars]]:''' a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in [[Cochin]], [[Mattancherry|Mattanchery]], [[Fort Kochi]] and [[Kodungallur]]. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin.<ref name="KunhaliV2" />
 * '''[[Deccanis|Dakhnis]] or Pathans:''' "[[Deccani language|Dakhni]]" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]]. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/>
-* '''[[Rowther]]:''' a community of Tamil origin. Widely distributed in the eastern parts of the [[Palakkad]] region.[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[Rajput]] descent, the Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in [[Tamilnadu|Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]].
+*'''[[Kutchi Memon]]s''': They are a [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]] speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the [[Kutch district|Kutch]] region. They are descended from the [[Lohana]] community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.<ref>{{Cite book|last=LLC.|first=General Books|title=Social Groups of Gujarat : Parsi, Kutchi Gurjar Kashtriya, Ahirs, Mughal, Dhangar, Meghwal, Charan, Nagar Brahmins, Mers, Sıddi, Lohar, Chhipa, Vaghela, Sulaymani, Gauda Brahmins, Gujarati Muslims, Kumhar, Memon People, LOhana, Hujaratı People, Rabari, Khateek, Samma, Jadeja|date=2011|publisher=General Books LLC|isbn=978-0-7103-0849-8|oclc=949589339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mukadam|first1=Anjoom Amir|last2=Mawani|first2=Sharmina|date=2007-11-22|title=Diaspora Revisited: Second-Generation Nizari Ismaili Muslims of Gujarati Ancestry|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9789048501069.008|journal=Global Indian Diasporas|pages=195–210|doi=10.1017/9789048501069.008|isbn=9789048501069|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
-*'''[[Kutchi Memon|Kutchi Memons]]''': They are a [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]] speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the [[Kutch district|Kutch]] region. They are descended from the [[Lohana]] community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.<ref>{{Cite book|last=LLC.|first=General Books|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/949589339|title=Social Groups of Gujarat : Parsi, Kutchi Gurjar Kashtriya, Ahirs, Mughal, Dhangar, Meghwal, Charan, Nagar Brahmins, Mers, Sıddi, Lohar, Chhipa, Vaghela, Sulaymani, Gauda Brahmins, Gujarati Muslims, Kumhar, Memon People, LOhana, Hujaratı Peple, Rabari, Khateek, Samma, Jadeja|date=2011|publisher=General Books LLC|isbn=978-0-7103-0849-8|oclc=949589339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mukadam|first1=Anjoom Amir|last2=Mawani|first2=Sharmina|date=2007-11-22|title=Diaspora Revisited: Second-Generation Nizari Ismaili Muslims of Gujarati Ancestry|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9789048501069.008|journal=Global Indian Diasporas|pages=195–210|doi=10.1017/9789048501069.008|isbn=9789048501069}}</ref>
 *'''[[Beary|Beary/Byary]]''': Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called [[Beary language]]. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant).
-* '''[[Sunni Bohra|Bohras]] ([[Dawoodi Bohra|Daudi Bohras]])''': Western ([[Mustaʽli Ismailism|Mustaalis]]) Ismaili [[Shia Islam|Shiah]] community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like [[Kozhikode]], [[Kannur]], [[Kochi]] and [[Alappuzha]]. Bohras migrated from [[Gujarat]] to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Qutbuddin|first=Tahera|title=The Daʾudi Bohra Tayyibis: Ideology, Literature, Learning and Social Practice|date=2011|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013|work=A Modern History of the Ismailis|publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013|isbn=978-1-84511-717-7|access-date=2021-03-22}}</ref>
+* '''[[Sunni Bohra|Bohras]] ([[Dawoodi Bohra|Daudi Bohras]])''': Western ([[Mustaʽli Ismailism|Mustaalis]]) Ismaili [[Shia Islam|Shiah]] community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like [[Kozhikode]], [[Kannur]], [[Kochi]] and [[Alappuzha]]. Bohras migrated from [[Gujarat]] to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Qutbuddin|first=Tahera|title=The Daʾudi Bohra Tayyibis: Ideology, Literature, Learning and Social Practice|date=2011|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013|work=A Modern History of the Ismailis|pages=331–354 |publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013|isbn=978-1-84511-717-7|access-date=2021-03-22|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
 ==Culture==
@@ Line 211: / Line 207: @@
 As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
-Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994) , followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "[[Chandrika (newspaper)|Chandrika]]", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
+Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "[[Chandrika (newspaper)|Chandrika]]", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/>
 === Kerala Muslim folk arts ===
@@ Line 217: / Line 213: @@
 * '''Oppana''' was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps.
 * '''Kolkkali''' was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the [[Dandiya Raas|Dandiya]] dance of Gujarat in Western India.
-* '''Duff Muttu'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WcJ7kNsdrA  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/4WcJ7kNsdrA |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|title=Madikeri, Coorg, "Gaddige Mohiyadeen Ratib" Islamic religious "dikr" is held once in a year. |publisher=YouTube |access-date=17 February 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or [[daf]], also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
+* '''Duff Muttu'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WcJ7kNsdrA  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/4WcJ7kNsdrA |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|title=Madikeri, Coorg, "Gaddige Mohiyadeen Ratib" Islamic religious "dikr" is held once in a year. |date=21 May 2009 |publisher=YouTube |access-date=17 February 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or [[daf]], also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
 * '''Arabana muttu''' was an art form named after the ''aravana'', a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger.
 * '''Muttum Viliyum''' was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu".
-* '''Vattappattu''' was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.
+* '''[[Vattappattu]]''' was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.
-===Mappila Cuisine===
+===Mappila cuisine===
 {{See also|Thalassery cuisine}}
 {{Multiple image
@@ Line 241: / Line 237: @@
   |caption4 = Halwas are popular in towns like [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Kozhikode]], and [[Ponnani]]
 }}
-The [[Mappila]] cuisine is a blend of traditional [[Kerala]], [[Cuisine of Iran|Persian]], [[Yemeni cuisine|Yemenese]] and [[Arab]] food culture.<ref name="MC">{{Cite news|title=Straight from the Malabar Coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/straight-from-the-malabar-coast/article27942808.ece|last=Sabhnani|first=Dhara Vora|date=June 14, 2019|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.<ref name="MC"/> ''Kallummakkaya'' ([[mussels]]) [[curry]], ''irachi puttu'' (''irachi'' meaning meat), ''parottas'' (soft flatbread),<ref name="MC"/> ''[[Pathiri]]'' (a type of rice pancake)<ref name="MC"/> and ''[[ghee]]'' rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—[[black pepper]], [[cardamom]] and [[clove]] are used profusely.
+The [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]] cuisine is a blend of traditional [[Kerala]], [[Cuisine of Iran|Persian]], [[Yemeni cuisine|Yemenese]] and [[Arab]] food culture.<ref name="MC">{{Cite news|title=Straight from the Malabar Coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/straight-from-the-malabar-coast/article27942808.ece|last=Sabhnani|first=Dhara Vora|date=June 14, 2019|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.<ref name="MC"/> ''Kallummakkaya'' ([[mussels]]) [[curry]], ''irachi puttu'' (''irachi'' meaning meat), ''parottas'' (soft flatbread),<ref name="MC"/> ''[[Pathiri]]'' (a type of rice pancake)<ref name="MC"/> and ''[[ghee]]'' rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—[[black pepper]], [[cardamom]] and [[clove]] are used profusely.
-The [[Malabar District|Malabar]] version of ''[[biryani]]'', popularly known as ''kuzhi mandi'' in [[Malayalam]] is another popular item, which has an influence from [[Yemen]]. Various varieties of ''biriyanis'' like [[Thalassery biriyani|Thalassery ''biriyani'']], Kannur ''biriyani'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-23|title=Thalassery Chicken Biriyani|url=https://www.thetakeiteasychef.com/thalassery-chicken-biriyani-recipe|access-date=2021-05-13|website=The Take It Easy Chef|language=en-GB}}</ref> Kozhikode ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shamsul|date=2016-05-07|title=Calicut Biryani Recipe I Kozhikodan Biriyani Recipe|url=https://www.cookawesome.com/calicut-biryani-recipe-kozhikodan-biriyani-recipe/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=CookAwesome|language=en-US}}</ref> and Ponnani ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chicken and rosewater biryani recipe|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/chicken_and_rosewater_70042|access-date=2021-05-13|website=BBC Food|language=en}}</ref> are prepared by the Mappila community.<ref name="MC"/>
+The [[Malabar District|Malabar]] version of ''[[biryani]]'', popularly known as ''kuzhi mandi'' in [[Malayalam]] is another popular item, which has an influence from [[Yemen]]. Various varieties of ''biriyanis'' like [[Thalassery biriyani|Thalassery ''biriyani'']], Kannur ''biriyani'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-23|title=Thalassery Chicken Biriyani|url=https://www.thetakeiteasychef.com/thalassery-chicken-biriyani-recipe|access-date=2021-05-13|website=The Take It Easy Chef|language=en-GB}}</ref> Kozhikode ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shamsul|date=2016-05-07|title=Calicut Biryani Recipe I Kozhikodan Biriyani Recipe|url=https://www.cookawesome.com/calicut-biryani-recipe-kozhikodan-biriyani-recipe/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=CookAwesome|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001041102/https://www.cookawesome.com/calicut-biryani-recipe-kozhikodan-biriyani-recipe/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Ponnani ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chicken and rosewater biryani recipe|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/chicken_and_rosewater_70042|access-date=2021-05-13|website=BBC Food|language=en}}</ref> are prepared by the Mappila community.<ref name="MC"/>
 The snacks include ''[[Unnakai|unnakkaya]]'' (deep-fried, boiled ripe [[banana]] paste covering a mixture of cashew, [[raisins]] and [[sugar]]),<ref name="MC_2">{{Cite news|title=Flavours unlimited from the Malabar coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/flavours-unlimited-from-the-malabar-coast/article6170291.ece|last=Kurian|first=Shijo|date=July 2, 2014|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> ''[[Pazham pori|pazham nirachathu]]'' (ripe banana filled with [[coconut]] grating, [[molasses]] or sugar),<ref name="MC_2"/> ''[[Fios de ovos|muttamala]]'' made of [[egg as food|eggs]],<ref name="MC"/> ''[[chatti pathiri]]'', a [[dessert]] made of flour, like a baked, layered ''chapati'' with rich filling, ''arikkadukka'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-30|title=Arikkadukka – Spicy Stuffed Mussels|url=https://www.facesplacesandplates.com/arikkadukka-spicy-stuffed-mussels/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=Faces Places and Plates|language=en-US}}</ref> and more.<ref name="MC"/>
+== Religious education ==
+{{excerpt|Religious education in Kerala|Islam}}
 == See also ==
 *[[Arabi Malayalam]]
 *[[Arabi Malayalam script]]
+*[[Onam and Islam]]
 *[[Beary|Beary Muslims]]
 *[[Beary language]]
@@ Line 255: / Line 255: @@
 *[[Sri Lankan Moors]]
 *[[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappila]]
+== Bibliography ==
+* P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43, {{doi|10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907}}
 == References ==
 {{reflist}}
-[[Id:Islam di Kerala]]
 ==Further reading==
@@ Line 266: / Line 269: @@
   | url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
   | access-date = 3 December 2020}} (The English translation of the historic book [[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]] written about the society of Kerala by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] during sixteenth century CE)
-* Muhsin, S. M. . (2021). [https://journals.iium.edu.my/jiasia/index.php/jia/article/view/1045 Three Fatwas on Marriage in South India] (Tiga Fatwa Perkahwinan di India Selatan). ''Journal of Islam in Asia (E-ISSN 2289-8077)'', ''18''(1), 251–282. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v18i1.1045</nowiki>
+* Muhsin, S. M. . (2021). [https://journals.iium.edu.my/jiasia/index.php/jia/article/view/1045 Three Fatwas on Marriage in South India] (Tiga Fatwa Perkahwinan di India Selatan). ''Journal of Islam in Asia (E-ISSN 2289-8077)'', ''18''(1), 251–282.https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v18i1.1045
-{{Asia in topic|Islam in}}
+*
+== External links ==
+{{Commons}}
 {{Islam in India by region}}
 [[Category:Islam in Kerala| ]]
 [[Category:Islam in India by state or union territory|Kerala]]