Brahma: Difference between revisions

From Bharatpedia, an open encyclopedia
m (→‎Post-Vedic, Epics and Puranas: clean up, typos fixed: , → , (2))
m (robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.)
Line 7: Line 7:
| type = Hindu
| type = Hindu
| image = A roundel of Brahma.jpg
| image = A roundel of Brahma.jpg
| caption = A roundel with a depiction of Brahma, 19th century
| caption = A roundel with depiction of Brahma, 19th century
| name = Brahma
| name = Brahma
| devanagari = ब्रह्मा
| devanagari = ब्रह्मा
| sinhala = බ්‍රහ්ම
| sanskrit_transliteration = Brahmā
| sanskrit_transliteration = Brahmā
| affiliation = [[Trideva]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| affiliation = [[Trideva]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| deity_of = God of Creation, knowledge and [[Veda]]s; Creator of the Worlds
| deity_of = God of Creation
| abode = [[Satyaloka]] or [[Brahmaloka]]
Creator of the Universe
| weapon = [[Brahmastra]], [[Brahmashirsha astra]], [[Brahmanda astra]]
Epitome of knowledge and the [[Veda]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/brahma |title=Brahma, Brahmā, Brāhma: 66 definitions |publisher=Wisdomlib.org |date=2022-06-06 |access-date=2022-08-05}}</ref>
| mantra = ॐ वेदात्मनाय विद्महे हिरण्यगर्भाय धीमही तन्नो ब्रह्मा प्रचोदयात् ।। <br> ''{{IAST|Oṃ vedātmanāya vidmahe hiraṇyagarbhāya dhīmahī tan no brahmā pracodayāt}}''
| abode = [[Satyaloka]] or [[Brahmaloka]], [[Pushkara]]
| symbol = [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]], the [[Vedas]], ''[[japamala]]'' and ''[[kamandalu]]''
| weapon = [[Brahmastra]], [[Brahmashirsha astra]]
| consort = [[Saraswati]]
| mantra = ॐ वेदात्मनाय विद्महे हिरण्यगर्भाय धीमही तन्नो ब्रह्मा प्रचोदयात् ।। <br /> ''{{IAST|Oṃ vedātmanāya vidmahe hiraṇyagarbhāya dhīmahī tan no brahmā pracodayāt}}''
| mount = [[Hamsa (bird)|Hamsa (swan or crane)]]
| symbol = [[Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]], the [[Vedas]], ''[[japamala]]'' and ''[[kamandalu]]''
| festivals = [[Kartik Purnima]], [[Srivari Brahmotsavam]]
| consort = [[Saraswati]] ([[Brahmani (Matrika)|Brahmani]])
| mount = [[Hamsa (bird)|Hamsa]]
| festivals = [[Kartik Purnima]]
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]
| other_names = Svayambhu, Virinchi, Prajapati
| other_names = Svayambhu, Virinchi, Prajapati
| children = [[Manasputra|Mind-born children]] including [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]], [[Atri]], [[Bhrigu]], [[Chitragupta]], [[Daksha]], [[Himavan]], [[Jambavan]], [[Kamadeva|Kama]], [[Kratu]], [[Four Kumaras|Kumara]]s, [[Marichi]], [[Narada]], [[Pulaha]], [[Pulastya]], [[Rudra]], [[Shatarupa]], [[Svayambhuva Manu]] and [[Vashishtha]]
| children = [[Manasputra|Mind-born children]] including [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]], [[Atri]], [[Bhrigu]], [[Chitragupta]], [[Daksha]], [[Himavan]], [[Jambavan]], [[Kratu]], [[Four Kumaras|Kumara]]s, [[Marichi]], [[Narada]], [[Pulaha]], [[Pulastya]], [[Shatarupa]], [[Svayambhuva Manu]] [[Vashishtha]]
}}
}}
{{Infobox Hindu term|sa=ब्रह्मा ({{IAST|Brahmā}})|as=ব্রহ্মা ({{IAST|Brahmā}})|bn=ব্রহ্মা ({{IAST|Brahmā}})|gu=બ્રહ્મા ({{IAST|Brahmā}})|hi=ब्रह्मा ({{IAST|Brahmā}})|mr=ब्रह्मा
'''Brahma''' ({{lang-sa|ब्रह्मा|Brahmā}}) is a [[Hindu god]], referred to as "the Creator" within the [[Trimurti]], the [[triple deity|trinity]] of [[Para Brahman|supreme divinity]] that includes [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]].<ref name=davidwhite29>{{cite book|first=David|last=White|author-link=David Gordon White|year=2006|title=Kiss of the Yogini|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226894843|pages=4, 29}}</ref><ref name="gonda212">Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212–226.</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 218–219.</ref> He is associated with creation, knowledge, and the ''[[Veda]]s''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977|title=THE VAYU PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A|date=1960|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977/page/n184 174] (26.31)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Charles Russell|last1=Coulter|first2=Patricia|last2=Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC&pg=PT240|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96397-2|page=240}}, Quote: "Brahma, a creator god, received the basics of his mythological history from Purusha. During the Brahmanic period, the Hindu Trimurti was represented by Brahma with his attribute of creation, Shiva with his attribute of destruction and Vishnu with his attribute of preservation."</ref><ref name=bruce86>{{cite book|first=Bruce|last=Sullivan|year=1999|title=Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120816763|pages=85–86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Holdrege|year=2012|title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438406954|pages=88–89}}</ref> Brahma is prominently mentioned in [[Creation myth|creation legends]]. In some ''[[Purana]]s'', he created himself in a golden embryo known as the [[Hiranyagarbha]].
({{IAST|Brahmā}})|ne=ब्रह्मा
({{IAST|Brahmā}})|or=ବ୍ରହ୍ମା
({{IAST|Brahmā}})}}
'''Brahma''' ({{lang-sa|ब्रह्मा|Brahmā}}) is referred to as "The Creator" within the [[Trimurti]], the [[triple deity]] of [[Para Brahman|supreme divinity]] that includes [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]].<ref name=davidwhite29>{{cite book|first=David|last=White|author-link=David Gordon White|year=2006|title=Kiss of the Yogini|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226894843|pages=4, 29}}</ref><ref name=gonda212/><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218-219</ref> He is also referred to as '''Svayambhu''' ({{lit|self-born}})<ref>{{cite book|first=Alf|last=Hiltebeitel|author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel|year=1999|title=Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226340517|page=292}}</ref> and is associated with creation, knowledge and ''[[Veda]]s''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977|title=THE VAYU PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A|date=1960|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977/page/n184 174] (26.31)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Charles Russell|last1=Coulter|first2=Patricia|last2=Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC&pg=PT240|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96397-2|page=240}}, Quote: "Brahma, a creator god, received the basics of his mythological history from Purusha. During the Brahmanic period, the Hindu Trimurti was represented by Brahma with his attribute of creation, Shiva with his attribute of destruction and Vishnu with his attribute of preservation."</ref><ref name=bruce86>{{cite book|first=Bruce|last=Sullivan|year=1999|title=Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120816763|pages=85–86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Holdrege|year=2012|title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438406954|pages=88–89}}</ref> Brahma is prominently mentioned in [[Creation myth|creation legends]], though there are many varying versions. In some ''[[Purana]]s'', he created himself in a golden egg known as [[Hiranyagarbha]].


Brahma is frequently identified with the [[Rigvedic deities|Vedic god]] [[Prajapati]].<ref name=david183/> During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed; however, by the 7th century, he was frequently attacked and lost his significance. He was also overshadowed by other major deities like [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] and [[Adi Parashakti|Devi]].<ref name = "Dalal1" /> Along with other such Hindu deities, Brahma is sometimes viewed as a form ([[saguna brahman|''saguna'']]) of the otherwise formless (''[[nirguna]]'') [[brahman]], the ultimate metaphysical reality in [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] Hinduism.<ref name="gonda212">Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref><ref name="david183">{{cite book|first=David|last=Leeming|author-link=David Adams Leeming|year=2009|title=Creation Myths of the World|edition=2nd|isbn=978-1598841749|page=146}};<br />David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54, '''Quote:''' "Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman. In this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman"; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: "Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...) [[Moksha]], the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absolute [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]."</ref>
Brahma is frequently identified with the [[Rigvedic deities|Vedic god]] [[Prajapati]].<ref name="david183">{{cite book |last=Leeming |first=David |title=Creation Myths of the World |year=2009 |isbn=978-1598841749 |edition=2nd |page=146 |author-link=David Adams Leeming}};<br />David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54, '''Quote:''' "Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman. In this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman"; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: "Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...) [[Moksha]], the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absolute [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]."</ref> During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed; however, by the 7th century, he had lost his significance. He was also overshadowed by other major deities like [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], and [[Adi Parashakti|Devi]],<ref name = "Dalal1" /> and demoted to the role of a secondary creator, who was created by the major deities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&q=in+which+sect+Brahma+is+considered+supreme|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=2018-08-27|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206">{{cite book|first=Stella|last=Kramrisch|author-link=Stella Kramrisch|year=1994|title=The Presence of Siva|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691019307|pages=205–206}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pattanaik|first=Devdutt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjL3ogbdJNkC&q=devi+created+brahma+vishnu&pg=PA123|title=The Goddess in India:The Five Faces of the Eternal Feminine|date=September 2000|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-807-5|language=en}}</ref>


According to [[Vaishnava]] accounts of creation, Brahma was born in a lotus, emerging from the navel of Vishnu. The [[Shaivism]] sects believe that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, while the goddess centric [[Shaktism]] states that Devi created the universe, including Brahma.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&q=in+which+sect+Brahma+is+considered+supreme|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=2018-08-27|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206">{{cite book|first=Stella|last=Kramrisch|author-link=Stella Kramrisch|year=1994|title=The Presence of Siva|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691019307|pages=205–206}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pattanaik|first=Devdutt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjL3ogbdJNkC&q=devi+created+brahma+vishnu&pg=PA123|title=The Goddess in India:The Five Faces of the Eternal Feminine|date=September 2000|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-807-5|language=en}}</ref>
Brahma is commonly depicted as a red or golden [[complexion]]ed bearded man, with four heads and hands. His four heads represent the four Vedas and are pointed to the four cardinal directions. He is seated on a lotus and his ''[[vahana]]'' (mount) is a ''[[hamsa (bird)|hamsa]]'' (swan, goose or crane). According to the scriptures, Brahma created his children from his mind and thus, they are referred to as ''[[Manasputra|Manasaputra]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87k0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT936|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|author-link=Roshen Dalal|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184753967|language=en}}</ref><ref name="turner258">Charles Coulter and Patricia Turner (2000), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0786403172}}, page 258, Quote: "When Brahma is acknowledged as the supreme god, it was said that Kama sprang from his heart."</ref>


Brahma is commonly depicted as a red or golden complexioned bearded man, with four heads and hands.
In contemporary Hinduism, Brahma does not enjoy popular worship and has substantially less importance than the other two members of the Trimurti. Brahma is revered in the ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India, owing to the absence of any significant sect dedicated to his veneration.<ref name=morris123>{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Morris|year=2005|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521852418|page=123}}</ref> Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the [[Brahma Temple, Pushkar]] in Rajasthan.<ref name=chakravarti15>{{cite book|first=SS|last=Charkravarti|year=2001|title=Hinduism, a Way of Life|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120808997|page=15}}</ref> Some Brahma temples are found outside India, such as at the [[Erawan Shrine]] in [[Bangkok]].<ref name=ellenlondon74>{{cite book|first=Ellen|last=London|year=2008|title=Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-9812615206|page=74}}</ref>
His four heads represent the four Vedas and are pointed to the four cardinal directions. He is seated on a lotus and his ''[[vahana]]'' (mount) is a ''[[hamsa (bird)|hamsa]]'' (swan, goose or crane). Goddess [[Saraswati]] is generally mentioned as Brahma's wife and she represents his creative energy (''[[shakti]]'') as well as the knowledge which he possesses. According to the scriptures, Brahma created his children from his mind and thus, they were referred to as ''[[Manasputra]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87k0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT936|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|author-link=Roshen Dalal|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184753967|language=en}}</ref><ref name="turner258">Charles Coulter and Patricia Turner (2000), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0786403172}}, page 258, Quote: "When Brahma is acknowledged as the supreme god, it was said that Kama sprang from his heart."</ref>
 
In present-age Hinduism, Brahma does not enjoy popular worship and has lesser importance than the other members of the Trimurti. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India.<ref name=morris123>{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Morris|year=2005|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521852418|page=123}}</ref> Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the [[Brahma Temple, Pushkar]] in Rajasthan.<ref name=chakravarti15>{{cite book|first=SS|last=Charkravarti|year=2001|title=Hinduism, a Way of Life|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120808997|page=15}}</ref> Brahma temples are found outside of India, such as at the [[Erawan Shrine]] in [[Bangkok]].<ref name=ellenlondon74>{{cite book|first=Ellen|last=London|year=2008|title=Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-9812615206|page=74}}</ref>


==Origin and meaning==
==Origin and meaning==
The origins of the term {{IAST|brahmā}} are uncertain, in part because several related words are found in the Vedic literature, such as ''[[brahman]]'' for the 'Ultimate Reality' and [[Brahmin|''brāhmaṇa'']] for 'priest'. A distinction between the spiritual concept of ''brahman'' and the deity Brahmā is that the former is a genderless abstract metaphysical concept in Hinduism<ref>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 122</ref> while the latter is one of the many masculine gods in Hindu tradition.<ref>James Lochtefeld, Brahma, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 119</ref> The spiritual concept of ''brahman'' is quite old{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} and some scholars suggest that the deity Brahma may have emerged as a personification and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle ''brahman''.<ref name="brucesullivan">Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816763}}, pages 82-83</ref> The existence of a distinct deity named ''Brahma'' is evidenced in late Vedic texts.<ref name="brucesullivan" />
The origins of the term {{IAST|brahmā}} are uncertain, in part because several related words are found in the Vedic literature, such as ''[[Brahman]]'' for the 'Ultimate Reality' and [[Brahmin|''Brāhmaṇa'']] for 'priest'. A distinction between the spiritual concept of ''brahman'' and the deity Brahmā is that the former is a genderless abstract metaphysical concept in Hinduism<ref>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 122</ref> while the latter is one of the many masculine gods in Hindu tradition.<ref>James Lochtefeld, Brahma, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 119</ref> The spiritual concept of ''brahman'' is quite old{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} and some scholars suggest that the deity Brahma may have emerged as a personification and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle ''brahman''.<ref name="brucesullivan">Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816763}}, pages 82-83</ref> The existence of a distinct deity named ''Brahma'' is evidenced in late Vedic texts.<ref name="brucesullivan" />


Grammatically, the nominal stem ''brahma-'' has two distinct forms: the [[Neuter (grammar)|neuter]] noun ''bráhman'', whose [[nominative case|nominative singular form]] is ''{{IAST|brahma}}'' ({{lang|sa|ब्रह्म}}); and the [[Masculine (grammar)|masculine]] noun ''brahmán'', whose nominative singular form is ''{{IAST|brahmā}}'' ({{lang|sa|ब्रह्मा}}). The former, neuter form has a generalised and abstract meaning<ref>{{cite book|last=Gopal|first=Madan|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|title=India through the ages|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1990|editor=K.S. Gautam|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/79 79]}}</ref> while the latter, masculine form is used as the proper name of the deity Brahma.
Grammatically, the nominal stem ''brahma-'' has two distinct forms: the [[Neuter (grammar)|neuter]] noun ''bráhman'', whose [[nominative case|nominative singular form]] is ''{{IAST|brahma}}'' ({{lang|sa|ब्रह्म}}); and the [[Masculine (grammar)|masculine]] noun ''brahmán'', whose nominative singular form is ''{{IAST|brahmā}}'' ({{lang|sa|ब्रह्मा}}). The former, neuter form has a generalised and abstract meaning<ref>{{cite book|last=Gopal|first=Madan|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|title=India through the ages|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1990|editor=K.S. Gautam|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/79 79]}}</ref> while the latter, masculine form is used as the proper name of the deity Brahma.
Line 59: Line 55:
| footer = Left: Brahma at the 12th century [[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura]]; Right: Brahma at a 6th/7th century [[Aihole]] temple.
| footer = Left: Brahma at the 12th century [[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura]]; Right: Brahma at a 6th/7th century [[Aihole]] temple.
}}
}}
One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth ''Prapathaka'' (lesson) of the ''[[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]]'', probably composed around late 1st millennium BCE. Brahma is first discussed in verse 5,1,  also called the ''Kutsayana Hymn'', and then expounded in verse 5,2.<ref name=hume51>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422–424}}</ref>
One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth ''Prapathaka'' (lesson) of the ''[[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]]'', probably composed around late 1st millennium BCE. Brahma is first discussed in verse 5,1,  also called the ''Kutsayana Hymn'', and then expounded in verse 5,2.<ref name=hume51>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|author-link=Robert Ernest Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422–424}}</ref>


In the pantheistic ''Kutsayana Hymn'',<ref name=hume51/> the Upanishad asserts that one's Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. It equates the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''atman'']] (Soul, Self) within to be Brahma and various alternate manifestations of Brahman, as follows, "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Rudra (Shiva), thou art Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Indra, thou art All."<ref name=hume51/>
In the pantheistic ''Kutsayana Hymn'',<ref name=hume51/> the Upanishad asserts that one's Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. It equates the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''atman'']] (Soul, Self) within to be Brahma and various alternate manifestations of Brahman, as follows, "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Rudra (Shiva), thou art [[Agni]], [[Varuna]], [[Vayu]], [[Indra]], thou art All."<ref name=hume51/>


In the verse (5,2), Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are mapped into the theory of [[Guṇa]], that is qualities, psyche and innate tendencies the text describes can be found in all living beings.<ref name=maxmuller51>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/302/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 303-304</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215-219</ref> This chapter of the ''[[Maitri Upanishad]]'' asserts that the universe emerged from darkness (''[[Tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]''), first as passion characterized by innate quality (''[[rajas]]''), which then refined and differentiated into purity and goodness (''[[sattva]]'').<ref name=hume51/><ref name=maxmuller51/> Of these three qualities, ''rajas'' is then mapped to ''Brahma'', as follows:<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 344-346</ref>
In the verse (5,2), Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are mapped into the theory of [[Guṇa]], that is qualities, psyche and innate tendencies the text describes can be found in all living beings.<ref name=maxmuller51>[[Max Müller|Max Muller]], The Upanishads, Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/302/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 303-304</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215-219</ref> This chapter of the ''[[Maitri Upanishad]]'' asserts that the universe emerged from darkness (''[[Tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]''), first as passion characterized by innate quality (''[[rajas]]''), which then refined and differentiated into purity and goodness (''[[sattva]]'').<ref name=hume51/><ref name=maxmuller51/> Of these three qualities, ''rajas'' is then mapped to ''Brahma'', as follows:<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 344-346</ref>


{{Blockquote|
{{Blockquote|
Line 79: Line 75:


===Post-Vedic, Epics and Puranas===
===Post-Vedic, Epics and Puranas===
[[File:Sheshashayi Vishnu.jpg|thumb|upright|In [[Vaishnava]] Puranic scriptures, Brahma emerges on a lotus from Vishnu's navel as Vishnu (Mahavishnu) creates the cosmic cycle, after being emerged by Shiva. Shaivite texts describe that Shiva told Vishnu to create, Shiva ordered Vishnu to make Brahma.<ref name=bryant18/>]]
[[File:Sheshashayi Vishnu.jpg|thumb|upright|In [[Vaishnava]] Puranic scriptures, Brahma emerges on a lotus from Vishnu's navel as Vishnu (Mahavishnu) creates the cosmic cycle. Shaivite texts describe that Shiva told Vishnu to create, Shiva ordered Vishnu to make Brahma.<ref name=bryant18/>]]


During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed during 2nd to 6th century CE. The early texts like [[Brahmananda Purana]] describe that there was nothing, but an eternal ocean. From which, a golden egg, called [[Hiranyagarbha]], emerged. The egg broke open and Brahma, who had created himself within it, came into existence (gaining the name Swayambhu). Then, he created the universe, the earth and other things. He also created people to populate and live on his creation.<ref name = "Dalal1" >{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=Brahma|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|language=en|pages=78–79}}</ref><ref name = "ACK" >{{Cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Shalini|title=Stories of Creation|date=April 1971|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha private limited|isbn=8184826478}}</ref><ref name = "Fall" >{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&q=Brahma|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=2018-08-27|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}</ref>
During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed during 2nd to 6th century CE. The early texts like [[Brahmananda Purana]] describe that there was nothing, but an eternal ocean. From which, a golden egg, called [[Hiranyagarbha]], emerged. The egg broke open and Brahma, who had created himself within it, came into existence (gaining the name Swayambhu). Then, he created the universe, the earth and other things. He also created people to populate and live on his creation.<ref name = "ACK" >{{Cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Shalini|title=Stories of Creation|date=April 1971|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha private limited|isbn=8184826478}}</ref><ref name = "Fall" >{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&q=Brahma|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=2018-08-27|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name = "Dalal1" >{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=Brahma|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|language=en|pages=78–79}}</ref>


However, by the 7th century, Brahma lost his importance. Puranic legends mention various reasons for his downfall. There are primarily two prominent versions why Brahma lost his ground. The first version refers to Shiva Purana where Brahma and Vishnu were arguing who was the greatest among them. Then suddenly they hear a voice and saw a huge lightening pillar. The voice asked them to find out the end of the pillar and whoever could find the end of the pillar will be the greatest. Vishnu went towards the bottom and Brahma went towards the top. Vishnu came back and accepted his defeat that he couldn't find the end. However, Brahma came back and lied that he could find the top end. The pillar was Shiva Linga and the voice was of Shiva and this lies infuriated Shiva. Angry Shiva cursed Brahma that he will never be worshiped henceforth.
However, by the 7th century, Brahma lost his importance. Puranic legends mention various reasons for his downfall. There are primarily two prominent versions why Brahma lost his ground. The first version refers to Shiva Purana where Brahma and Vishnu were arguing who was the greatest among them. Then suddenly they hear a voice and saw a huge lightning pillar. The voice asked them to find out the end of the pillar and whoever could find the end of the pillar will be the greatest. Vishnu went towards the bottom and Brahma went towards the top. Vishnu came back and accepted his defeat that he couldn't find the end. However, Brahma came back and lied that he could find the top end. The pillar was Shiva Linga and the voice was of Shiva and this lie infuriated Shiva. Angry Shiva cursed Brahma that he will never be worshiped henceforth.


Historians believe that some of the major reasons of Brahma's downfall were the rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, replacement of him with Shakti in the Smarta tradition and the frequent attacks by Buddhist, Jains and even by Hindu followers of Vaishnavas and Shaivites.<ref name="Dalal1" /><ref name="Fall" />
Historians believe that some of the major reasons of Brahma's downfall were the rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, replacement of him with Shakti in the Smarta tradition and the frequent attacks by Buddhist, Jains and even by Hindu followers of Vaishnavas and Shaivites.<ref name="Dalal1" /><ref name="Fall" />


The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of [[cosmogony]], many involving the Brahma. These include ''Sarga'' (primary creation of universe) and ''Visarga'' (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging ([[metaphysics|metaphysical]]) and other secondary that is always changing ([[empiricism|empirical]]), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endlessly repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created.<ref name=tpinchman125>Tracy Pintchman (1994), The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421123}}, pages 122-138</ref> The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies with ''Brahman'' or ''[[Purusha]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'' among the terms used for the primary creator,<ref name=tpinchman125/><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 213-214</ref> while the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle (''kalpa'', aeon).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206"/><ref name=tpinchman125/>
The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of [[cosmogony]], many involving the Brahma. These include ''Sarga'' (primary creation of universe) and ''Visarga'' (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging ([[metaphysics|metaphysical]]) and other secondary that is always changing ([[empiricism|empirical]]), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endlessly repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created.<ref name=tpinchman125>Tracy Pintchman (1994), The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421123}}, pages 122-138</ref> The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies with ''Brahman'' or ''[[Purusha]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'' among the terms used for the primary creator,<ref name=tpinchman125/><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 213-214</ref> while the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle (''kalpa'', aeon).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206"/><ref name=tpinchman125/>


Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and [[Puranas]], and among the most studied and described.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bryant|editor-first1=Edwin F.|title=Krishna : a sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-514891-6|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sutton|first1=Nicholas|title=Religious doctrines in the Mahābhārata|date=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=Delhi|isbn=81-208-1700-1|pages=182|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>Asian Mythologies by Yves Bonnefoy & Wendy Doniger.  Page 46</ref> Some texts suggest that Brahma and was born from a lotus emerging from the navel of the god [[Vishnu]] and from Lord Brahma's wrath, shiva was born.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god Brahma: Hindu god] Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> In contrast, the [[Shiva]]-focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by [[Ardhanarishvara]], that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from [[Rudra]], or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons ([[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |pages=125 }}</ref> Yet others suggest the goddess Devi created Brahma,<ref name=kinsley137>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/137 137] }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name=kinsley137/><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205–206 }}</ref> Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.<ref name=bryant18>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bryant|editor-first1=Edwin F.|title=Krishna : a sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-514891-6|page=18}}</ref>  Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god.<ref name="Continuum">{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=Jessica|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies | date=2011|publisher=Continuum|location=London|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|pages=72}}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna'' (representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref> Brahma is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=171 }}</ref> or Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/136 136] }}</ref> respectively.
Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and [[Puranas]], and among the most studied and described.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bryant|editor-first1=Edwin F.|title=Krishna : a sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-514891-6|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sutton|first1=Nicholas|title=Religious doctrines in the Mahābhārata|date=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=Delhi|isbn=81-208-1700-1|page=182|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>Asian Mythologies by Yves Bonnefoy & Wendy Doniger.  Page 46</ref> Some texts suggest that Brahma was born from a lotus emerging from the navel of the god [[Vishnu]] and from Lord Brahma's wrath, Shiva was born.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |page=147 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god Brahma: Hindu god] Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> In contrast, the [[Shiva]]-focused Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by [[Ardhanarishvara]], that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from [[Rudra]], or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons ([[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |page=125 }}</ref> Yet others suggest the goddess Devi created Brahma,<ref name=kinsley137>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/137 137] }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name=kinsley137/><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205–206 }}</ref> Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.<ref name=bryant18>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bryant|editor-first1=Edwin F.|title=Krishna : a sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-514891-6|page=18}}</ref>  Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god.<ref name="Continuum">{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=Jessica|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies | date=2011|publisher=Continuum|location=London|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|page=72}}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna'' (representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref> Brahma is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |page=171 }}</ref> or Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/136 136] }}</ref> respectively.


In the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> Brahma creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical [[Brahman]] along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other deities, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all deities and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts.<ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>
In the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |page=40 }}</ref> Brahma creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical [[Brahman]] along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other deities, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all deities and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts.<ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |page=330 }}</ref>


[[File:Sculpture of Brahma, Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|left|Sculpture of Brahma flanked by [[Yama]] and [[Chitragupta]], [[Tamil Nadu]], 10th Century]]
[[File:Sculpture of Brahma, Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|left|Sculpture of Brahma flanked by [[Yama]] and [[Chitragupta]], [[Tamil Nadu]], 10th Century]]
In the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', Brahma is portrayed several times as the one who rises from the "Ocean of Causes".<ref name=richard>Richard Anderson (1967), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769398  Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés], Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, pages 28-35</ref> Brahma, states this Purana, emerges at the moment when time and universe is born, inside a lotus rooted in the navel of ''Hari'' (deity Vishnu, whose praise is the primary focus in the Purana). The scriptures assert that Brahma is drowsy, errs and is temporarily incompetent as he puts together the universe.<ref name=richard/> He then becomes aware of his confusion and drowsiness, meditates as an ascetic, then realizes ''Hari'' in his heart, sees the beginning and end of the universe, and then his creative powers are revived. Brahma, states Bhagavata Purana, thereafter combines ''[[Prakriti]]'' (nature, matter) and ''[[Purusha]]'' (spirit, soul) to create a dazzling variety of living creatures, and tempest of causal nexus.<ref name=richard/> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] thus attributes the creation of [[Maya (illusion)|Maya]] to Brahma,{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} wherein he creates for the sake of creation, imbuing everything with both the good and the evil, the material and the spiritual, a beginning and an end.<ref>Richard Anderson (1967), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769398  Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés], Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, page 31-33</ref>
In the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', Brahma is portrayed several times as the one who rises from the "Ocean of Causes".<ref name=richard>Richard Anderson (1967), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769398  Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés], Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, pages 28-35</ref> Brahma, states this Purana, emerges at the moment when time and universe is born, inside a lotus rooted in the navel of ''Hari'' (deity Vishnu, whose praise is the primary focus in the Purana). The scriptures assert that Brahma is drowsy, errs and is temporarily incompetent as he puts together the universe.<ref name=richard/> He then becomes aware of his confusion and drowsiness, meditates as an ascetic, then realizes ''Hari'' in his heart, sees the beginning and end of the universe, and then his creative powers are revived. Brahma, states Bhagavata Purana, thereafter combines ''[[Prakriti]]'' (nature, matter) and ''[[Purusha]]'' (spirit, soul) to create a dazzling variety of living creatures, and tempest of causal nexus.<ref name=richard/> The Bhagavata Purana thus attributes the creation of [[Maya (illusion)|Maya]] to Brahma,{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} wherein he creates for the sake of creation, imbuing everything with both the good and the evil, the material and the spiritual, a beginning and an end.<ref>Richard Anderson (1967), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769398  Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés], Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, page 31-33</ref>


The Puranas describe Brahma as the deity creating time.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} They correlate human time to Brahma's time, such as a [[Kalpa (aeon)|mahākalpa]] being a large cosmic period, correlating to one day and one night in Brahma's existence.<ref name="Continuum"/>{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}
The Puranas describe Brahma as the deity creating time.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} They correlate human time to Brahma's time, such as a [[Kalpa (aeon)|mahākalpa]] being a large cosmic period, correlating to one day and one night in Brahma's existence.<ref name="Continuum"/>{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}
Line 125: Line 121:
[[File:BrahmaPushkarGurjarPilgrimage.jpg|thumb|Brahma temples are relatively rare in India. Above: Brahma temple in [[Pushkar]], Rajasthan.]]
[[File:BrahmaPushkarGurjarPilgrimage.jpg|thumb|Brahma temples are relatively rare in India. Above: Brahma temple in [[Pushkar]], Rajasthan.]]
Very few temples in India are primarily dedicated to Brahma and his worship.<ref name=morris123/> The most prominent Hindu temple for Brahma is the [[Brahma Temple, Pushkar]].<ref name=chakravarti15/> Other temples include a temple in [[Asotra]] village, [[Balotra]] taluka of Rajasthan's [[Barmer district]] known as ''Kheteshwar Brahmadham Tirtha''.
Very few temples in India are primarily dedicated to Brahma and his worship.<ref name=morris123/> The most prominent Hindu temple for Brahma is the [[Brahma Temple, Pushkar]].<ref name=chakravarti15/> Other temples include a temple in [[Asotra]] village, [[Balotra]] taluka of Rajasthan's [[Barmer district]] known as ''Kheteshwar Brahmadham Tirtha''.
* Brahmaji Temple [[Chhinch]] Town,[[Banswara]] in [[Rajasthan]] Also Lord Brahma Temple.12th century Brahma Temple hear.
[[File:BRAHMAJI TEMPLE CHHINCH.jpg|thumb|12th century Statue Of Lord Brahma in [[Chhinch]] Town,[[Banswara]],of [[Rajasthan]].]]


Brahma is also worshipped in temple complexes dedicated to the Trimurti: [[Thanumalayan Temple]], [[Uthamar Kovil]], [[Ponmeri Shiva Temple]], in [[Tirunavaya]], the [[Thripaya Trimurti Temple]] and [[Mithrananthapuram Trimurti Temple]]. In Tamil Nadu, Brahma temples exist in the temple town of [[Kumbakonam]], in [[Kodumudi]] and within the [[Brahmapureeswarar Temple]] in [[Tiruchirappalli]].
Brahma is also worshipped in temple complexes dedicated to the Trimurti: [[Thanumalayan Temple]], [[Uthamar Kovil]], [[Ponmeri Shiva Temple]], in [[Tirunavaya]], the [[Thripaya Trimurti Temple]] and [[Mithrananthapuram Trimurti Temple]]. In Tamil Nadu, Brahma temples exist in the temple town of [[Kumbakonam]], in [[Kodumudi]] and within the [[Brahmapureeswarar Temple]] in [[Tiruchirappalli]]. There is also a shrine for Brahma in Kandiyur Shiva temple in a rare posture along with his consort Goddess [[Saraswathi]].


There is a temple dedicated to Brahma in the temple town of [[Srikalahasti]] near [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]. There are a Chaturmukha Brahma temple in [[Chebrolu, Guntur district|Chebrolu]], Andhra Pradesh,  and a seven feet height of Chatrumukha (Four Faces) Brahma temple at [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]]. In the coastal state of [[Goa]], a shrine belonging to the fifth century, in the small and remote village of [[Carambolim]], [[Sattari]] Taluka in the northeast region of the state is found.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}
There is a temple dedicated to Brahma in the temple town of [[Srikalahasti]] near [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]. There are a Chaturmukha Brahma temple in [[Chebrolu, Guntur district|Chebrolu]], Andhra Pradesh,  and a seven feet height of Chatrumukha (Four Faces) Brahma temple at [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]]. In the coastal state of [[Goa]], a shrine belonging to the fifth century, in the small and remote village of [[Carambolim]], [[Sattari]] Taluka in the northeast region of the state is found.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}
Mithrananadapuram temple in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] has Brahma as the main deity.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sekhar|first=Sasi|title=Mithrananadapuram in Thiruvananthapuram, a temple complex full of surprises|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/kerala/2019/11/14/mithranandapuram-temple-complex-full-of-surprises.html|date=14 November 2019|access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref> There is also a shrine for Brahma in Thiruvallam [[Parasurama]] temple.


A famous icon of Brahma exists at [[Mangalwedha]], 52&nbsp;km from the [[Solapur]] district of [[Maharashtra]] and in [[Sopara]] near [[Mumbai]]. There is a 12th-century temple dedicated to him in [[Khedbrahma#Brahma temple|Khedbrahma]], [[Gujarat]] and also a  [[Brahma Kuti Temple]] in [[Kanpur]]. Temples exist in [[Khokhan]], [[Annamputhur]] and [[Hosur]].
A famous icon of Brahma exists at [[Mangalwedha]], 52&nbsp;km from the [[Solapur]] district of [[Maharashtra]] and in [[Sopara]] near [[Mumbai]]. There is a 12th-century temple dedicated to him in [[Khedbrahma#Brahma temple|Khedbrahma]], [[Gujarat]] and also a  [[Brahma Kuti Temple]] in [[Kanpur]]. Temples exist in [[Khokhan]], [[Annamputhur]] and [[Hosur]].
Line 161: Line 161:


==See also==
==See also==
{{Hinduism}}
{{col div|colwidth=20em}}
{{col div|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Brahma (Buddhism)]]
* [[Brahma (Buddhism)]]
Line 169: Line 168:
* [[Brahmakumari]]
* [[Brahmakumari]]
* [[Brahmani]]
* [[Brahmani]]
* [[Demiurge]]
* [[Svetovid]]
* [[Svetovid]]
{{colend}}
{{colend}}
Line 177: Line 177:


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
Line 191: Line 191:
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]
 
[[Category:Brahma]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
Line 197: Line 198:
[[Category:Triple gods]]
[[Category:Triple gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]

Revision as of 22:33, 16 January 2023


This article is about Hindu creation god. For the genderless metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality in Hindu philosophy, see Brahman.
For other uses, see Brahma (disambiguation).

Brahma
God of Creation

Creator of the Universe

Epitome of knowledge and the Vedas[1]
Member of Trimurti
A roundel of Brahma.jpg
A roundel with depiction of Brahma, 19th century
Other namesSvayambhu, Virinchi, Prajapati
Devanagariब्रह्मा
Sanskrit transliterationBrahmā
AffiliationTrideva, Deva
AbodeSatyaloka or Brahmaloka, Pushkara
Mantraॐ वेदात्मनाय विद्महे हिरण्यगर्भाय धीमही तन्नो ब्रह्मा प्रचोदयात् ।।
Oṃ vedātmanāya vidmahe hiraṇyagarbhāya dhīmahī tan no brahmā pracodayāt
WeaponBrahmastra, Brahmashirsha astra
SymbolLotus, the Vedas, japamala and kamandalu
MountHamsa
FestivalsKartik Purnima
Personal information
ConsortSaraswati (Brahmani)
ChildrenMind-born children including Angiras, Atri, Bhrigu, Chitragupta, Daksha, Himavan, Jambavan, Kratu, Kumaras, Marichi, Narada, Pulaha, Pulastya, Shatarupa, Svayambhuva Manu Vashishtha

Brahma (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मा, romanized: Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.[2][3][4] He is associated with creation, knowledge, and the Vedas.[5][6][7][8] Brahma is prominently mentioned in creation legends. In some Puranas, he created himself in a golden embryo known as the Hiranyagarbha.

Brahma is frequently identified with the Vedic god Prajapati.[9] During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed; however, by the 7th century, he had lost his significance. He was also overshadowed by other major deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi,[10] and demoted to the role of a secondary creator, who was created by the major deities.[11][12][13]

Brahma is commonly depicted as a red or golden complexioned bearded man, with four heads and hands. His four heads represent the four Vedas and are pointed to the four cardinal directions. He is seated on a lotus and his vahana (mount) is a hamsa (swan, goose or crane). According to the scriptures, Brahma created his children from his mind and thus, they are referred to as Manasaputra.[14][15]

In contemporary Hinduism, Brahma does not enjoy popular worship and has substantially less importance than the other two members of the Trimurti. Brahma is revered in the ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India, owing to the absence of any significant sect dedicated to his veneration.[16] Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Pushkar in Rajasthan.[17] Some Brahma temples are found outside India, such as at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok.[18]

Origin and meaning

The origins of the term brahmā are uncertain, in part because several related words are found in the Vedic literature, such as Brahman for the 'Ultimate Reality' and Brāhmaṇa for 'priest'. A distinction between the spiritual concept of brahman and the deity Brahmā is that the former is a genderless abstract metaphysical concept in Hinduism[19] while the latter is one of the many masculine gods in Hindu tradition.[20] The spiritual concept of brahman is quite old[citation needed] and some scholars suggest that the deity Brahma may have emerged as a personification and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle brahman.[21] The existence of a distinct deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic texts.[21]

Grammatically, the nominal stem brahma- has two distinct forms: the neuter noun bráhman, whose nominative singular form is brahma (ब्रह्म); and the masculine noun brahmán, whose nominative singular form is brahmā (ब्रह्मा). The former, neuter form has a generalised and abstract meaning[22] while the latter, masculine form is used as the proper name of the deity Brahma.

Literature and legends

Vedic literature

An early depiction of Brahma, on the Bimaran casket, early 1st century CE. British Museum.[23][24]
Left: Brahma at the 12th century Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura; Right: Brahma at a 6th/7th century Aihole temple.

One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed around late 1st millennium BCE. Brahma is first discussed in verse 5,1, also called the Kutsayana Hymn, and then expounded in verse 5,2.[25]

In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn,[25] the Upanishad asserts that one's Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. It equates the atman (Soul, Self) within to be Brahma and various alternate manifestations of Brahman, as follows, "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Rudra (Shiva), thou art Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Indra, thou art All."[25]

In the verse (5,2), Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, that is qualities, psyche and innate tendencies the text describes can be found in all living beings.[26][27] This chapter of the Maitri Upanishad asserts that the universe emerged from darkness (tamas), first as passion characterized by innate quality (rajas), which then refined and differentiated into purity and goodness (sattva).[25][26] Of these three qualities, rajas is then mapped to Brahma, as follows:[28]

Now then, that part of him which belongs to tamas, that, O students of sacred knowledge (Brahmacharins), is this Rudra.
That part of him which belongs to rajas, that O students of sacred knowledge, is this Brahma.
That part of him which belongs to sattva, that O students of sacred knowledge, is this Vishnu.
Verily, that One became threefold, became eightfold, elevenfold, twelvefold, into infinite fold.
This Being (neuter) entered all beings, he became the overlord of all beings.
That is the Atman (Soul, Self) within and without – yea, within and without!

— Maitri Upanishad 5.2, [25][26]

While the Maitri Upanishad maps Brahma with one of the elements of guṇa theory of Hinduism, the text does not depict him as one of the trifunctional elements of the Hindu Trimurti idea found in later Puranic literature.[29]

Post-Vedic, Epics and Puranas

File:Sheshashayi Vishnu.jpg
In Vaishnava Puranic scriptures, Brahma emerges on a lotus from Vishnu's navel as Vishnu (Mahavishnu) creates the cosmic cycle. Shaivite texts describe that Shiva told Vishnu to create, Shiva ordered Vishnu to make Brahma.[30]

During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed during 2nd to 6th century CE. The early texts like Brahmananda Purana describe that there was nothing, but an eternal ocean. From which, a golden egg, called Hiranyagarbha, emerged. The egg broke open and Brahma, who had created himself within it, came into existence (gaining the name Swayambhu). Then, he created the universe, the earth and other things. He also created people to populate and live on his creation.[31][32][10]

However, by the 7th century, Brahma lost his importance. Puranic legends mention various reasons for his downfall. There are primarily two prominent versions why Brahma lost his ground. The first version refers to Shiva Purana where Brahma and Vishnu were arguing who was the greatest among them. Then suddenly they hear a voice and saw a huge lightning pillar. The voice asked them to find out the end of the pillar and whoever could find the end of the pillar will be the greatest. Vishnu went towards the bottom and Brahma went towards the top. Vishnu came back and accepted his defeat that he couldn't find the end. However, Brahma came back and lied that he could find the top end. The pillar was Shiva Linga and the voice was of Shiva and this lie infuriated Shiva. Angry Shiva cursed Brahma that he will never be worshiped henceforth.

Historians believe that some of the major reasons of Brahma's downfall were the rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, replacement of him with Shakti in the Smarta tradition and the frequent attacks by Buddhist, Jains and even by Hindu followers of Vaishnavas and Shaivites.[10][32]

The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving the Brahma. These include Sarga (primary creation of universe) and Visarga (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging (metaphysical) and other secondary that is always changing (empirical), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endlessly repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created.[33] The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies with Brahman or Purusha or Devi among the terms used for the primary creator,[33][34] while the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle (kalpa, aeon).[12][33]

Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas, and among the most studied and described.[35][36][37] Some texts suggest that Brahma was born from a lotus emerging from the navel of the god Vishnu and from Lord Brahma's wrath, Shiva was born.[38][39] In contrast, the Shiva-focused Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by Ardhanarishvara, that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from Rudra, or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpa).[12][40] Yet others suggest the goddess Devi created Brahma,[41] and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.[41][42] Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.[30] Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god.[43] Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the saguna (representation with face and attributes)[44] Brahma is Vishnu,[45] Shiva,[46] or Devi[47] respectively.

In the post-Vedic Puranic literature,[48] Brahma creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other deities, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all deities and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts.[48][49]

Sculpture of Brahma flanked by Yama and Chitragupta, Tamil Nadu, 10th Century

In the Bhagavata Purana, Brahma is portrayed several times as the one who rises from the "Ocean of Causes".[50] Brahma, states this Purana, emerges at the moment when time and universe is born, inside a lotus rooted in the navel of Hari (deity Vishnu, whose praise is the primary focus in the Purana). The scriptures assert that Brahma is drowsy, errs and is temporarily incompetent as he puts together the universe.[50] He then becomes aware of his confusion and drowsiness, meditates as an ascetic, then realizes Hari in his heart, sees the beginning and end of the universe, and then his creative powers are revived. Brahma, states Bhagavata Purana, thereafter combines Prakriti (nature, matter) and Purusha (spirit, soul) to create a dazzling variety of living creatures, and tempest of causal nexus.[50] The Bhagavata Purana thus attributes the creation of Maya to Brahma,[citation needed] wherein he creates for the sake of creation, imbuing everything with both the good and the evil, the material and the spiritual, a beginning and an end.[51]

The Puranas describe Brahma as the deity creating time.[citation needed] They correlate human time to Brahma's time, such as a mahākalpa being a large cosmic period, correlating to one day and one night in Brahma's existence.[43][citation needed]

The stories about Brahma in various Puranas are diverse and inconsistent. In Skanda Purana, for example, goddess Parvati is called the "mother of the universe", and she is credited with creating Brahma, gods, and the three worlds. She is the one, states Skanda Purana, who combined the three Gunas - Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas - into matter (Prakrti) to create the empirically observed world.[52]

The Vedic discussion of Brahma as a Rajas-quality god expands in the Puranic and Tantric literature. However, these texts state that his wife Saraswati has Sattva (quality of balance, harmony, goodness, purity, holistic, constructive, creative, positive, peaceful, virtuous), thus complementing Brahma's Rajas (quality of passion, activity, neither good nor bad and sometimes either, action qua action, individualizing, driven, dynamic).[53][54][55]

Iconography

Left: 17th century painting of four-headed Brahma as an aged man, holding manuscript (Vedas), a ladle and a kamandalu; Right: 6th century Brahma in Badami cave temples holding a writing equipment, ladle, and mala.

Brahma is traditionally depicted with four faces and four arms.[56] Each face of his points to a cardinal direction. His hands hold no weapons, rather symbols of knowledge and creation. In one hand he holds the sacred texts of Vedas, in second he holds mala (rosary beads) symbolizing time, in third he holds a sruva or shruk — ladle types symbolizing means to feed sacrificial fire, and in fourth a kamandalu – utensil with water symbolizing the means where all creation emits from.[57][58] His four mouths are credited with creating the four Vedas.[7] He is often depicted with a white beard, implying his sage-like experience. He sits on lotus, dressed in white (or red, pink), with his vehicle (vahana) – hansa, a swan or goose – nearby.[56][59]

Chapter 51 of Manasara-Silpasastra, an ancient design manual in Sanskrit for making Murti and temples, states that a Brahma statue should be golden in color.[60] The text recommends that the statue have four faces and four arms, have jata-mukuta-mandita (matted hair of an ascetic), and wear a diadem (crown).[60] Two of his hands should be in refuge granting and gift giving mudra, while he should be shown with kundika (water pot), akshamala (rosary), and a small and a large sruk-sruva (laddles used in yajna ceremonies).[60] The text details the different proportions of the murti, describes the ornaments, and suggests that the idol wear chira (bark strip) as lower garment, and either be alone or be accompanied with goddess Saraswati. Brahma is associated largely with the Vedic culture of yajna and knowledge. In some Vedic yajna, Brahma is summoned in the ritual to reside and supervise the ritual in the form of Prajapati.

Brahma's wife is the goddess Saraswati.[61][62] She is considered to be "the embodiment of his power, the instrument of creation and the energy that drives his actions".

Worship

India

Brahma temples are relatively rare in India. Above: Brahma temple in Pushkar, Rajasthan.

Very few temples in India are primarily dedicated to Brahma and his worship.[16] The most prominent Hindu temple for Brahma is the Brahma Temple, Pushkar.[17] Other temples include a temple in Asotra village, Balotra taluka of Rajasthan's Barmer district known as Kheteshwar Brahmadham Tirtha.

12th century Statue Of Lord Brahma in Chhinch Town,Banswara,of Rajasthan.

Brahma is also worshipped in temple complexes dedicated to the Trimurti: Thanumalayan Temple, Uthamar Kovil, Ponmeri Shiva Temple, in Tirunavaya, the Thripaya Trimurti Temple and Mithrananthapuram Trimurti Temple. In Tamil Nadu, Brahma temples exist in the temple town of Kumbakonam, in Kodumudi and within the Brahmapureeswarar Temple in Tiruchirappalli. There is also a shrine for Brahma in Kandiyur Shiva temple in a rare posture along with his consort Goddess Saraswathi.

There is a temple dedicated to Brahma in the temple town of Srikalahasti near Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. There are a Chaturmukha Brahma temple in Chebrolu, Andhra Pradesh, and a seven feet height of Chatrumukha (Four Faces) Brahma temple at Bangalore, Karnataka. In the coastal state of Goa, a shrine belonging to the fifth century, in the small and remote village of Carambolim, Sattari Taluka in the northeast region of the state is found.[citation needed]

Mithrananadapuram temple in Thiruvananthapuram has Brahma as the main deity.[63] There is also a shrine for Brahma in Thiruvallam Parasurama temple.

A famous icon of Brahma exists at Mangalwedha, 52 km from the Solapur district of Maharashtra and in Sopara near Mumbai. There is a 12th-century temple dedicated to him in Khedbrahma, Gujarat and also a Brahma Kuti Temple in Kanpur. Temples exist in Khokhan, Annamputhur and Hosur.

Southeast and East Asia

1: The four-faced Brahma (Phra Phrom) statue, Erawan Shrine, Thailand
2: 12th-century Brahma with missing book and water pot, Cambodia
3: 9th-century Brahma in Prambanan temple, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

A shrine to Brahma can be found in Cambodia's Angkor Wat. One of the three largest temples in the 9th-century Prambanan temples complex in Yogyakarta, central Java (Indonesia) is dedicated to Brahma, the other two to Shiva (largest of three) and Vishnu respectively.[64] The temple dedicated to Brahma is on the southern side of Śiva temple.

A statue of Brahma is present at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand and continues to be revered in modern times.[18] The golden dome of the Government House of Thailand houses a statue of Phra Phrom (Thai representation of Brahma). An early 18th-century painting at Wat Yai Suwannaram in Phetchaburi city of Thailand depicts Brahma.[65]

The name of the country Burma may be derived from Brahma. In medieval texts, it is referred to as Brahma-desa.[66][67]

Brahma is known in Chinese as Simianshen (四面神, "Four-Faced God"), Simianfo (四面佛, "Four-Faced Buddha") or Fantian (梵天), Tshangs pa in Tibetan and Bonten (梵天) in Japanese.[68] In Chinese Buddhism, he is regarded as one of the Twenty Devas (二十諸天 Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the Twenty-Four Devas (二十四諸天 Èrshísì zhūtiān), a group of protective dharmapalas.[69]

Indonesia

Brahma sculpture at the Prambanan temple complex, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Hindus in Indonesia still have a high regard for Brahma (Indonesian and Javanese: Batara Brahma or Sanghyang Brahma). In Prambanan there is a special temple made for Brahma, side by side with Vishnu, and in Bali there is Andakasa Temple dedicated to Brahma.[70]

In the past, although not as popular as Vishnu and Shiva, the name Brahma appeared on several occasions. In the legend that developed in East Java about Ken Arok, for example, Brahma is believed to be the biological father of Ken Arok. It is said that Brahma was fascinated by the beauty of Ken Arok's mother, Ken Endok and made her a lover. From this relationship was born Ken Arok. The name Brahma is also used as the name of a mountain in the Tengger Mountains range, namely Mount Bromo. Mount Bromo is believed to be derived from the word Brahma and there was once a sect that believed that Brahmaloka – the universe where Brahma resided – was connected to Mount Bromo.

In the Javanese version of wayang, Brahma has a very different role from his initial role. When Hindu society began to disappear from Java and the era of Walisongo's wayang kulit began to emerge, Brahma's role as creator in the shadow puppet standard was given to a figure named Sang Hyang Wenang, while Brahma himself was renamed to Brama (fire) where he was a ruling god. Brama, the son of the figure of Bathara Guru (Shiva). The figure of Brahma in Javanese wayang is fused and mixed with the figure of Agni.[71]

See also


References

  1. ↑ "Brahma, Brahmā, Brāhma: 66 definitions". Wisdomlib.org. 6 June 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  2. ↑ White, David (2006). Kiss of the Yogini. University of Chicago Press. pp. 4, 29. ISBN 978-0226894843.
  3. ↑ Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212–226.
  4. ↑ Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 218–219.
  5. ↑ N.A (1960). THE VAYU PURANA PART. 1. MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI. pp. 174 (26.31).
  6. ↑ Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-135-96397-2., Quote: "Brahma, a creator god, received the basics of his mythological history from Purusha. During the Brahmanic period, the Hindu Trimurti was represented by Brahma with his attribute of creation, Shiva with his attribute of destruction and Vishnu with his attribute of preservation."
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Sullivan, Bruce (1999). Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-8120816763.
  8. ↑ Holdrege, Barbara (2012). Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. State University of New York Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1438406954.
  9. ↑ Leeming, David (2009). Creation Myths of the World (2nd ed.). p. 146. ISBN 978-1598841749.;
    David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195156690, page 54, Quote: "Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman. In this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman"; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: "Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...) Moksha, the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absolute Atman."
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  11. ↑ Achuthananda, Swami (27 August 2018). The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma. Relianz Communications Pty Ltd. ISBN 978-0-9757883-3-2.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Kramrisch, Stella (1994). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. pp. 205–206. ISBN 978-0691019307.
  13. ↑ Pattanaik, Devdutt (September 2000). The Goddess in India:The Five Faces of the Eternal Feminine. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 978-0-89281-807-5.
  14. ↑ Dalal, Roshen (18 April 2014). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin UK. ISBN 9788184753967.
  15. ↑ Charles Coulter and Patricia Turner (2000), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Routledge, ISBN 978-0786403172, page 258, Quote: "When Brahma is acknowledged as the supreme god, it was said that Kama sprang from his heart."
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Morris, Brian (2005). Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0521852418.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Charkravarti, SS (2001). Hinduism, a Way of Life. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 15. ISBN 978-8120808997.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 London, Ellen (2008). Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture. Marshall Cavendish. p. 74. ISBN 978-9812615206.
  19. ↑ James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122
  20. ↑ James Lochtefeld, Brahma, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 119
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816763, pages 82-83
  22. ↑ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 79.
  23. ↑ "The Bimaran Reliquary, a Gandharan work, which is now housed in the British Museum, London, is of great historical and iconographic significance. It shows Buddha in the centre, attended by Brahma to his right and Indra to the left." in Banerjee, Priyatosh (2001). Central Asian art: new revelations from Xinjiang. Abha Prakashan. p. 48. ISBN 9788185704241.
  24. ↑ "Standing Buddha in the arched compartment, flanked by figures of Brahma and Indra standing in similar compartments, detail of the side of Bimaran gold casket" in Agrawala, Prithvi Kumar (1977). Early Indian Bronzes. Prithvi Prakashan. p. 152.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 422–424
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 303-304
  27. ↑ Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215-219
  28. ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 344-346
  29. ↑ GM Bailey (1979), Trifunctional Elements in the theology of the Hindu Trimūrti, Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2, pages 152-163
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Bryant, Edwin F., ed. (2007). Krishna : a sourcebook. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.
  31. ↑ Srinivasan, Shalini (April 1971). Stories of Creation. Amar Chitra Katha private limited. ISBN 8184826478.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Achuthananda, Swami (27 August 2018). The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma. Relianz Communications Pty Ltd. ISBN 978-0-9757883-3-2.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Tracy Pintchman (1994), The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421123, pages 122-138
  34. ↑ Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 213-214
  35. ↑ Bryant, Edwin F., ed. (2007). Krishna : a sourcebook. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.
  36. ↑ Sutton, Nicholas (2000). Religious doctrines in the Mahābhārata (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 182. ISBN 81-208-1700-1.
  37. ↑ Asian Mythologies by Yves Bonnefoy & Wendy Doniger. Page 46
  38. ↑ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1994). Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 147. ISBN 978-81-208-1098-3.
  39. ↑ Brahma: Hindu god Encyclopædia Britannica.
  40. ↑ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1981). Siva: The Erotic Ascetic. Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-19-972793-3.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 David Kinsley (1988). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. University of California Press. pp. 137. ISBN 978-0-520-90883-3.
  42. ↑ Stella Kramrisch (1992). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. pp. 205–206. ISBN 0-691-01930-4.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Frazier, Jessica (2011). The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. London: Continuum. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0.
  44. ↑ Arvind Sharma (2000). Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-564441-8.
  45. ↑ Mark Juergensmeyer; Wade Clark Roof (2011). Encyclopedia of Global Religion. SAGE Publications. p. 1335. ISBN 978-1-4522-6656-5.
  46. ↑ Stella Kramrisch (1992). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 171. ISBN 0-691-01930-4.
  47. ↑ David Kinsley (1988). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. University of California Press. pp. 136. ISBN 978-0-520-90883-3.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen (2011). Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications. Pearson. p. 40. ISBN 978-81-317-3085-0.
  49. ↑ Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Richard Anderson (1967), Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés, Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, pages 28-35
  51. ↑ Richard Anderson (1967), Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés, Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, page 31-33
  52. ↑ Nicholas Gier (1998), The Yogi and the Goddess, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 279-280
  53. ↑ H Woodward (1989), The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho and Its Meanings, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 19, pages 30-34
  54. ↑ Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237
  55. ↑ Joseph Alter (2004), Yoga in modern India, Princeton University Press, page 55
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Kenneth Morgan (1996), The Religion of the Hindus, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803879, page 74
  57. ↑ Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  58. ↑ Thomas E. Donaldson (2001). Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa. Abhinav. p. 99. ISBN 978-81-7017-406-6.
  59. ↑ Philip Wilkinson and Neil Philip (2009), Mythology, Penguin, ISBN 978-0756642211, page 156
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 PK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded by Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL, OCLC 898773783, page 50
  61. ↑ Elizabeth Dowling and W George Scarlett (2005), Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development, SAGE Publications, ISBN 978-0761928836 page 204
  62. ↑ David Kinsley (1988), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520063392, pages 55-64
  63. ↑ Sekhar, Sasi (14 November 2019). "Mithrananadapuram in Thiruvananthapuram, a temple complex full of surprises". Retrieved 29 May 2022.
  64. ↑ Trudy Ring et al (1996), International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Routledge, ISBN 978-1884964046, page 692
  65. ↑ Chami Jotisalikorn et al (2002), Classic Thai: Design, Interiors, Architecture., Tuttle, ISBN 978-9625938493, pages 164-165
  66. ↑ Arthur P. Phayre (2013), History of Burma, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415865920, pages 2-5
  67. ↑ Gustaaf Houtman (1999), Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, ISBN 978-4872977486, page 352
  68. ↑ Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. pp. 141–142. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
  69. ↑ A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms : with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index. Lewis Hodous, William Edward Soothill. London: RoutledgeCurzon. 2004. ISBN 0-203-64186-8. OCLC 275253538.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  70. ↑ "Menyingkap Misteri Dewa Brahma Jarang Dipuja (Indonesian)", Baliexpress
  71. ↑ "Dewa Brahma", GamaBali

External links

Template:Hindu Culture and Epics

Template:Burmese nats

Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/index.php?title=Brahma&oldid=378486"