List of Indian inventions and discoveries

From Bharatpedia, an open encyclopedia


This list of Asiatic Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including the ancient, classical and post-classical nations in the subcontinent historically referred to as India and the modern Indian state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological history of India, during which architecture, astronomy, cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics, metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of study pursued by its scholars.[1] During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also focused on automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as research into space and polar technology.

For the purpose of this list, the inventions are regarded as technological firsts developed in India, and as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact. It also does not include technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear in the lists.

Inventions[edit]

Administration[edit]

  • Janapada (democratic republic system) (1100-500 BCE): [2]
  • Cheque: There is early evidence of using cheques. In India, during the Maurya Empire (from 321 to 185 BC), a commercial instrument called the adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person.[3]
  • Passport: Arthashastra (c. 3rd century BCE) make mentions of passes issued at the rate of one masha per pass to enter and exit the country. Chapter 34 of the Second Book of Arthashastra concerns with the duties of the Mudrādhyakṣa (lit. 'Superintendent of Seals') who must issue sealed passes before a person could enter or leave the countryside. This constitutes first passports and passbooks in world history[6]

Communication[edit]

Crescograph, Bose Institute, Kolkata.

Computers and programming languages[edit]

Construction, Civil engineering and Architecture[edit]

  • English Bond: The English bond is a form of brickwork with alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Harappan architecture in South Asia was the first to use the so-called English bond in building with bricks.
Hanuman and Ravana in Tolu Bommalata, the shadow puppet tradition of Andhra Pradesh, India
  • Plumbing: Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 BC. Earthen pipes were used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system,[18]
  • Squat toilet: Toilet platforms above drains, in the proximity of wells, are found in several houses of the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa from the 3rd millennium BCE.[19]
  • Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan[20] and Dholavira in India.[21] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[20] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[20] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[20] Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200 to 400 CE.[22] Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) were constructed.[22]
  • Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.[23] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[23] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[23]

Games[edit]

  • Blindfold Chess: Games prohibited by Buddha includes a variant of ashtapada game played on imaginary boards. Akasam astapadam was an ashtapada variant played with no board, literally "astapadam played in the sky". A correspondent in the American Chess Bulletin identifies this as likely the earliest literary mention of a blindfold chess variant.[24]
  • Carrom: The game of carrom originated in India.[25] One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in Patiala, India.[26] It became very popular among the masses after World War I. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the twentieth century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in Sri Lanka in 1935 but by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.[27]
  • Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[40] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defence but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE.[40]
  • Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[41] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[41] A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[41]
  • Seven Stones: An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization.[43]
  • Snakes and ladders: Vaikunta pali Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.[44] During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[44]
  • Suits game: Kridapatram is an early suits game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term kridapatram literally means "painted rags for playing."[45][46][47][48][49] Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.[45][50] The medieval Indian game of ganjifa, or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.[51]
  • Table Tennis: It has been suggested that makeshift versions of the game were developed by British military officers in India around the 1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them.[52]
  • Vajra-mushti: refers to a wrestling where knuckleduster like weapon is employed.The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from the Manasollasa of the Chalukya king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as the Maurya dynasty.
  • Kalaripayattu: One of the world's oldest form of martial arts is Kalaripayattu that developed in the southwest state of Kerala in India.[53] It is believed to be the oldest surviving martial art in India, with a history spanning over 3,000 years.[54]

Genetics[edit]

  • Synthetic genes and decoding of protein synthesising gene: Indian-American biochemist Har Gobind Khorona, created the first synthetic gene and uncovered how a DNA's genetic code determines protein synthesis — which dictates how a cell functions. That discovery earned Khorana, along with his two colleagues, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968.[56]


Metallurgy and manufacturing[edit]

  • Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[66] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[66]
Close-up of Wootz steel, pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India.
  • Diamond drills: in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing.[67]
  • Diamond cutting and polishing: The technology of cutting and polishing diamonds was invented in India, Ratnapariksha, a text dated to 6th century talks about diamond cutting and Al-Beruni speaks about the method of using lead plate for diamond polishing in the 11th century CE.[68]
  • Glass blowing: Rudimentary form of glass blowing from Indian subcontinent is attested earlier than Western Asian counterparts(where it is attested not earlier than 1st century BCE) in the form of Indo-Pacific beads which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to tube drawn technique for bead making dated more than 2500 BP.[72][73] Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather.[74] The glass blown vessels were rarely attested and were imported commodity in 1st millennium CE though.
  • Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.[75][76] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[76]
  • Tube drawn technology: Indians used tube drawn technology for glass bead manufacturing which was first developed in the 2nd century BCE.[80][81][74]
  • Wootz steel: Wootz steel is an ultra-high carbon steel and the first form of crucible steel manufactured by the applications and use of nanomaterials in its microstructure and is characterised by its ultra-high carbon content exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness.[85] Archaeological and Tamil language literary evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the common era, with wootz steel exported from the Chera dynasty and called Seric Iron in Rome, and later known as Damascus steel in Europe.[86][87][88][89] Reproduction research is undertaken by scientists Dr. Oleg Sherby and Dr. Jeff Wadsworth and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory have all attempted to create steels with characteristics similar to Wootz, but without success. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray attained some success in the reconstruction methods of production, proved the role of impurities of ore in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel with patterns microscopically and visually identical to one of the ancient blade patterns.[90]

Music[edit]

  • Musical Notation: Samaveda text (1200 BC – 1000 BC) contains notated melodies, and these are probably the world's oldest surviving ones.[91]

Metrology[edit]

  • Incense clock: The incense clock is a timekeeping device used to measure minutes, hours, or days, incense clocks were commonly used at homes and temples in dynastic times. Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.[94][95] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th centuries CE—the period it appeared in China all seem to have Devanāgarī carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[94][95] Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[96][97][98] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devanāgarī inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[94] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[95]

Science and technology[edit]

  • India ink: Known in Asia since the third millennia BCE, and used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.[104] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.,[104] with the carbon black from which India ink is produced obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[105][106][107] Documents dating to the 3rd century CE, written in Kharosthi, with ink have been unearthed in East Turkestan, Xinjiang.[108] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[109] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[110]
  • Mysorean rockets: One of the first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets were deployed by Tipu Sultan's army, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and that of his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore Rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[111]
The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th–1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.
  • Fibre optics]: Named as one of the 7 'Unsung Heroes' by Fortune Magazine, Dr. Narinder Singh Kapany, is widely recognised as the 'Father of Fibre Optics' for his pioneering work in fibre optics technology.[112]
  • Microwave Communication: The first public demonstration of microwave transmission was made by Jagadish Chandra Bose, in Calcutta, in 1895, two years before a similar demonstration by Marconi in England, and just a year after Oliver Lodge's commemorative lecture on Radio communication, following Hertz's death. Bose's revolutionary demonstration forms the foundation of the technology used in mobile telephony, radars, satellite communication, radios, television broadcast, WiFi, remote controls and countless other applications.[113][114]
  • Shampoo: The word shampoo in English is derived from Hindustani chāmpo (चाँपो Hindustani pronunciation: [tʃãːpoː]),[115] and dates to 1762.[116] A variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times in India, evidence of early herbal shampoo have been discovered from Indus Valley Civilization site of Banawali dated to 2750–2500 BCE.[117] A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (aamla) and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called Ksuna (Sanskrit: क्षुण)[118] in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contain saponins, a natural surfactant. The extract of Ksuna, creates a lather which Indian texts identify as phenaka (Sanskrit: फेनक),[119] leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (Acacia concinna), soapnuts (Sapindus), hibiscus flowers,[120][121] ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) and arappu (Albizzia amara).[122] Guru Nanak, the founding prophet and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree and soap in 16th century.[123] Washing of hair and body massage (champu) during a daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced their newly learnt habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.[124]
  • Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[127] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[128][129] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[129] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[129] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[130] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[131][132][133] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[133] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[128] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[129][132]

Textile and Material production[edit]

  • Button: Ornamental buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[134] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[134] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[135]
A Nepali Charkha in action
  • Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[136] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt.[136] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onward.[136] Within India, calico originated in Kozhikode.[136]
  • Carding devices: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[137] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[137] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string.[137]
  • Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[138] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word चित्र् (chitr), which means an image.[138][139]
  • Single roller cotton gin: The Ajanta Caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.[140] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[141] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[137]
Single roller cotton gin, in use c. 1820
  • Palampore: पालमपोर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin[151] was imported to the western world—notable England and Colonial America—from India.[152][153] In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[152] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.[153]
  • Prayer flags: The Buddhist sūtras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.[154] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.[154] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[155] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[156] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[156] The Indian monk Atisha (980–1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[155]
  • Charkha (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE.[157]

Wellbeing[edit]

  • Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[159] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in physical condition.[159] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.[159]
  • Meditation: The oldest documented evidence of the practice of meditation are wall arts in the Indian subcontinent from approximately 5,000 to 3,500 BCE, showing people seated in meditative postures with half-closed eyes.[160]

Discoveries[edit]

  • Cashmere: The fibre cashmere fibre also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[162] The woolen shawls made from wool in Indian administered Kashmir find written mention between the 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.[163]
  • Cotton cultivation: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilisation by the 5th millennium BCE – 4th millennium BCE.[164] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practised till the modern industrialisation of India.[165] Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the Mediterranean and beyond.[166]
  • Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major centre for its production and processing.[167] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[167] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[167]
  • Jute cultivation: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[168] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.[168] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernised during the British Raj in India.[168] The region of Bengal was the major centre for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernisation of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a centre for jute processing in India.[168]
  • Sugar refinement: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia,[169] with different species originating in India, and S. edule and S. officinarum from New Guinea.[169] The process of producing crystallised sugar from sugarcane was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,[170] and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[171] The process was soon transmitted to China with travelling Buddhist monks.[171] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[172] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[172]

Mathematics[edit]

Number System Numbers
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tamil
Gurmukhi o
Oriya (Odia)
Bengali
Assamese
Devanagari
Gujarati
Tibetan
Brahmi
Telugu
Kannada
Malayalam
Burmese
Khmer
Thai
Lao
Balinese
Santali
Javanese
The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician Aryabhatta.
Brahmagupta's theorem (598–668) states that AF = FD.
  • Zero: Zero and its operation are first defined by (Hindu astronomer and mathematician) Brahmagupta in 628.[173] The Babylonians used a space, and later a zero glyph, in their written Sexagesimal system, to signify the 'absent',[174] the Olmecs used a positional zero glyph in their Vigesimal system, the Greeks, from Ptolemy's Almagest, in a Sexagesimal system. The Chinese used a blank, in the written form of their decimal Counting rods system. A dot, rather than a blank, was first seen to denote zero, in a decimal system, in the Bakhshali manuscript.[175] The usage of the zero in the Bakhshali manuscript was dated from between 3rd and 4th centuries, making it the earliest known usage of the symbol.[176]
  • Quadratic equations: Indian mathematician Śrīdharācārya derived the quadratic formula used for solving quadratic equations.[177][178]
  • AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministic primality-proving algorithm created and published by three Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.[179][180] Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".[180][181]
  • Finite Difference Interpolation: The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta presented what is possibly the first instance[182][183] of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.[184]
  • Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[185] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[185] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[185]
  • Seshadri constant: In algebraic geometry, a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on an algebraic variety.The name is in honour of the Indian mathematician C. S. Seshadri.
  • Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.[186][187]
  • Rolle's theorem: Bhāskara II is credited with knowledge of Rolle's theorem although it is named after Michel Rolle who described with insufficient proof and was later proved by Cauchy.[188]
  • Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem: Also known as the Karhunen–Loève theorem. The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of orthogonal functions, analogous to a Fourier series representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first[189] considered by Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi.[190]
  • Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598–668 CE).[191][192][193][194]
  • Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)[195][196][197] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950~1000 CE).[198] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta's approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[199] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakraṃ चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[199][200] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[195][199][201]
  • Magical Indian Math discovery: Numbers 495 and 6174. The Indian mathematician Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar discovered the number 6174 is reached after repeatedly subtracting the smallest number from the largest number that can be formed from any four digits not all the same. The number 495 is similarly reached for three digits number.
  • Hindu number system: With decimal place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used Arabic numeral system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.[202][203]
  • Decimal mark: The practice of using a decimal mark is derived from the decimal system used in Indian mathematics.[204]
  • Fibonacci numbers: This sequence was first described by Virahanka (c. 700 CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra (c. 1150),[205] as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by Pingala (c. 200 BCE).
  • Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.[206] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.[206] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,[206] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.[207] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,[208] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.,[207] for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc.
  • Madhava series: The infinite series for π and for the trigonometric sine, cosine, and arctangent is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.[209][210] He made use of the series expansion of to obtain an infinite series expression for π.[209] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for π.[211] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,[211] for π correct up to eleven decimal places, i.e. .[212][213] Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosine, and arctangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[214][215][216]
  • Pascal's triangle: Described in the 6th century CE by Varahamihira[217] and in the 10th century by Halayudha,[218] commenting on an obscure reference by Pingala (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the "Meru-prastaara", or the "Staircase of Mount Meru", in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.)
  • Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakṛiti (Pell's equation):[219][220] where N is a non-square integer, in his Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta treatise.[220]
  • Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph and Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[221]
  • Shrikhande graph: Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959.
  • Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[185] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[185] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[185] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[185] A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed.[185] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolised subtraction when written just after the number affected.[185] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[185] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[222]
  • Modern elementary arithmetic: Modum indorum or the method of the Indians for arithmetic operations was popularised by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi by means of their respective works such as in Al-Khwarizmi's On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), On the Use of the Indian Numerals (ca. 830)[223] as early as the 8th and 9th centuries.They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of arithmetic in the Middle-East and the West.The significance of the development of the positional number system is described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who wrote:

"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."

Philosophy[edit]

  • Catuskoti (Tetralemma): The four-cornered system of logical argumentation with a suite of four distinct functions that refers to a logical proposition P, with four possibilities that can arise. The tetralemma has many logico-epistemological applications and has been made ample use of by the Indian philosopher Nāgarjuna in the Madhyamaka school. The tetralemma also features prominently in the Greek skepticist school of Pyrrhonism, the teachings of which are based on Buddhism. The founder of the Pyrrhonist school lived in India for 18 months and likely learned the language, which allowed him to carry these teachings to Greece. [226]

Medicine[edit]

A statue of Sushruta (800 BCE), author of Sushruta Samhita and the founding father of surgery, at Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (RACS) in Melbourne, Australia.
Cataract in the Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian surgeon Susruta performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.
  • Ayurvedic and Siddha medicine: Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu text[227] (mid-first millennium BCE). Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years, and is still practised today. In an internationalised form, it can be thought of as a complementary and alternative medicine. In village settings, away from urban centres, it is simply "medicine." The Sanskrit word आयुर्वेदः (āyur-vedaḥ) means "knowledge (veda) for longevity (āyur)".[228] Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India, and is transmitted in Tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins may be dated to the early centuries CE.[229][230]
  • Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[231] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[232] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[232] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.[232] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.[232] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[233]
  • Ancient Dentistry: The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BCE. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters.
  • Cure for Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[234] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (1500–1200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[235]
  • Plastic surgery: Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus,[236] a transcription of an Ancient Egyptian medical text, some of the oldest known surgical treatise, dated to the Old Kingdom from 3000 to 2500 BCE.[237] Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[238] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[238] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of plastic and cataract surgery.[239] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[240] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries.[240] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[240]
  • Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[241] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[241]
  • Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendranath Brahmachari (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[242] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[243] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.[243]
  • Angina pectoris: The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by Sushruta (6th century BCE).[239]

Mining[edit]

  • Diamond mining and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,[244][245][246] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[247] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.[248][249][250] Golconda served as an important centre for diamonds in central India.[251] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[251] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[252] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[250] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[244] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[244] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[244] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.[244]
  • Zinc mining and medicinal zinc: Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.[253] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during early Christian era.[254][255] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[256] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th – 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[256][257] India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world. The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.

Sciences[edit]

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesised NH4NO2 in its pure form.
A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a human DNA clamp protein that is composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- and C-terminal residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include Glycine, while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.

Space[edit]

  • Lunar water: Although the presence of water ice on the moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by the Moon Impact Probe released by Chandrayaan-1 in 2009,[282][283][284] confirmed and established by NASA.[285]
  • Earth's orbit (Sidereal year): The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the Surya Siddhanta (c.600 CE), give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only a negligible 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days.[286] This calculation was the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.
  • Periodicity of comets: Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.[287]
  • Saha ionisation equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises ionisations in context of stellar atmospheres.[288]
  • Quasi-normal modes of black holes: C. V. Vishveshwara discovered the quasi-normal modes of black holes.[289] These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detector.

Innovations[edit]

  • Iron working: Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.[290] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.[291] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[290] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[292] In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.[293]

Computer science and Programming[edit]

  • Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inconvenient. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based in Bangalore.[294] Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today widely utilised by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organisations.
  • Backus-naur form: In computer science, Backus–Naur form or Backus normal form (BNF) or Panini Backus form[295] is a notation technique for context-free grammars, often used to describe the syntax of languages used in computing, such as computer programming languages, document formats, instruction sets and communication protocols. They are applied wherever exact descriptions of languages are needed: for instance, in official language specifications, in manuals, and in textbooks on programming language theory.The idea of describing the structure of language using rewriting rules can be traced back to at least the work of Pāṇini (who lived sometime between the 7th and 4th century BCE).[296][297] The name Pāṇini Backus form has also been suggested in view of the fact that the expansion Backus normal form may not be accurate, and that Pāṇini had independently developed a similar notation earlier.[298] His notation to describe Sanskrit word structure notation is equivalent in power to that of Backus and has many similar properties.

Linguistics[edit]

Metrology[edit]

  • Standardisation: The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as[300] well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.[300] The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[301]

A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Chanhu-daro, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the binary and decimal systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of chert.[302]

See also[edit]

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