Chandrayaan-3

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Chandrayaan-3
Chandrayaan-3 Integrated Module in clean-room 02.webp
Chandrayaan-3 Integrated Module in a cleanroom
Mission type
OperatorISRO
COSPAR ID{{#property:P247}}
WebsiteTemplate:Oweb
Mission duration6 months and 19 days (elapsed)
  • Propulsion module: ≤ 3 to 6 months (planned) 5 months and 28 days (elapsed) (since orbit insertion)
  • Vikram lander: ≤ 14 days (planned) 5 months and 10 days (elapsed) (since landing)
  • Pragyan rover: ≤ 14 days (planned) 5 months and 10 days (elapsed) (since deployment)
Spacecraft properties
BusChandrayaan
ManufacturerISRO
Launch mass3900 kg[1]
Payload massPropulsion Module: 2148 kg
Lander Module (Vikram): 1726 kg
Rover (Pragyan) 26 kg
Total: 3900 kg
PowerPropulsion Module: 758 W
Lander Module: 738 W (WS with Bias)
Rover: 50 W
Start of mission
Launch date14 July 2023 (2023-07-14), 14:35:17 IST (09:05:17 UTC)[2]
RocketLVM3 M4
Launch siteSatish Dhawan Space Centre
ContractorISRO
Moon orbiter
Orbital insertion5 August 2023
Orbital parameters
Pericynthion altitude153 km (95 mi)
Apocynthion altitude163 km (101 mi)
Moon lander
Spacecraft componentVikram lander
Landing date23 August 2023 (2023-08-23), 18:03 IST (12:33 UTC)[3]
Landing siteShiv Shakti point

69°22′23″S 32°19′08″E / 69.373°S 32.319°E / -69.373; 32.319Coordinates: 69°22′23″S 32°19′08″E / 69.373°S 32.319°E / -69.373; 32.319[4]


(between Manzinus C and Simpelius N craters)[5]
Moon rover
Landing date23 August 2023
Distance covered100 m (330 ft)[6]
Chandrayaan-3 logo.png
Mission Insignia  

Chandrayaan-3 (/ˌʌndrəˈjɑːn/) is the third mission in the Chandrayaan programme, a series of lunar-exploration missions developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[7] Launched on 14 July 2023, the mission consists of a lunar lander named Vikram and a lunar rover named Pragyan, similar to those launched aboard Chandrayaan-2 in 2019.

Chandrayaan-3 was launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre on 14 July 2023. The spacecraft entered lunar orbit on 5 August, and the lander touched down in the lunar south polar region[8] on 23 August at 12:33 UTC, making India the fourth country to successfully land on the Moon, and the first to do so near the lunar south pole.[9][10][11][lower-alpha 1]

Background[edit]

On 22 July 2019, ISRO launched Chandrayaan-2 on board a Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3) launch vehicle consisting of an orbiter, a lander and a rover.[13] The lander was scheduled to touch down on the lunar surface on 6 September 2019 to deploy the Pragyan rover. The lander lost contact with mission control, deviated from its intended trajectory while attempting to land near the lunar south pole, and crashed.[14][15]

The lunar south pole region holds particular interest for scientific exploration. Studies show large amounts of ice there. Mountainous terrain and unpredictable lighting protect the ice from melting, but they also make landing scientific probes there a challenging undertaking. The ice could contain solid-state compounds that would normally melt under warmer conditions elsewhere on the Moon—compounds which could provide insight into lunar, Earth, and Solar System history. For future crewed missions and outposts, ice could also be a source of drinking water and of hydrogen for fuel and oxygen.[16][17]

The European Space Tracking network (ESTRACK), operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), and Deep Space Network operated by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of NASA are supporting the mission.[18] Under a new cross-support arrangement, ESA tracking support could be provided for upcoming ISRO missions such as those of India's first human spaceflight programme, Gaganyaan, and the Aditya-L1 solar research mission. In return, future ESA missions will receive similar support from ISRO's own tracking stations.[19]

Objectives[edit]

ISRO's mission objectives for the Chandrayaan-3 mission are:

  1. Engineering and implementing a lander to land safely and softly on the surface of the Moon.
  2. Observing and demonstrating the rover's driving capabilities on the Moon.
  3. Conducting and observing experiments on the materials available on the lunar surface to better understand the composition of the Moon.[20]

Spacecraft[edit]

Design[edit]

Chandrayaan-3 comprises three main components: a propulsion module, lander, and rover.

Propulsion module[edit]

The propulsion module carries the lander and rover configuration to a 100-kilometre (62 mi) lunar orbit. It is a box-like structure with a large solar panel mounted on one side and a cylindrical mounting structure for the lander (the Intermodular Adapter Cone) on top.[21][22]

Lander[edit]

The Vikram lander is responsible for the soft landing on the Moon. It is also box-shaped, with four landing legs and four landing thrusters capable of producing 800 newtons of thrust each. It carries the rover and various scientific instruments to perform on-site analysis.[23][24] The lander has four variable-thrust engines with slew rate changing capabilities, unlike Chandrayaan-2's lander, which had five, with the fifth one being centrally mounted and capable only of fixed thrust. One of the main reasons for Chandrayaan-2's landing failure was attitude increase during the camera coasting phase. This was removed by allowing the lander to control attitude and thrust during all phases of descent. Attitude correction rate is increased from Chandrayaan-2's 10°/s to 25°/s with Chandrayaan-3. Additionally, the Chandrayaan-3 lander is equipped with a laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) to allow measuring attitude in three directions.[25][26] The impact legs have been made stronger compared to Chandrayaan-2 and instrumentation redundancy has been improved. It will target a more precise 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi) landing region based on images previously provided by the Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) onboard Chandrayaan-2's orbiter. ISRO improved the structural rigidity, increased polling in instruments, increased data frequency and transmission, and added additional multiple contingency systems to improve lander survivability in the event of failure during descent and landing.[27][26]

Rover[edit]

The Pragyan rover is a six-wheeled vehicle with a mass of 26 kilograms (57 pounds). It is 917 millimetres (3.009 ft) x 750 millimetres (2.46 ft) x 397 millimetres (1.302 ft) in size.[28] The rover is expected to take multiple measurements to support research into the composition of the lunar surface, the presence of water ice in the lunar soil, the history of lunar impacts, and the evolution of the Moon's atmosphere.[29][8]

Payloads[edit]

On lander[edit]

  • Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) will measure the thermal conductivity and temperature of the lunar surface.
  • Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) will measure the seismicity around the landing site.
  • Langmuir Probe (LP) will estimate the near-surface plasma density over time.[30]

On rover[edit]

On the propulsion module[edit]

  • Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) will study spectral and polarimetric measurements of Earth from the lunar orbit in the near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range (1–1.7 μm [3.9×10−5–6.7×10−5 in]).[21][22]

Mission profile[edit]

Animation of Chandrayaan-3
Around the Earth – Orbit raising phase
Around the Earth
Around the Moon
   Chandrayaan-3's Path ·    Earth ·    Moon

Launch[edit]

LVM3 M4, Chandrayaan-3 – Launch vehicle lifting off from the second launch pad of SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota

Chandrayaan-3 was launched aboard an LVM3-M4 rocket on 14 July 2023, at 09:05 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre Second Launch Pad in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, India, entering an Earth parking orbit with a perigee of 170 km (106 mi) and an apogee of 36,500 km (22,680 mi).

Orbit[edit]

After a series of earth bound manoeuvres that placed Chandrayaan-3 in a trans-lunar injection orbit,[31][32][33] ISRO performed a lunar-orbit insertion (LOI) on 5 August, successfully placing the Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon. The LOI operation was carried out from the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bengaluru.[34][35]

On 17 August, the Vikram lander separated from the propulsion module to begin the last phase of the mission.[36]

Landing[edit]

Image of Chandrayaan-3 Lander as captured by OHRC camera aboard Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter
Chandrayaan-3 Lander on the Moon
Pragyan roll out

On 23 August 2023, as the lander approached the low point of its orbit, its four engines fired as a braking manoeuvre at 30 kilometres (19 mi) above the Moon's surface. After 11.5 minutes, the lander was 7.2 km (4.5 miles) above the surface; it maintained this altitude for about 10 seconds, then stabilized itself using eight smaller thrusters and rotated from a horizontal to a vertical position while continuing its descent.

It then used two of its four engines to slow its descent to roughly 150 metres (490 ft); it hovered there for about 30 seconds and located an optimal landing spot before continuing downward and touching down at 12:33 UTC.[23][37]

Stages of Chandrayaan-3 deployment and flight
Stage and sequence Date/
Time (UTC)
LAM burn time Orbit Orbital period References
Earth orbit: Launch 14 July 2023 N/A 170 km × 36,500 km (110 mi × 22,680 mi) N/A
Earth bound maneuvers: 1 15 July 2023 N/A 173 km × 41,762 km (107 mi × 25,950 mi) N/A [38][39]
Earth bound maneuvers: 2 17 July 2023 N/A 226 km × 41,603 km (140 mi × 25,851 mi) N/A [38][40]
Earth bound maneuvers: 3 18 July 2023 N/A 228 km × 51,400 km (142 mi × 31,938 mi) N/A [41]
Earth bound maneuvers: 4 20 July 2023 N/A 233 km × 71,351 km (145 mi × 44,335 mi) N/A [38][42]
Earth bound maneuvers: 5 25 July 2023 N/A 236 km × 127,603 km (147 mi × 79,289 mi) N/A [43]
Trans-lunar injection 31 July 2023 N/A 288 km × 369,328 km (179 mi × 229,490 mi) N/A [44]
Lunar bound maneuvers:1 (Lunar orbit insertion) 5 August 2023 1,835 sec[convert: unknown unit] 164 km × 18,074 km (102 mi × 11,231 mi) Approx. 21 h (1,300 min) [45]
Lunar bound maneuvers: 2 6 August 2023 N/A 170 km × 4,313 km (106 mi × 2,680 mi) N/A [46]
Lunar bound maneuvers:3 9 August 2023 N/A 174 km × 1,437 km (108 mi × 893 mi) N/A [47]
Lunar bound maneuvers:4 14 August 2023 N/A 150 km × 177 km (93 mi × 110 mi) N/A [48]
Lunar bound maneuvers:5 16 August 2023 N/A 153 km × 163 km (95 mi × 101 mi) N/A [49]
Lander deorbit maneuvers: 1 18 August 2023 N/A 113 km × 157 km (70 mi × 98 mi) N/A [50]
Lander deorbit maneuvers: 2 19 August 2023 60 sec[convert: unknown unit] 25 km × 134 km (16 mi × 83 mi) N/A [51]
Landing 23 August 2023 TBC N/A N/A [3]
Rover deployment 23 August 2023 N/A N/A N/A [3]

Surface operations[edit]

After landing on the Moon's south pole region, Chandrayaan-3's Vikram lander deployed the Pragyan rover to explore the cratered surface, using integrated cameras to send back videos of its environment, and started working on the research objectives planned for a two-week stay on the Moon.[52]

Illustrative image of Indian emblem and ISRO logo print left by Pragyan rover.

The first video of the rover, posted on 25 August 2023, showed it leaving the Vikram lander on a ramp and driving onto the Moon’s surface. ISRO also shared video footage from the lander as it approached the landing site, kicking up dust as it touched down on the surface. ISRO wrote afterwards that the rover’s two scientific instruments had been turned on and that it had moved eight meters.[53]

A 4-metre-diameter (13 ft) crater, as photograhed by the Navigation camera onboard the rover.

On 26 August, ISRO posted a new video of the rover driving away, moving almost out of the lander’s sight.[54] On 27 August, ISRO published two pictures taken by the rover 3 metres (9.8 ft)* from the edge of a large crater.[55]

On 3 September, the rover was put into sleep mode after it had completed all of its assignments. Its batteries were charged and receiver left on, according to ISRO, in preparation for the impending lunar night.[56] "The rover's payloads are turned off and the data it collected has been transmitted to the Earth via the lander", the statement said. Chandrayaan-3's lander and rover were expected to operate only for one lunar daylight period, or 14 Earth days, and the on-board electronics were not designed to withstand the −120 °C (−184 °F) nighttime temperatures on the Moon.[57] If the rover and lander were to survive the lunar night, the mission is planned to be extended for further science operations.

Vikram fired its engines for a brief 'hop' on the lunar surface on 3 September, ascending 40 cm (16 in) off the lunar surface and translating a similar distance laterally across the surface. The test demonstrated capabilities to be used in potential future sample return missions. The instruments and rover deployment ramp were retracted for the hop and redeployed afterwards.[58]

Mission life[edit]

  • Propulsion module: Carries lander and rover to 100-by-100-kilometre (62 mi × 62 mi) orbit, with operation of experimental payload for up to six months.[59]
  • Lander module: one lunar daylight period (14 Earth days)[59]
  • Rover module: one lunar daylight period (14 Earth days).[59]

Team[edit]

Funding[edit]

In December 2019, ISRO requested the initial funding of the project, amounting to 75 crore (US$11 million), out of which 60 crore (US$8.4 million) would be for meeting expenditure towards machinery, equipment, and other capital expenditure, while the remaining 15 crore (US$2.1 million) was sought for operating expenditure.[66] Amit Sharma, CEO of an ISRO vendor, said, "With local sourcing of equipment and design elements, we are able to reduce the price considerably."[67]

Confirming the existence of the project, ISRO's former chairman K. Sivan stated that the estimated cost would be around 615 crore (US$86 million).[68][69][70]

Results[edit]

The Associated Press, while commenting on the success of the mission, said, "The successful mission showcases India's rising standing as a technology and space powerhouse and dovetails with Prime Minister Narendra Modi's desire to project an image of an ascendant country asserting its place among the global elite."[71]

Temperature variation[edit]

ISRO also released data from the observations made by ChaSTE (Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment), one of the four instruments present on the lander module. ChaSTE was designed to study the heat conductivity of the Moon’s surface and measure the differences in temperatures at different points on and below the surface, with the overall objective of creating a thermal profile of the Moon.

The graph of temperature variation across the lunar topsoil at a point in the solar polar region, as measured by the ChaSTE instrument.

The first set of data released by ISRO showed a very sharp difference in temperatures just above and below the surface of the Moon. A graphical plot put out by ISRO showed that while temperatures on the surface were over 50 °C (122 °F), they dropped to nearly −10 °C (14 °F) just a few millimetres below the surface. The measurements suggested that the topsoil of the lunar surface did not conduct heat very well, and insulated the sub-surface from heat.

These measurements were consistent with what is known about the thermal profile of the Moon from previous expeditions and experiments. But this was the first direct measurement of temperatures of the topsoil and the subsoil near the south pole.[72]

ISRO scientist BH Darukesha said the high range of 70-degree-Celsius (158-degree-Fahrenheit) temperature near the surface was "not expected".[73]

Detection of sulfur[edit]

On 29 August, ISRO reported that the laser-induced breakdown spectroscope (LIBS) instrument onboard the Pragyan rover has "unambiguously" confirmed the presence of sulfur in the lunar surface near the south pole, through "first-ever in-situ measurements".[74][75] The presence of sulfur on the Moon has been known before;[76] however, it was detected for the first time at the south pole by the rover.[77]

Noah Petro, a project scientist at NASA, while speaking to the BBC, stated that while sulfur has been known to be in the lunar regolith from Apollo program samples, he described Pragyan's findings as a "tremendous accomplishment".[78]

Apart from sulfur, the rover also detected other elements including aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O).[79] The agency said the search for hydrogen (H) is also underway.[80]

Pragyan rover detected elements present on the Moon

Plasma measurement[edit]

On 31 August, ISRO released plasma density data from the RAMBHA Instrument aboard the Vikram lander. Initial assessments reported relatively low plasma densities above the lunar surface varying from 5 to 30 million electrons per m³. The evaluation pertains to early stages of the lunar day. The probe aims to explore the changes in the near-surface plasma environment throughout the duration of the lunar day.[81]

Seismic measurements[edit]

On the same day, ISRO released data from the ILSA payload on the lander, providing vibration measurements of the rover movement on 25 August, and a presumed natural event on 26 August. The cause of the latter event is a subject of investigation.[82]

Lunar water[edit]

John Bridges, a professor of planetary science at the University of Leicester, UK,[83] told New Scientist that due to the low pressure on the Moon it would be "unlikely" for Chandrayaan-3 to find liquid water near to the surface – even in areas where the temperature was above freezing point so water would not be trapped in ice – because it would boil away, although at lower depths the pressure could rise enough to allow liquid water. However, he also added that it's "too early" to interpret the readings from Chandrayaan-3. "But it's fantastic they're getting data", Bridges said. "You can't help comparing it to certain other space agencies; engineers are just getting on now and doing it. They're sort of overtaking Russia", he concluded.[84]

'Hop' experiment[edit]

Pre and Post hop ramp images, as captured by the Lander Imager-1 Camera

After putting the rover on Chandrayaan-3 in sleep mode, ISRO decided to experiment with the Vikram lander, with a 'hop' test for it, i.e. landing it again on the moon, which it successfully passed. On command, the lander fired the engines, elevated itself by about 40 cm as expected and landed safely at a distance of 30–40 cm away. This was seen as the Vikram lander 'exceeding' its mission objectives, with this ‘kick-start’ being a portend of future ability to propel returns as well as missions with humans.[85][86]

This made Vikram the second lander to perform such a hop experiment after NASA's Surveyor 6 in 1967.[87]

Anil Bhardwaj, the director of ISRO's Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad, told The Telegraph that there was an opportunity for ISRO to do something 'extra'. "When all scientific instruments on the lander and rover performed very well, an opportunity emerged to test the lander’s engines again." he added.[88] Girish Linganna, a space and aerospace expert, said that the hop experiment by the Vikram lander not only demonstrates the spacecraft's technical capabilities and reliability, but also provides inspiration and enthusiasm for future lunar exploration missions.[89] Additionally, the experiment could potentially attract international investments into the country.[90]

Domestic reactions[edit]

Congratulating the ISRO team behind the successful Chandrayaan-3 mission at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network in Bengaluru, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the touchdown point of the Vikram lander would henceforth be known as Shiv Shakti point.[91] He further declared 23 August, the day the Vikram lander landed on the Moon, as National Space Day.[92][93]

ISRO chief S Somnath exclaimed "India is on the Moon" after Chandrayaan-3 successfully touched down on the surface of the Moon.[94] “We learnt a lot from our failure and corrected it. It's now 14 days of work and we have to conduct experiments,” he told India Today.[95]

P Veeramuthuvel, the Project Director of the mission said, "It's a great moment of happiness. On behalf of the team it gives me immense satisfaction on achieving this goal as the Project Director of the mission. The entire mission operations right from launch till landing happened flawlessly as per the timeline".[96] S. Mohana Kumar, the Mission Director said that Chandrayaan-3 was a 'team effort', and that the equipment suppliers played a key in achieving the milestone by delivering the mission critical consignments in a timely manner.[97]

Meanwhile, former ISRO chief K Sivan, under whose tenure the Chandrayaan-2 was launched said, "We are really excited to see this grand success. For this, we have been waiting for the last four years. This success is sweet news for us and for the entire nation."[98]

Rahul Gandhi, the leader of the opposition, also celebrated Chandrayaan-3’s success, calling it a result of “tremendous ingenuity and hard work” by the country’s scientific community. “Since 1962, India’s space program has continued to scale new heights and inspire generations of young dreamers,” he posted on X.[99]

Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal too, congratulated the scientists of ISRO on the successful landing and termed it a “historic” moment. “This is historical. It’s a significant achievement for the country. It’s a matter of pride for all of us. The success of Chandrayaan-3 is a result of the hard work of all citizens, ISRO scientists, engineers, and employees. Congratulations to everyone involved. Bharat Mata ki jai.", he posted on X.[100]

DY Chandrachud, the Chief Justice of India hailed the landing as a "historic achievement" and congratulated ISRO on the feat. "It is with immense pride as a citizen of our great nation that I witnessed the remarkable landing of Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon today," he said. "It is all the more significant because India is the only nation to have achieved the lunar landing on the south pole of the Moon. This will help new avenues and scientific research and discovery. Truly, this lunar landing represents a milestone in the onward march of our nation," he added.[101]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. While the landing site is often called as "polar region" in media and publications, location of Chandrayaan-3's lander or rover is not within the Lunar Antarctic circle (80ºS). ISRO scientists involved in selecting and characterizing the landing site call it a “high-latitude location".[12]

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