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{{Short description|North Indian iron age culture}}{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Short description|North Indian Iron Age culture}}
[[File:Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg|alt=|thumb|Cemetery H, Late Harappan, OCP, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey ware sites]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox archaeological culture
{{Infobox archaeological culture
|name        = Painted Grey Ware culture
|name        = Painted Grey Ware culture
|map        = File:Painted Grey Ware Culture (1200-600 BCE).png
|map        = Painted Grey Ware Culture (1200-600 BCE).png
|mapcaption  = Map of some Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites
|mapcaption  = Map of some Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites
|mapalt      =
|mapalt      =
|altnames    =
|altnames    =
|horizon    =
|horizon    =
|region      = [[North India]]
|region      = [[North India]] <br/> [[Pakistan|Eastern Pakistan]]
|period      = [[Iron Age]]
|period      = [[Iron Age]]
|dates      = c. 1200–600 BCE
|dates      = {{circa|1200}}–600 BCE
|typesite    =  
|typesite    =  
|majorsites  = [[Hastinapur]]<br>[[ Mathura]]<br>[[Ahichchhatra]]<br>[[Panipat]]<br>[[Jognakhera]]<br>[[Rupnagar]]<br>[[Bhagwanpura, Haryana|Bhagwanpura]]<br>[[Kosambi]]
|majorsites  = [[Hastinapur]]<br/>[[ Mathura]]<br/>[[Ahichchhatra]]<br/>[[Panipat]]<br/>[[Jognakhera]]<br/>[[Rupnagar]]<br/>[[Bhagwanpura, Haryana|Bhagwanpura]]<br/>[[Kosambi]]
|extra      = Extensive Iron  metallurgy<br>Fortified settlement<br>
|extra      = Extensive Iron  metallurgy<br/>Fortified settlement
|precededby  = [[Cemetery H culture]]<br>[[Black and red ware]]<br>[[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]]
|precededby  = [[Cemetery H culture]]<br/>[[Black and red ware]]<br/>[[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]]
|followedby  = [[Mahajanapadas]]
|followedby  = [[Mahajanapadas]]
}}
}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
The '''Painted Grey Ware culture''' ('''PGW''') is an [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age Indian]] [[Archaeological culture|culture]] of the western [[Gangetic plain]] and the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra valley]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], conventionally dated {{circa}}1200 to 600–500 BCE,<ref name="Adams1997">{{cite book|author=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA310|date=January 1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|pages=310–}}</ref><ref name="Jain1972">{{cite book|author=Kailash Chand Jain|title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZR-J6-WOH4QC&pg=PA96|year=1972|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0824-9|pages=96–}}</ref> or from 1300 to 500–300 BCE<ref>Possehl, G. L., (2002). ''The Indus civilization: A contemporary perspective'', AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA; Oxford, p. 29.</ref><ref>Bates, J., (2020). [https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S2352226719301126?token=4D05D7A0BC868D344C06DA8D4B577C5CB6C8896A914F25DD93F2488EC17DD2E0DD91AD5E98633A63E7695C011A82D2A9 "Kitchen gardens, wild forage and tree fruits: A hypothesis on the role of the Zaid season in the indus civilisation (c.3200-1300 BCE)"], in Archaeological Research in Asia 21 (2020), Table 1, p.2.</ref><ref>Uesugi, Akinori, (2018). [https://www.academia.edu/37419677/An_Overview_on_the_Iron_Age_in_South_Asia "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia"], in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University, Fig. 6, pp. 9-12.</ref> It is a successor of the [[Cemetery H culture]] and [[Black and red ware culture]] (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India.<ref>Southworth, Franklin, (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hTwuFUW5aEgC ''Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia''], Routledge, p.177</ref>
The '''Painted Grey Ware culture''' ('''PGW''') is an [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]] [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] [[Archaeological culture|culture]] of the western [[Gangetic plain]] and the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra valley]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], conventionally dated {{circa}}1200 to 600–500 BCE,<ref name="Adams1997">{{cite book|author=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA310|date=January 1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|pages=310–}}</ref><ref name="Jain1972">{{cite book|author=Kailash Chand Jain|title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZR-J6-WOH4QC&pg=PA96|year=1972|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0824-9|pages=96–}}</ref> or from 1300 to 500–300 BCE.<ref>Possehl, G. L., (2002). ''The Indus civilization: A contemporary perspective'', AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA; Oxford, p. 29.</ref><ref>Bates, J., (2020). [https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S2352226719301126?token=4D05D7A0BC868D344C06DA8D4B577C5CB6C8896A914F25DD93F2488EC17DD2E0DD91AD5E98633A63E7695C011A82D2A9 "Kitchen gardens, wild forage and tree fruits: A hypothesis on the role of the Zaid season in the indus civilisation (c.3200-1300 BCE)"], in Archaeological Research in Asia 21 (2020), Table 1, p.2.</ref><ref>Uesugi, Akinori, (2018). [https://www.academia.edu/37419677/An_Overview_on_the_Iron_Age_in_South_Asia "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia"], in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University, Fig. 6, pp. 9–12.</ref> It is a successor of the [[Cemetery H culture]] and [[Black and red ware culture]] (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plain]] and [[Central India]].<ref>Southworth, Franklin, (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hTwuFUW5aEgC ''Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia''], Routledge, p. 177.</ref>
[[File:Painted Grey Ware sites map 1.svg|alt=|thumb|Cemetery H, Late Harappan, OCP, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey ware sites]]
Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black,<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGUz01yBumEC&pg=PA357 |title = History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. To the seventh century A.D|isbn = 9789231028120|last1 = De Laet|first1 = Sigfried J.|last2 = Herrmann|first2 = Joachim|date = January 1996 | publisher=UNESCO }}</ref> the PGW culture is associated with village and town settlements, domesticated horses, ivory-working, and the advent of iron metallurgy.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA414 |title = Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|isbn = 9781884964985|last1 = Mallory|first1 = J. P.|last2 = Adams|first2 = Douglas Q.|year = 1997 | publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref> {{as of|2018}}, 1,576 PGW sites have been discovered.<ref>Uesugi, Akinori (2018). [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/58084048/Uesugi_2018j-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1657832057&Signature=C2h1rRPP9NzH9C1nvN24yd~T-Qo96g0o3f50zyXudNmDU0RSrgqsoX6D0mSx6PyRDJzNyUxcqE5PqjiomCnIVyt5lpCsEpPGG1zCmc2mFcXBbqZxxeY-UQyGI8-bj30IM~GqhF2kzbxvrigaPiws~myDYGEeZILRUBWgVzngBp-33ps9lHv7UjDb3vKuaNaVKIAU08LstpNGU0bwsKAiWQYDRW48kZAIdIcNyCjhfPb4tu8Obs2E9adGqg76uCnaACBNhaKXg8uiEJWPYNM8lafg8ax94GPPH9x85TWCG9hYHwVj~CjONEmqgihVR6VHbjAdGTOvlqQwKrHvzW3bfg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA "A Study on the Painted Grey Ware"], in Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 6 (2018), p. 2.</ref> Although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns; the largest of these were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborate fortifications which emerged in large cities after 600 BCE.<ref>James Heitzman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RdcnAgh_StUC ''The City in South Asia''] (Routledge, 2008), pp. 12–13.</ref>


Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black,<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGUz01yBumEC&pg=PA357 |title = History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. To the seventh century A.D|isbn = 9789231028120|last1 = De Laet|first1 = Sigfried J.|last2 = Herrmann|first2 = Joachim|date = January 1996}}</ref> the PGW culture is associated with village and town settlements, domesticated horses, ivory-working, and the advent of iron metallurgy.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA414 |title = Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|isbn = 9781884964985|last1 = Mallory|first1 = J. P.|last2 = Adams|first2 = Douglas Q.|year = 1997}}</ref> {{as of|2014}}, more than 1,100 PGW sites have been discovered.<ref>Vikrama, Bhuvan & Daljeet Singh, (2014). "Classification of Motifs on Painted Grey Ware", in Pracyabodha, Indian Archaeology and Tradition, Vol.2, Delhi, pp. 223-229.</ref> Although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns; the largest of these were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborate fortifications which emerged in large cities after 600 BCE.<ref>James Heitzman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RdcnAgh_StUC ''The City in South Asia''] (Routledge, 2008), pp.12-13</ref>
The PGW Culture probably corresponds to the middle and late [[Vedic period]], i.e., the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]]-[[Panchala]] kingdom, the first large state in the Indian subcontinent after the decline of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].<ref>Geoffrey Samuel, (2010) ''The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 45–51.</ref><ref>[[Michael Witzel]] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. [[Colette Caillat|Caillat]], Paris, 97–265.</ref> The later vedic literature provides a mass of information on the life and culture of the times. It is succeeded by [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] from c.700–500 BCE, associated with the rise of the great [[Mahajanapada]] states and of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] Empire.


The PGW Culture probably corresponds to the middle and late [[Vedic period]], i.e., the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]]-[[Panchala]] kingdom, the first large state in the Indian subcontinent after the decline of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]].<ref>Geoffrey Samuel, (2010) ''The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 45–51</ref><ref>[[Michael Witzel]] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. [[Colette Caillat|Caillat]], Paris, 97–265.</ref> The later vedic literature provides a mass of information on the life and culture of the times. It is succeeded by [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] from c.700-500 BCE, associated with the rise of the great [[mahajanapada]] states and of the [[Magadha]] Empire.
== Dating ==
The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is conventionally dated {{circa}}1200 to 500 BCE.<ref name="Adams1997"/><ref name="Jain1972"/>


==Dating==
Akinori Uesugi regards PGW as having three periods within North Indian Iron Age which are:
The Painted Grey Ware culture ('''PGW''') is conventionally dated {{circa}}1200 to 600–500 BCE,<ref name="Adams1997">{{cite book|author=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA310|date=January 1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|pages=310–}}</ref><ref name="Jain1972">{{cite book|author=Kailash Chand Jain|title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZR-J6-WOH4QC&pg=PA96|year=1972|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0824-9|pages=96–}}</ref>
;Period I ({{Circa|1300}}–1000 BCE)
 
When it makes its appearance in the Ghaggar valley and the upper Ganga region.
Akinori Uesugi regards PGW as having three periods within '''North Indian Iron Age''' which are: '''Period I''' (1300-1000 BCE) when it makes its appearance in the Ghaggar valley and the upper Ganga region, '''Period II''' (1000-600 BCE) when it spreads into the western part of the Ganga valley, and '''Period III''' (600-300 BCE) with interactions to the east.<ref>Uesugi, Akinori, (2018).[https://www.academia.edu/37419677/An_Overview_on_the_Iron_Age_in_South_Asia  "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia", in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University], Fig. 6, pp. 9-12.</ref>
;Period II ({{Circa|1000}}–600 BCE)
 
When it spreads into the western part of the Ganga valley.
Two periods of PGW were identified recently at Ahichhatra by archaeologist Bhuvan Vikrama and his group, the earliest from 1500 to 800 BCE, and the late from 800 to 400 BCE.<ref name="currentscience.ac.in">Pokharia, Anil K., Chanchala Srivastava, Bhuvan Vikram, et al. (2015). [https://www.currentscience.ac.in/cs/Volumes/109/07/1293.pdf "On the botanical findings from excavations at Ahichchhatra: a multicultural site in Upper Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh"], in Current Science, Vol. 109, No. 7, 10 October 2015, p. 1301.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Petrie et al. (2019) mention 1500 to 700 BCE.<ref name="cambridge.org">Neogi, Sayantani, Charles A. I. French, Julie A. Durcan, Rabindra N. Singh, and Cameron A. Petrie, (2019). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/7EEB4F0A6653158B1160DB9B5ED61E90/S003358941900070Xa.pdf/geoarchaeological_insights_into_the_location_of_indus_settlements_on_the_plains_of_northwest_india.pdf "Geoarchaeological insights into the location of Indus settlements on the plains of northwest India"], in Quaternary Research, Volume 94, March 2020, p. 140.</ref>}}
;Period III ({{circa|600}}–300 BCE)
With interactions to the east.<ref>Uesugi, Akinori, (2018).[https://www.academia.edu/37419677/An_Overview_on_the_Iron_Age_in_South_Asia  "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia", in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University], Fig. 6, pp. 9-12.</ref>


==Overview==
==Overview==
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[[File:PGW fragments BM.jpg|left|thumb|Fragments of Painted Grey Ware, about 1000 BC, from [[Hastinapur]] and [[Radhakund]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], and [[Panipat]] and [[Tilpat]], [[Haryana]]. [[British Museum]].]]
[[File:PGW fragments BM.jpg|left|thumb|Fragments of Painted Grey Ware, about 1000 BC, from [[Hastinapur]] and [[Radhakund]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], and [[Panipat]] and [[Tilpat]], [[Haryana]]. [[British Museum]].]]
[[File:BaraSite.jpg|thumb|Shards of Painted Grey Ware (right) and Harappan red pottery (left) from [[Rupnagar]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]].]]
[[File:BaraSite.jpg|thumb|Shards of Painted Grey Ware (right) and Harappan red pottery (left) from [[Rupnagar]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]].]]
[[Image:Indo-Iranian origins.png|thumb|Archaeological cultures associated with [[Indo-Iranian migration]]s (after [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]). The [[Andronovo culture|Andronovo]], [[BMAC]] and [[Yaz culture]]s have often been associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] migrations. The [[Gandhara grave culture|GGC]] (Swat), [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]], [[Copper Hoard Culture|Copper Hoard]] and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan migration|migrations]].]]
[[Image:Indo-Iranian origins.png|thumb|Archaeological cultures associated with [[Indo-Iranian migration]]s (after [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]). The [[Andronovo culture|Andronovo]], [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] and [[Yaz culture]]s have often been associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] migrations. The [[Gandhara grave culture|GGC]] (Swat), [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]], [[Copper Hoard Culture|Copper Hoard]] and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan migration|migrations]].]]


The PGW culture cultivated rice, wheat, millet and barley, and domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses. Houses were built of [[wattle-and-daub]], mud, or bricks, ranging in size from small huts to large houses with many rooms. There is a clear settlement hierarchy, with a few central towns that stand out amongst numerous small villages. Some sites, including Jakhera in [[Uttar Pradesh]], demonstrate a “fairly evolved, proto-urban or semi-urban stage” of this culture, with evidence of social organization and trade, including ornaments of gold, copper, ivory, and semi-precious stones, storage bins for surplus grain, stone weights, paved streets, water channels and embankments.<ref>Singh, Upinder (2009), ''A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century'',  Longman, Delhi, pp. 246–248</ref>
The PGW culture cultivated rice, wheat, millet and barley, and domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses. Houses were built of [[wattle-and-daub]], mud, or bricks, ranging in size from small huts to large houses with many rooms.{{Cn|date=July 2024}} There is a clear settlement hierarchy, with a few central towns that stand out amongst numerous small villages. Some sites, including Jakhera in [[Uttar Pradesh]], demonstrate a “fairly evolved, proto-urban or semi-urban stage” of this culture, with evidence of social organization and trade, including ornaments of gold, copper, ivory, and semi-precious stones, storage bins for surplus grain, stone weights, paved streets, water channels and embankments.<ref>Singh, Upinder (2009), ''A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century'',  Longman, Delhi, pp. 246–248</ref>


The plough was used for cultivation. There are also indications of growing complexity of society as population increased and the size and number of settlements multiplied. Arts and crafts of the PGW people are represented by ornaments (made from terracotta, stone, [[faience]], and glass), human and animal figurines (made from [[terracotta]]) as well as "incised terracotta discs with decorated edges and geometric motifs" which probably had "ritual meaning," perhaps representing symbols of [[Historical Vedic religion|deities]].<ref name="Kenoyer">Kenoyer, J. M., (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots" in ''the Making of ‘the Aryan’'', R. Thapar (ed.), National Book Trust, New Delhi, pp. 21–49.</ref> There are a few [[stamp seal]]s with geometric designs but no inscription, contrasting with both the prior [[Indus script|Harappan seals]] and the subsequent [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]]-inscribed seals of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.<ref name="Kenoyer" />
The plough was used for cultivation. There are also indications of growing complexity of society as population increased and the size and number of settlements multiplied. Arts and crafts of the PGW people are represented by ornaments (made from terracotta, stone, [[faience]], and glass), human and animal figurines (made from [[terracotta]]) as well as "incised terracotta discs with decorated edges and geometric motifs" which probably had "ritual meaning," perhaps representing symbols of [[Historical Vedic religion|deities]].<ref name="Kenoyer">Kenoyer, J. M., (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots" in ''the Making of ‘the Aryan’'', R. Thapar (ed.), National Book Trust, New Delhi, pp. 21–49.</ref> There are a few [[stamp seal]]s with geometric designs but no inscription, contrasting with both the prior [[Indus script|Harappan seals]] and the subsequent [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]]-inscribed seals of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.<ref name="Kenoyer" />
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At [[Bhagwanpura, Haryana|Bhagwanpura]] in the [[Kurukshetra]] district of [[Haryana]], excavations have revealed an overlap between the [[Cemetery H culture|late Harappan]] and Painted Grey Ware cultures, large houses that may have been elite residences, and fired bricks that may have been used in Vedic [[altar]]s.<ref name="Kenoyer" />
At [[Bhagwanpura, Haryana|Bhagwanpura]] in the [[Kurukshetra]] district of [[Haryana]], excavations have revealed an overlap between the [[Cemetery H culture|late Harappan]] and Painted Grey Ware cultures, large houses that may have been elite residences, and fired bricks that may have been used in Vedic [[altar]]s.<ref name="Kenoyer" />


Fresh surveys by archaeologist Vinay Kumar Gupta suggest [[Mathura]] was the largest PGW site around 375 hectares in area.<ref name="Gupta">Gupta, Vinay Kumar, (2014).[https://www.academia.edu/7025503/Early_Settlement_of_Mathura_An_Archaeological_Perspective_An_Occasional_paper_published_by_Nehru_Memorial_Museum_and_Library_N._Delhi "Early Settlement of Mathura: An Archaeological Perspective"], An Occasional paper, in History and Society, New Series 41, [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library|Nehru Memorial Museum and Library]], New Delhi, pp. 1-37.</ref> Among the largest sites is also the recently excavated [[Ahichatra]], with at least 40 hectares of area in PGW times along with evidence of early construction of the fortification which goes back to PGW levels.<ref>Mani, B. R., (September 17, 2013). [https://www.educationtimes.com/article/65781437/69519720/What-Lies-Beneath.html "What Lies Beneath"], in Educational Times.</ref> Towards the end of the period, many of the PGW settlements grew into the large towns and cities of the [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://a.harappa.com/sites/g/files/g65461/f/CulturesSocietiesIndusTrad.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-01-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101140624/http://a.harappa.com/sites/g/files/g65461/f/CulturesSocietiesIndusTrad.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-01 }}</ref>
Fresh surveys by archaeologist Vinay Kumar Gupta suggest [[Mathura]] was the largest PGW site around 375 hectares in area.<ref name="Gupta">Gupta, Vinay Kumar, (2014).[https://www.academia.edu/7025503/Early_Settlement_of_Mathura_An_Archaeological_Perspective_An_Occasional_paper_published_by_Nehru_Memorial_Museum_and_Library_N._Delhi "Early Settlement of Mathura: An Archaeological Perspective"], An Occasional paper, in History and Society, New Series 41, [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library|Nehru Memorial Museum and Library]], New Delhi, pp. 1-37.</ref> Among the largest sites is also the recently excavated [[Ahichatra]], with at least 40 hectares of area in PGW times along with evidence of early construction of the fortification which goes back to PGW levels.<ref>Mani, B. R., (17 September 2013). [https://www.educationtimes.com/article/65781437/69519720/What-Lies-Beneath.html "What Lies Beneath"], in Educational Times.</ref> Towards the end of the period, many of the PGW settlements grew into the large towns and cities of the [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://a.harappa.com/sites/g/files/g65461/f/CulturesSocietiesIndusTrad.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101140624/http://a.harappa.com/sites/g/files/g65461/f/CulturesSocietiesIndusTrad.pdf |archive-date=1 January 2014 }}</ref>


==Interpretations==
==Interpretations==
The [[pottery]] style of this culture is different from the pottery of the [[Iranian Plateau]] and [[Afghanistan]] (Bryant 2001). In some sites, PGW pottery and Late Harappan pottery are contemporaneous.<ref>Shaffer, Jim. 1993, Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond. In Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, ed. [[Howard Spodek|H. Spodek]] and D.M. Srinivasan.</ref> The archaeologist [[Jim Shaffer]] (1984:84-85) has noted that "at present, the archaeological record indicates no cultural discontinuities separating Painted Grey Ware from the indigenous protohistoric culture." However, the continuity of pottery styles may be explained by the fact that pottery was generally made by indigenous craftsmen even after the [[Indo-Aryan migration]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703article.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523094912/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703article.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-23 }}</ref> According to Chakrabarti (1968) and other scholars, the origins of the subsistence patterns (e.g. rice use) and most other characteristics of the Painted Grey Ware culture are in eastern India or even [[Southeast Asia]].{{refn|group=note|See also [[Indo-Aryan migration#Archaeological evidence]].}}
The [[pottery]] style of this culture is different from the pottery of the [[Iranian Plateau]] and [[Afghanistan]] (Bryant 2001). In some sites, PGW pottery and Late Harappan pottery are contemporaneous.<ref>Shaffer, Jim. 1993, Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond. In Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, ed. [[Howard Spodek|H. Spodek]] and D.M. Srinivasan.</ref> The archaeologist [[Jim Shaffer]] (1984:84-85) has noted that "at present, the archaeological record indicates no cultural discontinuities separating Painted Grey Ware from the indigenous protohistoric culture." However, the continuity of pottery styles may be explained by the fact that pottery was generally made by indigenous craftsmen even after the [[Indo-Aryan migration]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703article.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=13 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523094912/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703article.pdf |archive-date=23 May 2013 }}</ref> According to Chakrabarti (1968) and other scholars, the origins of the subsistence patterns (e.g. rice use) and most other characteristics of the Painted Grey Ware culture are in eastern India or even [[Southeast Asia]].{{refn|group=note|See also [[Indo-Aryan migration#Archaeological evidence]].}}
 
== Recent Archaeology ==
In 2015, two periods of PGW were identified, at [[Ahichchhatra|Ahichhatra]], the earliest from {{circa|1500}} to 800 BCE, and the late from 800 to 400 BCE.<ref name="currentscience.ac.in">Pokharia, Anil K., Chanchala Srivastava, Bhuvan Vikram, et al. (2015). [https://www.currentscience.ac.in/cs/Volumes/109/07/1293.pdf "On the botanical findings from excavations at Ahichchhatra: a multicultural site in Upper Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305195421/http://www.currentscience.ac.in/cs/Volumes/109/07/1293.pdf |date=5 March 2016 }}, in Current Science, Vol. 109, No. 7, 10 October 2015, p. 1301.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Petrie et al. (2019) mention 1500 to 700 BCE.<ref name="cambridge.org">Neogi, Sayantani, Charles A. I. French, Julie A. Durcan, Rabindra N. Singh, and Cameron A. Petrie, (2019). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/7EEB4F0A6653158B1160DB9B5ED61E90/S003358941900070Xa.pdf/geoarchaeological_insights_into_the_location_of_indus_settlements_on_the_plains_of_northwest_india.pdf "Geoarchaeological insights into the location of Indus settlements on the plains of northwest India"], in Quaternary Research, Volume 94, March 2020, p. 140.</ref>}}
 
In 2014, the PGW horizon of [[Kampil]] excavations were published as 2310 ± 120 BCE and 1360 ± 90 BCE by archaeologist D.P. Tewari.<ref>Tewari, D.P., (2014). "The Ceramic Traditions from Kampil Excavations", in Puratattva No.44, pp.194-207.</ref>


==Recent research==
In 2013, further excavations at [[Alamgirpur]], near [[Delhi]], revealed contiguous occupation of the site, from Early Harappan, through Mature Harappan, Late Harappan, and into a period overlap between the later part of the Harappan phase (with a "noticeable slow decline in quality") and the earliest PGW levels; a sample of beans and grains from this transition layer (ZB 26 OxA-21882) offered a radiocarbon dating of 3659 ± 31 years BP (1647 BCE).<ref>Singh, R.N., Cameron Petrie et al., (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/8246061/Recent_Excavations_at_Alamgirpur_Meerut_District_A_Preliminary_Report "Recent Excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: A Preliminary Report"], in Man and Environment 38(1), pp. 32-54.</ref>  
In 2013, the [[University of Cambridge]] and [[Banaras Hindu University]] excavated at [[Alamgirpur]] near [[Delhi]], where they found a period overlap between the later part of the Harappan phase (with a "noticeable slow decline in quality") and the earliest PGW levels; Sample OxA-21882 showed a calibrated radiocarbon dating from 2136 BCE to 1948 BCE, but seven other samples from the overlap phase that were submitted for dating failed to give a result.<ref>Singh, R.N., Cameron Petrie et al., (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/8246061/Recent_Excavations_at_Alamgirpur_Meerut_District_A_Preliminary_Report "Recent Excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: A Preliminary Report"], in Man and Environment 38(1), pp. 32-54.</ref> A team of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] led by B.R. Mani and Vinay Kumar Gupta collected charcoal samples from Gosna, a site 6&nbsp;km east of [[Mathura]] across the [[Yamuna]] river, where two of the radiocarbon dates from the PGW deposit came out to be 2160 BCE and 2170 BCE, but they mention that "there is a possibility that the cultural horizon which is now regarded as belonging to the P.G.W. period might turn out to be as belonging to a period with only plain grey ware."<ref name="Gupta" /> However, later on, other two datings confirming early PGW horizon in Kampil excavations were published as 2310 +/- 120 BCE and 1360 +/- 90 BCE by archaeologist D.P. Tewari.<ref>Tewari, D.P., (2014). "The Ceramic Traditions from Kampil Excavations", in Puratattva No.44, pp.194-207.</ref>


Excavation at [[Anuradhapura]] in Sri Lanka has unearthed PGW pottery from the 'Basal early historic' period of [[Anuradhapura]] (600 BC-500 BCE) showing connections with North India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tyagi|first=Manisha|title=Commercial Relations Between North India and Sri Lanka in Ancient Period: A Study|date=2006|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44147927|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=67|pages=106–117|jstor=44147927|issn=2249-1937}}</ref>
In 2009, a team of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] led by B.R. Mani and Vinay Kumar Gupta collected charcoal samples from the spoil of an illegally excavated, government protected mound at Gosna, a site 6&nbsp;km east of [[Mathura]] across the [[Yamuna]] river, where two of the radiocarbon dates  came out to be 2160 BCE and 2170 BCE, the site may have had a plain or painted grey ware association, but the evidence has been lost.<ref name="Gupta" />
 
In 2006, excavation at [[Anuradhapura]] in [[Sri Lanka]] has unearthed Plain Grey Ware pottery (in North India associated with Painted Grey Ware) from the 'Basal early historic' period of [[Anuradhapura]] (600-500 BCE) showing connections with North India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tyagi|first=Manisha|title=Commercial Relations Between North India and Sri Lanka in Ancient Period: A Study|date=2006|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44147927|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=67|pages=106–117|jstor=44147927|issn=2249-1937}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Kuru Kingdom]]
*[[Kuru kingdom]]
*[[Panchala]]
*[[Panchala]]
*[[Mahajanapadas]]
*[[Mahajanapadas]]
Line 65: Line 75:
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book|first=Edwin|last=Bryant|author-link=Edwin Bryant (author)|title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-19-513777-9|title-link=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture}}
*{{cite book|first=Edwin|last=Bryant|author-link=Edwin Bryant (author)|title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-19-513777-9|title-link=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture}}
*Chakrabarti, D.K. 1968. The Aryan hypothesis in Indian archaeology. Indian Studies Past and Present 4, 333–358.
*Chakrabarti, D.K. 1968. The Aryan hypothesis in Indian archaeology. Indian Studies Past and Present 4, 333–358.
*[[Jim Shaffer]]. 1984. The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. In: J.R. Lukak. The People of South Asia. New York: Plenum. 1984.
*[[Jim Shaffer]]. 1984. The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. In: J.R. Lukak. The People of South Asia. New York: Plenum. 1984.
*[[Kenneth A.R. Kennedy|Kennedy, Kenneth]] 1995. ''“Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia?”'', in George Erdosy, ed.: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p.&nbsp;49-54.
*[[Kenneth A.R. Kennedy|Kennedy, Kenneth]] 1995. ''"Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia?"'', in George Erdosy, ed.: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p.&nbsp;49–54.


==External links==
==External links==
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[[Category:Prehistoric India]]
[[Category:Prehistoric India]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of Asia]]
[[Category:13th-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:13th-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:2nd-millennium BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:6th-century BC disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:6th-century BC disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in India]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in India]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Rajasthan]]

Latest revision as of 18:42, 5 March 2026


Painted Grey Ware culture
Map of some Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites
Geographical rangeNorth India
Eastern Pakistan
PeriodIron Age
Datesc. 1200–600 BCE
Major sitesHastinapur
Mathura
Ahichchhatra
Panipat
Jognakhera
Rupnagar
Bhagwanpura
Kosambi
CharacteristicsExtensive Iron metallurgy
Fortified settlement
Preceded byCemetery H culture
Black and red ware
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
Followed byMahajanapadas
Outline of South Asian history
South Asia (orthographic projection)
Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)
Madrasian Culture
Soanian Culture
Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)
Bhirrana Culture (7570–6200 BC)
Mehrgarh Culture (7000–3300 BC)
Edakkal Culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC)
Ahar-Banas Culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu Culture (1600–1500 BC)
Malwa Culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe Culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Indus Valley Civilisation(3300–1300 BC)
 – Early Harappan Culture(3300–2600 BC)
 – Mature Harappan Culture(2600–1900 BC)
 – Late Harappan Culture(1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(2000–500 BC)
 – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture(2000–1600 BC)
 – Swat culture(1600–500 BC)
Iron Age (1500–200 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(1500–500 BC)
 – Janapadas (1500–600 BC)
 – Black and Red ware culture(1300–1000 BC)
 – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
 – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)
Pradyota Dynasty (799–684 BC)
Haryanka Dynasty (684–424 BC)
Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC – AD 1600)
Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC)
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Ror Dynasty (450 BC – AD 489)
Shaishunaga Dynasty (424–345 BC)
Nanda Empire (380–321 BC)
Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206)
Satavahana Empire (230 BC – AD 220)
Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC – AD 300)
Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 – c. 50 BC)
Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – AD 10)
Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)
Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC – AD 400)
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21 – c. 130)
Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 )
Kushan Empire (AD 60–240)
Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350)
Nagas of Padmavati (210–340)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360)
Vakataka Empire (c. 250 – c. 500)
Kalabhras Empire (c. 250 – c. 600)
Gupta Empire (280–550)
Kadamba Empire (345–525)
Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000)
Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100)
Vishnukundina Empire (420–624)
Maitraka Empire (475–767)
Huna Kingdom (475–576)
Rai Kingdom (489–632)
Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500 – 1026)
Chalukya Empire (543–753)
Maukhari Empire (c. 550 – c. 700)
Harsha Empire (606–647)
Tibetan Empire (618–841)
Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Mallabhum Kingdom (694-1947)
Bhauma-Kara Kingdom (736-916)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982)
Paramara Kingdom (800–1327)
Yadava Empire (850–1334)
Somavamshi Kingdom (882–1110)
Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244)
Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189)
Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320)
Hoysala Empire (1040–1347)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675-1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300)
Late medieval period (1206–1526)
Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186)
Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206)
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
 – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
 – Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
 – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
 – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
 – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Empire (1434–1541)
Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842)
Deccan Sultanates (1490–1596)
 – Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)
 – Berar Sultanate (1490–1574)
 – Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)
 – Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)
 – Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom (1515–1947)
Early modern period (1526–1858)
Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
Sur Empire (1540–1556)
Madurai Kingdom (1529–1736)
Thanjavur Kingdom (1532–1673)
Bhoi dynasty (1541–1804)
Bengal Subah (1576–1757)
Marava Kingdom (1600–1750)
Sikkim Kingdom (1642–1975)
Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799)
Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947)
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Colonial states (1510–1961)
Portuguese India (1510–1961)
Dutch India (1605–1825)
Danish India (1620–1869)
French India (1759–1954)
Company Raj (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)
Periods of Sri Lanka
Prehistory (Until 543 BC)
Early kingdoms period (543 BC – 377 BC)
Anuradhapura period (377 BC – AD 1017)
Polonnaruwa period (1056–1232)
Transitional period (1232–1505)
Crisis of the Sixteenth Century (1505–1594)
Kandyan period (1594–1815)
British Ceylon (1815–1948)
Contemporary Sri Lanka (1948–present)
National histories
Regional histories
Specialised histories

The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age Indo-Aryan culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley in the Indian subcontinent, conventionally dated c.1200 to 600–500 BCE,[1][2] or from 1300 to 500–300 BCE.[3][4][5] It is a successor of the Cemetery H culture and Black and red ware culture (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India.[6]

Cemetery H, Late Harappan, OCP, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey ware sites

Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black,[7] the PGW culture is associated with village and town settlements, domesticated horses, ivory-working, and the advent of iron metallurgy.[8] As of 2018, 1,576 PGW sites have been discovered.[9] Although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns; the largest of these were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborate fortifications which emerged in large cities after 600 BCE.[10]

The PGW Culture probably corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period, i.e., the Kuru-Panchala kingdom, the first large state in the Indian subcontinent after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation.[11][12] The later vedic literature provides a mass of information on the life and culture of the times. It is succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware from c.700–500 BCE, associated with the rise of the great Mahajanapada states and of the Magadha Empire.

Dating[edit | edit source]

The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is conventionally dated c.1200 to 500 BCE.[1][2]

Akinori Uesugi regards PGW as having three periods within North Indian Iron Age which are:

Period I (c. 1300–1000 BCE)

When it makes its appearance in the Ghaggar valley and the upper Ganga region.

Period II (c. 1000–600 BCE)

When it spreads into the western part of the Ganga valley.

Period III (c. 600–300 BCE)

With interactions to the east.[13]

Overview[edit | edit source]

Painted Grey Ware - Sonkh (Uttar Pradesh) - 1000-600 BCE. Government Museum, Mathura
Fragments of Painted Grey Ware, about 1000 BC, from Hastinapur and Radhakund, Uttar Pradesh, and Panipat and Tilpat, Haryana. British Museum.
Shards of Painted Grey Ware (right) and Harappan red pottery (left) from Rupnagar, Punjab.
Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The GGC (Swat), Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan migrations.

The PGW culture cultivated rice, wheat, millet and barley, and domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses. Houses were built of wattle-and-daub, mud, or bricks, ranging in size from small huts to large houses with many rooms.[citation needed] There is a clear settlement hierarchy, with a few central towns that stand out amongst numerous small villages. Some sites, including Jakhera in Uttar Pradesh, demonstrate a “fairly evolved, proto-urban or semi-urban stage” of this culture, with evidence of social organization and trade, including ornaments of gold, copper, ivory, and semi-precious stones, storage bins for surplus grain, stone weights, paved streets, water channels and embankments.[14]

The plough was used for cultivation. There are also indications of growing complexity of society as population increased and the size and number of settlements multiplied. Arts and crafts of the PGW people are represented by ornaments (made from terracotta, stone, faience, and glass), human and animal figurines (made from terracotta) as well as "incised terracotta discs with decorated edges and geometric motifs" which probably had "ritual meaning," perhaps representing symbols of deities.[15] There are a few stamp seals with geometric designs but no inscription, contrasting with both the prior Harappan seals and the subsequent Brahmi-inscribed seals of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.[15]

The PGW pottery shows a remarkable degree of standardization. It is dominated by bowls of two shapes, a shallow tray and a deeper bowl, often with a sharp angle between the walls and base. The range of decoration is limited - vertical, oblique or criss-cross lines, rows of dots, spiral chains and concentric circles being common.[16]

At Bhagwanpura in the Kurukshetra district of Haryana, excavations have revealed an overlap between the late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware cultures, large houses that may have been elite residences, and fired bricks that may have been used in Vedic altars.[15]

Fresh surveys by archaeologist Vinay Kumar Gupta suggest Mathura was the largest PGW site around 375 hectares in area.[17] Among the largest sites is also the recently excavated Ahichatra, with at least 40 hectares of area in PGW times along with evidence of early construction of the fortification which goes back to PGW levels.[18] Towards the end of the period, many of the PGW settlements grew into the large towns and cities of the Northern Black Polished Ware period.[19]

Interpretations[edit | edit source]

The pottery style of this culture is different from the pottery of the Iranian Plateau and Afghanistan (Bryant 2001). In some sites, PGW pottery and Late Harappan pottery are contemporaneous.[20] The archaeologist Jim Shaffer (1984:84-85) has noted that "at present, the archaeological record indicates no cultural discontinuities separating Painted Grey Ware from the indigenous protohistoric culture." However, the continuity of pottery styles may be explained by the fact that pottery was generally made by indigenous craftsmen even after the Indo-Aryan migration.[21] According to Chakrabarti (1968) and other scholars, the origins of the subsistence patterns (e.g. rice use) and most other characteristics of the Painted Grey Ware culture are in eastern India or even Southeast Asia.[note 1]

Recent Archaeology[edit | edit source]

In 2015, two periods of PGW were identified, at Ahichhatra, the earliest from c. 1500 to 800 BCE, and the late from 800 to 400 BCE.[22][note 2]

In 2014, the PGW horizon of Kampil excavations were published as 2310 ± 120 BCE and 1360 ± 90 BCE by archaeologist D.P. Tewari.[24]

In 2013, further excavations at Alamgirpur, near Delhi, revealed contiguous occupation of the site, from Early Harappan, through Mature Harappan, Late Harappan, and into a period overlap between the later part of the Harappan phase (with a "noticeable slow decline in quality") and the earliest PGW levels; a sample of beans and grains from this transition layer (ZB 26 OxA-21882) offered a radiocarbon dating of 3659 ± 31 years BP (1647 BCE).[25]

In 2009, a team of the Archaeological Survey of India led by B.R. Mani and Vinay Kumar Gupta collected charcoal samples from the spoil of an illegally excavated, government protected mound at Gosna, a site 6 km east of Mathura across the Yamuna river, where two of the radiocarbon dates came out to be 2160 BCE and 2170 BCE, the site may have had a plain or painted grey ware association, but the evidence has been lost.[17]

In 2006, excavation at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka has unearthed Plain Grey Ware pottery (in North India associated with Painted Grey Ware) from the 'Basal early historic' period of Anuradhapura (600-500 BCE) showing connections with North India.[26]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ See also Indo-Aryan migration#Archaeological evidence.
  2. ↑ Petrie et al. (2019) mention 1500 to 700 BCE.[23]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Douglas Q. Adams (January 1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. pp. 310–. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Kailash Chand Jain (1972). Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 96–. ISBN 978-81-208-0824-9.
  3. ↑ Possehl, G. L., (2002). The Indus civilization: A contemporary perspective, AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA; Oxford, p. 29.
  4. ↑ Bates, J., (2020). "Kitchen gardens, wild forage and tree fruits: A hypothesis on the role of the Zaid season in the indus civilisation (c.3200-1300 BCE)", in Archaeological Research in Asia 21 (2020), Table 1, p.2.
  5. ↑ Uesugi, Akinori, (2018). "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia", in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University, Fig. 6, pp. 9–12.
  6. ↑ Southworth, Franklin, (2005). Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia, Routledge, p. 177.
  7. ↑ De Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (January 1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. To the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. ISBN 9789231028120.
  8. ↑ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781884964985.
  9. ↑ Uesugi, Akinori (2018). "A Study on the Painted Grey Ware", in Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 6 (2018), p. 2.
  10. ↑ James Heitzman, The City in South Asia (Routledge, 2008), pp. 12–13.
  11. ↑ Geoffrey Samuel, (2010) The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 45–51.
  12. ↑ Michael Witzel (1989), Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 97–265.
  13. ↑ Uesugi, Akinori, (2018)."An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia", in (ed.) Akinori Uesugi, Iron Age in South Asia, Kansai University, Fig. 6, pp. 9-12.
  14. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2009), A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Longman, Delhi, pp. 246–248
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Kenoyer, J. M., (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots" in the Making of ‘the Aryan’, R. Thapar (ed.), National Book Trust, New Delhi, pp. 21–49.
  16. ↑ Bridget and Raymond Allchin (1982). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Gupta, Vinay Kumar, (2014)."Early Settlement of Mathura: An Archaeological Perspective", An Occasional paper, in History and Society, New Series 41, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi, pp. 1-37.
  18. ↑ Mani, B. R., (17 September 2013). "What Lies Beneath", in Educational Times.
  19. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  20. ↑ Shaffer, Jim. 1993, Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond. In Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, ed. H. Spodek and D.M. Srinivasan.
  21. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  22. ↑ Pokharia, Anil K., Chanchala Srivastava, Bhuvan Vikram, et al. (2015). "On the botanical findings from excavations at Ahichchhatra: a multicultural site in Upper Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, in Current Science, Vol. 109, No. 7, 10 October 2015, p. 1301.
  23. ↑ Neogi, Sayantani, Charles A. I. French, Julie A. Durcan, Rabindra N. Singh, and Cameron A. Petrie, (2019). "Geoarchaeological insights into the location of Indus settlements on the plains of northwest India", in Quaternary Research, Volume 94, March 2020, p. 140.
  24. ↑ Tewari, D.P., (2014). "The Ceramic Traditions from Kampil Excavations", in Puratattva No.44, pp.194-207.
  25. ↑ Singh, R.N., Cameron Petrie et al., (2013). "Recent Excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: A Preliminary Report", in Man and Environment 38(1), pp. 32-54.
  26. ↑ Tyagi, Manisha (2006). "Commercial Relations Between North India and Sri Lanka in Ancient Period: A Study". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 67: 106–117. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44147927.

Further reading[edit | edit source]

  • Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9.
  • Chakrabarti, D.K. 1968. The Aryan hypothesis in Indian archaeology. Indian Studies Past and Present 4, 333–358.
  • Jim Shaffer. 1984. The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. In: J.R. Lukak. The People of South Asia. New York: Plenum. 1984.
  • Kennedy, Kenneth 1995. "Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia?", in George Erdosy, ed.: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p. 49–54.

External links[edit | edit source]

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