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Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti ([[IAST]] names in brackets):{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=25}}{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=25}}
Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti ([[IAST]] names in brackets):{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=25}}{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=25}}
* [[Nannuka]], c. 831-845 CE
* [[Chandravarman II (Chandel ruler)|Chandravarman II]], c. 831-845 CE
* [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpati]] (Vākpati), c. 845-865 CE
* [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpativarman]] (Vākpati), c. 845-865 CE
* [[Jayashakti]] (Jayaśakti) and [[Vijayashakti]] (Vijayaśakti), c. 865-885 CE
* [[Jayashakti|Jayashaktivarman]] (Jayaśakti) and [[Vijayashakti|Vijayashaktivarman]] (Vijayaśakti), c. 865-885 CE
* [[Rahila]] (Rāhila), c. 885-905 CE
* [[Rahila|Rahilavarman]] (Rāhila), c. 885-905 CE
* [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Shri Harsha]] (Śri Harśa),  c. 905-925 CE
* [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Shri Harshavarman]] (Śri Harśa),  c. 905-925 CE
* [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman]] (Yaśovarman), c. 925-950 CE
* [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman]] (Yaśovarman), c. 925-950 CE
* [[Dhanga|Dhanga-Deva]] (Dhaṅgadeva), c. 950-999 CE<!-- Sullerey is based on latest inscription discoveries -->
* [[Dhanga|Dhangavarman]] (Dhaṅgavarman), c. 950-999 CE<!-- Sullerey is based on latest inscription discoveries -->
* [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Ganda-Deva]] (Gaṇḍadeva), c. 999-1002 CE<!-- Sullerey is based on latest inscription discoveries -->
* [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Gandavarmam]] (Gaṇḍavarman), c. 999-1002 CE<!-- Sullerey is based on latest inscription discoveries -->
* [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]] (Vidyādhara), c. 1003-1035 CE<!-- Sullerey is based on latest inscription discoveries -->
* [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadharavarman]] (Vidyādharavarman), c. 1003-1035 CE<!-- Sullerey is based on latest inscription discoveries -->
* [[Vijayapala|Vijaya-Pala]] (Vijayapāla), c. 1035-1050 CE
* [[Vijayapala|Vijayapalavarman]] (Vijayapāla), c. 1035-1050 CE
* [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Deva-Varman]], c. 1050-1060 CE
* [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Devavarman]], c. 1050-1060 CE
* [[Kirttivarman (Chandela dynasty)|Kirtti-Varman]] (Kīrtivarman), c. 1060-1100 CE
* [[Kirttivarman I (Chandel emperor)|Kirttivarman I]] (Kīrtivarman), c. 1060-1100 CE
* [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshana-Varman]] (Sallakṣaṇavarman), c. 1100-1110 CE
* [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshanavarman]] (Sallakṣaṇavarman), c. 1100-1110 CE
* [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jaya-Varman]], c. 1110-1120 CE
* [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jayavarman]], c. 1110-1120 CE
* [[Prithvivarman|Prithvi-Varman]] (Pṛthvīvarman), c. 1120-1128 CE
* [[Prithvivarman|Prithvivarman]] (Pṛthvīvarman), c. 1120-1128 CE
* [[Madanavarman|Madana-Varman]], c. 1128-1165 CE
* [[Madanavarman|Madanavarman]], c. 1128-1165 CE
* [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman II]] (c. 1164-65 CE); did not rule or ruled for a very short time
* [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]] (c. 1164-65 CE); did not rule or ruled for a very short time
* [[Paramardideva|Paramardi-Deva]], c. 1165-1203 CE
* [[Paramardivarman|Paramardivarman I]], c. 1165-1203 CE
* [[Trailokyavarman|Trailokya-Varman]], c. 1203-1245 CE
* [[Trailokyavarman|Trailokyavarman]], c. 1203-1245 CE
* [[Viravarman|Vira-Varman]] (Vīravarman), c. 1245-1285 CE
* [[Viravarman|Viravarman]] (Vīravarman), c. 1245-1285 CE
* [[Bhojavarman|Bhoja-Varman]], c. 1285-1288 CE
* [[Bhojavarman|Bhojavarman]], c. 1285-1288 CE
* [[Hammiravarman|Hammira-Varman]] (Hammīravarman), c. 1288-1311 CE
* [[Hammiravarman|Hammiravarman]] (Hammīravarman), c. 1288-1311 CE
* Vira-Varman II (an obscure ruler with low titles, attested by only one 1315 CE inscription){{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}
* Viravarman II (an obscure ruler with low titles, attested by only one 1315 CE inscription){{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}


== References ==
== References ==

Revision as of 09:09, 25 December 2023

Chandelas of Jejakabhukti

832 CE–1545 CE
Coinage of Sallakshanavarman (1120–1135 CE), Chandelas of Jejakabhukti of Chandel Empire
Coinage of Sallakshanavarman (1120–1135 CE), Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
Chandel dynasty during 1203 AD[1][2]
Chandel dynasty during 1203 AD[1][2]
Capital
Common languagesSanskrit
Religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor (Kalanjaradhipati) 
• 832-845 CE
Chandravarman II (First sovereign ruler)
• 1165-1203 CE
Paramardivarman I (Last emperor)
• 1487-1545 CE
Kirttivarman II (Last ruler)
Historical eraMedieval India
• Established
832 CE
• Rise of Empire
1028 CE
• Empire at its peak
1092 CE
• Fall of Empire
1203 CE
• Disestablished
1545 CE
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kalachuris of Tripuri
Ghurid dynasty
Mamluk dynasty
Suri Empire
Today part ofIndia

Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (Hindi: 'जेजाकभुक्ति के चन्देल' ) colloquially known as the Chandel Empire or Chandel of Mahoba, was the famous Indian dynasty that independently ruled in India from the 8th to 15th century.[3] The Chandel dynasty of Mahoba was founded by Chandel king Chandravarman II.[4] They were the most prominent ruling family of the Chandel Rajput clan and the territory ruled by them known as Jejakabhukti.[5] The dynasty was fully declined on 27 May 1545 after the death of ruler Kirttivarman II against Suri Empire.[6][7]

Origin

The origin of the Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as Balabhadra-vilasa and Prabodha-chandrodaya, suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary Lunar dynasty (Chandravansha).[8] A 954 CE Khajuraho inscription states that the dynasty's first king Nannuka was a descendant of sage Chandratreya, who was a son of Atri. A 1002 CE Khajuraho inscription gives a slightly different account, in which Chandratreya is mentioned as a son of Indu (the Moon) and a grandson of Atri.[9] The 1195 CE Baghari inscription and the 1260 CE Ajaygadh inscription contain similar accounts.[10] The Balabhadra-vilasa also names Atri among the ancestors of the Chandelas. Another Khajuraho inscription describes the Chandela king Dhanga as a member of the Vrishni clan of the Yadavas (who also claimed to be part of the Lunar dynasty).[8]

Loving couple, Khajuraho.

The Mahoba-Khanda legend of the dynasty's origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the Gaharwar king of Benares, had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god Chandra saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become a great king. This child was the dynasty's progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a philosopher's stone and taught him politics.[11][8] The dynasty's own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the Mahoba-Khanda is a historically unreliable text.[9] Prithviraj Raso is also considered an historically unreliable text.[12][13][14]

Celestial dancer (Devata) mid-11th century, Chandela period, Madhya Pradesh. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

British indologist V. A. Smith theorized that the Chandelas were of either Bhar or Gond origin. Some other scholars including R. C. Majumdar also supported this theory.[15] The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh.[16] Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also, Rani Durgavati, whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of Garha-Mandla.[17] Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya was not a tribal deity.[18] Also, the dynasty's association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty's progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories.[17] Finally, Durgavati's marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case.[18]

History

Early rulers

The early Chandelas were originally vassals of the Gurjara-Pratiharas.[19] Nannuka (r. c. 831-845 CE), the founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around Khajuraho.[20]

Chandel dynasty before 1028

According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka's successor Vakpati defeated several enemies.[21] Vakpati's sons Jayashakti (Jeja) and Vijayashakti (Vija) consolidated the Chandela power.[22] According to a Mahoba inscription, the Chandela territory was named "Jejakabhukti" after the Jayashakti.[23] Vijayashakti's successor Rahila is credited with several military victories in eulogistic inscriptions.[24] Rahila's son Harsha played an important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara king Mahipala, possibly after a Rashtrakuta invasion or after Mahiapala's conflict with his step-brother Bhoja II.[25]

Rise as a sovereign power

A 20th century artist's imagination of Kirtivarman Chandela visiting a Khajuraho temple

Harsha's son Yashovarman (r. c. 925-950 CE) continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty, but became practically independent.[26] He conquered the important fortress of Kalanjara.[27] A 953-954 CE Khajuraho inscription credits him with several other military successes, including against Gaudas (identified with the Palas), the Khasas, the Chedis (the Kalachuris of Tripuri), the Kosalas (possibly the Somavamshis), the Mithila (possibly a small tributary ruler), Malavas (identified with the Paramaras), the Kurus, the Kashmiris and the Gurjaras.[28] These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.[29] Yashovarman's reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.[27]

Unlike the earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman's successor Dhanga (r. c. 950-999 CE) do not mention any Pratihara overlord. This indicates that Dhanga formally established the Chandela sovereignty.[30] A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of Kosala, Kratha (part of Vidarbha region), Kuntala, and Simhala listened humbly to the commands of Dhanga's officers. It also claims that the wives of the kings of Andhra, Anga, Kanchi and Raḍha resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns.[31][32] Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the Vishvanatha Temple.[33]

Dhanga's successor Ganda appears to have retained the territory he inherited.[34] His son Vidyadhara killed the Pratihara king of Kannauj (possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the Ghaznavid invader Mahmud of Ghazni.[35][36] Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara's kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud.[37] Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.[38]

The Chandela art and architecture reached its zenith during this period. The Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE), the Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-1002 CE) and the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga and Vidyadhara respectively. These Nagara-style temples are representative of the most fully developed style at Khajuraho.[39]

Decline

Surasundari and vyala, Khajuraho.
Kandariya Mahadeva temple carvings.

By the end of Vidyadhara's reign, the Ghaznavid invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the Kalachuri king Gangeya-deva conquered eastern parts of the kingdom.[40] Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara's successor Vijayapala (r. c. 1035-1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle.[41] However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala's reign.[42] The Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period.[43]

Vijayapala's elder son Devavavarman was subjugated by Gangeya's son Lakshmi-Karna.[44] His younger brother Kirttivarman resurrected the Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna.[45] Kirtivarman's son Sallakshanavarman achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A Mau inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna doab).[46] His son Jayavarman was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance.[47]

Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his uncle Prithvivarman, the younger son of Kirttivarman.[48] The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy.[49]

Revival

By the time Prithvivarman's son Madanavarman (r. c. 1128–1165 CE) ascended the throne, the neighbouring Kalachuri and Paramara kingdoms had been weakened by enemy invasions. Taking advantage of this situation, Madanavarman defeated the Kalachuri king Gaya-Karna, and possibly annexed the northern part of the Baghelkhand region.[50] However, the Chandelas lost this territory to Gaya-Karna's successor Narasimha.[51] Madanavarman also captured the territory on the western periphery of the Paramara kingdom, around Bhilsa (Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king Yashovarman or his son Jayavarman.[52][53] Once again, the Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman's son Lakshmivarman.[51]

Jayasimha Siddharaja, the Chaulukya king of Gujarat, also invaded the Paramara territory, which was located between the Chandela and the Chaulukya kingdoms. This brought him in conflict with Madanavarman. The result of this conflict appears to have been inconclusive, as records of both the kingdoms claim victory.[54] A Kalanjara inscription suggests that Madanavarman defeated Jayasimha. On the other hand, the various chronicles of Gujarat claim that Jayasimha either defeated Madanavarman or extracted a tribute from him.[55] Madanavarman maintained friendly relations with his northern neighbours, the Gahadavalas.[56]

Madanavarman's son Yashovarman II either did not rule, or ruled for a very short time. Madanavarman's grandson Paramardi-deva was the last powerful Chandela king.[57]

Final decline

Paramardi-Deva (reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) ascended the Chandela throne at a young age.

According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to Delhi after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces (Ghurids). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital Mahoba. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general Udal against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.[58]

Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother Alha left the Chandela court. They took shelter with Jaichand, the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj.[58] Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela empire via Gwalior and Bateshwar. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed , Paramardideva's son Bramhjit married daughter of Prithviraja's bela chauhan [59] [60]. Main battle between Chandelas Chahamanas War who fought in 1182 Paramardideva His son Brahmajit, along with Nephew Alha and Udal, led the Chandelas army against Chahamanas. In the battle Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of Jaichand were killed but Paramardideva defeated Prithviraj Chauhan .[61][62][63]. But to avoid the humiliation of their king, the Chauhans claimed in Madanpur that Chandelas were defeated and Parmardideva committed suicide around 1185-86 A.D.

This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at Madanpur[63] However, the occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.[60] He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE Ajaygarh stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.[64] These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign Emperor.[65] The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardideva ruled the empire until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela empire.[60]. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE Ajaygarh stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.[64] These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.[65] The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom.[60]

The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of Dasharna country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.[65]

The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by Trailokyavarman, Viravarman and Bhojavarman. The next ruler Hammiravarman (r. c. 1288-1311 CE) did not use the imperial title Maharajadhiraja, which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the Bundelas, the Baghelas and the Khangars.[66]

Hammiravarman was succeeded by Viravarman II, whose titles do not indicate a high political status.[67][68] One minor branch of the family continued ruling Kalanjara: its ruler was killed by Sher Shah Suri's army in 1545 CE.In 1542, Durgavati was married to Dalpat Shah, the adopted son of the king Sangram Shah of the Garha Kingdom. According to Abul Fazl, Dalpat Shah was the son of a Kachhwaha Rajput adopted by Raja of Gadha mandla.[69][70] The Chandel of mahoba and Garha Kingdom dynasty (Garha Mandla) dynasties were allied because of this marriage.[71] [72] [71] Some other ruling families also claimed Chandela descent (see Chandel).

Art and architecture

The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture. They commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at various places. The most famous example of their cultural achievements are the Hindu and Jain temples at Khajuraho. Three other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar) and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).[73]

Other smaller Chandela sites include Chandpur, Deogarh, Dudahi, Kakadeo and Madanpur.[73]

List of rulers

Chandela territory, as indicated by the find spots of inscriptions issued during the Chandela reign[74]

Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti (IAST names in brackets):[75][76]

References

Outline of South Asian history
South Asia (orthographic projection)
Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)
Madrasian Culture
Soanian Culture
Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)
Bhirrana Culture (7570–6200 BC)
Mehrgarh Culture (7000–3300 BC)
Edakkal Culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC)
Ahar-Banas Culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu Culture (1600–1500 BC)
Malwa Culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe Culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Indus Valley Civilisation(3300–1300 BC)
 – Early Harappan Culture(3300–2600 BC)
 – Mature Harappan Culture(2600–1900 BC)
 – Late Harappan Culture(1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(2000–500 BC)
 – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture(2000–1600 BC)
 – Swat culture(1600–500 BC)
Iron Age (1500–200 BC)
Vedic Civilisation(1500–500 BC)
 – Janapadas (1500–600 BC)
 – Black and Red ware culture(1300–1000 BC)
 – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
 – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)
Pradyota Dynasty (799–684 BC)
Haryanka Dynasty (684–424 BC)
Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC – AD 1600)
Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC)
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Ror Dynasty (450 BC – AD 489)
Shaishunaga Dynasty (424–345 BC)
Nanda Empire (380–321 BC)
Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206)
Satavahana Empire (230 BC – AD 220)
Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC – AD 300)
Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 – c. 50 BC)
Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – AD 10)
Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)
Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC – AD 400)
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21 – c. 130)
Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 )
Kushan Empire (AD 60–240)
Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350)
Nagas of Padmavati (210–340)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360)
Vakataka Empire (c. 250 – c. 500)
Kalabhras Empire (c. 250 – c. 600)
Gupta Empire (280–550)
Kadamba Empire (345–525)
Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000)
Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100)
Vishnukundina Empire (420–624)
Maitraka Empire (475–767)
Huna Kingdom (475–576)
Rai Kingdom (489–632)
Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500 – 1026)
Chalukya Empire (543–753)
Maukhari Empire (c. 550 – c. 700)
Harsha Empire (606–647)
Tibetan Empire (618–841)
Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Mallabhum Kingdom (694-1947)
Bhauma-Kara Kingdom (736-916)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982)
Paramara Kingdom (800–1327)
Yadava Empire (850–1334)
Somavamshi Kingdom (882–1110)
Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244)
Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189)
Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320)
Hoysala Empire (1040–1347)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675-1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300)
Late medieval period (1206–1526)
Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186)
Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206)
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
 – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
 – Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
 – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
 – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
 – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Empire (1434–1541)
Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842)
Deccan Sultanates (1490–1596)
 – Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)
 – Berar Sultanate (1490–1574)
 – Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)
 – Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)
 – Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom (1515–1947)
Early modern period (1526–1858)
Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
Sur Empire (1540–1556)
Madurai Kingdom (1529–1736)
Thanjavur Kingdom (1532–1673)
Bhoi dynasty (1541–1804)
Bengal Subah (1576–1757)
Marava Kingdom (1600–1750)
Sikkim Kingdom (1642–1975)
Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799)
Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947)
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Colonial states (1510–1961)
Portuguese India (1510–1961)
Dutch India (1605–1825)
Danish India (1620–1869)
French India (1759–1954)
Company Raj (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)
Periods of Sri Lanka
Prehistory (Until 543 BC)
Early kingdoms period (543 BC – 377 BC)
Anuradhapura period (377 BC – AD 1017)
Polonnaruwa period (1056–1232)
Transitional period (1232–1505)
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Kandyan period (1594–1815)
British Ceylon (1815–1948)
Contemporary Sri Lanka (1948–present)
National histories
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  1. ↑ Singh 1984, p. 69.
  2. ↑ Gvāliyara darśana - Volume 1 -, 1980 & sfn.
  3. ↑ Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition), p. 78.
  4. ↑ Edwin Thomas Atkinson 1971, p. 504.
  5. ↑ Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition).
  6. ↑ Hindustānī - Volume 36 1975, p. 54.
  7. ↑ Mug̲h̲ala darabāra, kavi-saṅgītajña: san Ī, 1531-1707 - & Śāligrāma Gupta 1999, p. 210.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 3.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 4.
  10. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 5.
  11. ↑ Jai Narayan Asopa (1976). Origin of the Rajputs. Bharatiya Publishing House. p. 208.
  12. ↑ Vijayendra Snatak (1997). "Medieval Hindi Literature". In K Ayyappap Panikkar (ed.). Medieval Indian literature: an anthology (Volume 1). Sahitya Akademi. p. 142. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  13. ↑ Freitag, Jason (2009). Serving empire, serving nation: James Tod and the Rajputs of Rajasthan. BRILL. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-90-04-17594-5.
  14. ↑ R. V. Somani (1976). History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. Mateshwari. p. 30. OCLC 2929852.
  15. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 6.
  16. ↑ Ali Javid and Tabassum Javeed (2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Vol. 1. Algora. p. 44. ISBN 9780875864822.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 7.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 8.
  19. ↑ Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.
  20. ↑ Sailendra Sen (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus. p. 22. ISBN 978-93-80607-34-4.
  21. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 27-28.
  22. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 30.
  23. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 28.
  24. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 30-31.
  25. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 32-35.
  26. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 36-37.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Sushil Kumar Sullerey 2004, p. 24.
  28. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 42-51.
  29. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 42.
  30. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 57.
  31. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 56.
  32. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 61-65.
  33. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 69.
  34. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 72.
  35. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 72-73.
  36. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 72.
  37. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 81-82.
  38. ↑ Sushil Kumar Sullerey 2004, p. 26.
  39. ↑ James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. p. 234. ISBN 0300062176.
  40. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 89-90.
  41. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 88.
  42. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 101.
  43. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 90.
  44. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 91.
  45. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 94.
  46. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 120-121.
  47. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 126.
  48. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 110-111.
  49. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 111.
  50. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 132.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 135.
  52. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 130-132.
  53. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 112-113.
  54. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 133.
  55. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 133-134.
  56. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 132-133.
  57. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 130.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 121.
  59. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 122.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 125.
  61. ↑ Mohinder Singh Randhawa & Indian Council of Agricultural Research 1980, pp. 472.
  62. ↑ M.S. Randhawa & Indian Sculpture: The Scene, Themes, and Legends 1985, pp. 532.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 123.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 124.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 126.
  66. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 179.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Peter Jackson 2003, p. 199.
  68. ↑ Om Prakash Misra 2003, p. 11.
  69. ↑ Dikshit, R. K. (1976). The Candellas of Jejākabhukti. Abhinav Publications. p. 8. ISBN 978-81-7017-046-4.
  70. ↑ Abul Fazl, Henry Beveridge (1907). Akbarnama Vol-2. p. 326.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Archana Garodia Gupta (20 April 2019). The Women Who Ruled India- Leaders. Warriors. Icons (Ebook). Hachette India. ISBN 9789351951537.
  72. ↑ Romila Thapar 2013, p. 572.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Sushil Kumar Sullerey 2004, p. 17.
  74. ↑ Harihar Vitthal Trivedi 1991, pp. 335-552.
  75. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 25.
  76. ↑ Sushil Kumar Sullerey 2004, p. 25.

Bibliography

External links

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