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{{Short description|Hindu deity}}
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{{Redirect|Ayyappa}}
{{Infobox deity  
{{Infobox deity  
<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hinduism-->| type = Hindu <!-- This is template parameter used for internal classification and formatting; it does not display; please do not wiki-link it nor change it -->
<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hinduism-->| type = Hindu <!-- This is template parameter used for internal classification and formatting; it does not display; please do not wiki-link it nor change it -->
| name = Ayyappan
| name = Ayyappan
| image =  
| image = Ayyappa Swamy bazaar art, c.1950's.jpg
| alt = Ayyppan
| alt = A painting of Ayyapppan seated on a tiger with a herd of tigers behind him.
| caption = Swami Ayyappan
| caption = Ayyappan, c. 1950s
| script_name = Malayalam
| script_name =  
| script = അയ്യപ്പൻ
| script =  
| affiliation = [[Hinduism]]
| affiliation = [[Hinduism]]
| god_of = God of Strength, Courage, Self-control & Celibacy
| god_of = God of righteousness and celibacy
| abode = [[Sabarimala]]
| abode = [[Sabarimala]]
| mantra = Swamiye Saranam Ayyappa or Ayyapan gayatri mantra
| mantra = Swamiye Saranam Ayyappa and Ayyapan Gayatri Mantra
| weapon = [[Bow and arrow]], [[Sword]]
| weapon = [[Bow and arrow]], [[sword]]
| mount = [[Tigress]]
| mount = [[Tiger]]
| symbols = [[Bell]], [[Bow and Arrow]]
| symbols = [[Bell]], [[bow and arrow]]
| father = [[Shiva]]
| father = [[Shiva]]
| mother = [[Mohini]]
| mother = [[Mohini]] (female avatar of [[Vishnu]])
| texts = [[Brahmanda Purana]]
| texts = ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]''
}}
}}
{{Saivism}}
'''Ayyappan''' (Malayalam: അയ്യപ്പൻ), also called '''Dharmasastha''' and '''Manikandan,''' is a [[Hindu]] deity popular in [[Southern India]], He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.
{{Vaishnavism}}
{{Hinduism small}}


'''Ayyappan''' ('''Sastha''' or '''Dharmasastha''' or '''Manikandan''') is a [[Hindu]] deity, particularly popular in the [[South India]]n state of [[Kerala]]. Ayyapa is considered to be the union of [[Mohini|Mohini (Vishnu)]] and [[Shiva]]. Although the worship of Ayyappa was more widespread earlier, his worship is now mainly confined to South India. Ayyappa is considered to be the ruler of the universe, and thus meditates alongside [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil. The worship of Ayyappa has become very popular in the state of Kerala by members of all communities, in [[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The deity is mentioned in various scriptures and is a revered in south Indian Hindu traditions.
Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier in South India, his popularity rose only in the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Suresh|last=Chandra|year=1998|title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfTE6kpz6XEC|publisher=Sarup and Sons|page=28|isbn=8176250392}}</ref><ref name="bri" /><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78" /> According to Hindu theology, he is the son of [[Harihara]] ([[Vishnu]] in the form of [[Mohini]] and [[Shiva]]).<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78">{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush|author2=Catherine A. Robinson|author3=Michael York|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|page=78}}</ref><ref name=Quinn>Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5458-9}}, page 58</ref> Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/>


Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier, in South India, it has become popular only in the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Suresh|last=Chandra|year=1998|title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfTE6kpz6XEC|publisher=Sarup and Sons|page=28|isbn=8176250392}}</ref><ref name="bri" /><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78" /> According to Hindu theology, he is the son of [[Harihara]] ([[Vishnu|Mahavishnu]] in the form of [[Mohini]] and [[Shiva]]).<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78">{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush|author2=Catherine A. Robinson|author3=Michael York|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|page=78}}</ref><ref name=Quinn>Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5458-9}}, page 58</ref> Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/>
The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate ([[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]) deity doing yoga and as an epitome of [[Dharma]], who wears a bell around his neck. He is also honoured by [[Muslims]] in Kerala, with legends wherein Ayyappan defeats and gains worship of the Muslim brigand Vavar.<ref name=bri/><ref name=Quinn/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-hindu-pilgrims-pray-at-a-mosque-in-kerala-1334002|title=Hindu pilgrims pray at a mosque in Kerala – Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|date=12 January 2010}}</ref> In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape-shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior [[yogi]] champion of ethical and dharmic living.<ref name=bri/><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=17-21}} In South Indian portrayals, Ayyappan images show him riding a tigress, but in some places such as [[Sri Lanka]] he is shown as riding a white elephant.<ref>{{cite book|author=MN Srinivas|title=Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_ZAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565174-4|pages=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=D. P. Dubey|title=Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHLXAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=SPS|isbn=978-81-900520-1-6|pages=136–137}}</ref>


The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate ([[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]) God doing yoga and as an epitome of [[Dharma]], who wears a bell around his neck. In the Hindu pantheon, his legends are relatively recent but diverse. He is honored by [[Muslims]] in Kerala, with legends wherein Ayyappan defeats and gains worship of the Muslim brigand Vavar.<ref name=Quinn/><ref name=bri/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-hindu-pilgrims-pray-at-a-mosque-in-kerala-1334002|title=Hindu pilgrims pray at a mosque in Kerala – Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|date=12 January 2010}}</ref> In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior [[yogi]] champion of ethical and dharmic living.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=17-21}}<ref name=bri/> In the South Indian version, Ayyappan images show him as riding a tigress, but in some places such as [[Sri Lanka]] he is shown as riding a white elephant.<ref>{{cite book|author=MN Srinivas|title=Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_ZAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565174-4|pages=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=D. P. Dubey|title=Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHLXAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=SPS|isbn=978-81-900520-1-6|pages=136–137}}</ref>
Ayyappan's popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at [[Sabarimala]], nestled in the hills of [[Pathanamthitta]] of [[Kerala]]. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,<ref name=Quinn/> making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=22–24}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Press Trust of India|title=Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared|url=http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|access-date=13 July 2011|newspaper=The New Indian Express|date=June 23, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083502/http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity. He remains one of the few deities in Hindu tradition, who is respected by other religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.<ref name=bri>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ayyappan| title=Ayyappan – Hindu deity|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica|year= 2014}}</ref> The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku ([[Makara Sankranti]]), observed around the winter solstice.<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA350 |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=238, 350}}</ref>
 
Ayyappan popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at [[Sabarimala]], nestled in the hills of [[Pathanamthitta]] of [[Kerala]]. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,<ref name=Quinn/> making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=22–24}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Press Trust of India|title=Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared|url=http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|access-date=13 July 2011|newspaper=The New Indian Express|date=June 23, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083502/http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity and a plethora of other pseudoscientific arguments to vindicate the same. It remains one of the few Deities in Hindu tradition, that are worshipped by all religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.<ref name=bri>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ayyappan| title=Ayyappan – Hindu deity|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica|year= 2014}}</ref> The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku ([[Makara Sankranti]]), observed around the winter solstice.<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA350 |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=238, 350}}</ref>


==Names and iconography==
==Names and iconography==
[[File:Ayyappa Idol at Mridngasaileswari temple.jpg|thumb|Ayyappan at [[Mridanga Saileswari Temple]], [[Muzhakkunnu]], Kannur.]]
[[File:Ayyapan(1).jpg|thumb|Ayyappan icon similar to the Sabarimala icon in a yogic position.]]
The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father".The name may literally comes from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes Mohini (Mohini here called father because she is a form of Lord Perumal who is a male) and Lord Shiva respectively.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Williams|author2=Anthony Tribe|author3=Alexander Wynne|title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ |year=2012| publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-136-52088-4|page=62}}; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see [[Four Noble Truths]]) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)</ref> However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era [[Puranas]], leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word ''acchan'' and Tamil word ''appa'' which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".<ref>{{cite book|author=Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov|title=A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H422cDV5qX4C&pg=PA49|year=1996|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03811-9|page=49}}</ref><ref name=bronkhorst>{{cite book|author1=Johannes Bronkhorst|author2=Madhav Deshpande|title=Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies|isbn=978-1-888789-04-1|pages=177–178}}</ref> The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being ''Sastava'' (''Sasta'', ''Sashta'', ''Sastra''), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".<ref name=bronkhorst/> The words ''Sastha'' and ''Dharmasastha'' in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.<ref name="Dalal2010p43">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|page=43}}</ref>
The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father". The name may literally come from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes [[Mohini]] (Mohini here called father, she is a female form of the god [[Vishnu]]) and [[Shiva]] respectively.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Williams|author2=Anthony Tribe|author3=Alexander Wynne|title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ |year=2012| publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-136-52088-4|page=62}}; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see [[Four Noble Truths]]) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)</ref> However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era [[Puranas]], leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word ''acchan'' and Tamil word ''appa'' which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".<ref>{{cite book|author=Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov|title=A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H422cDV5qX4C&pg=PA49|year=1996|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03811-9|page=49}}</ref><ref name=bronkhorst>{{cite book|author1=Johannes Bronkhorst|author2=Madhav Deshpande|title=Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies|isbn=978-1-888789-04-1|pages=177–178}}</ref> The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being ''Sastava'' (''Sasta'', ''Sashta'', ''Sastra''), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".<ref name=bronkhorst/> The words ''Sastha'' and ''Dharmasastha'' in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.<ref name="Dalal2010p43">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|page=43}}</ref>


Ayyappan is also known as ''Hariharasudhan''<ref>Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)</ref> – meaning the "son of [[Harihara]]" or a fusion deity of ''Hari'' and ''Hara'', the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.<ref>Younger, p.22</ref> He is also called ''Manikanta'' from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,<ref>{{cite web|title=maNi|url=http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Mani&direct=se|website=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|publisher=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref> and ''kanta'', Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.<ref name="Dalal2010p43"/>
Ayyappan is also known as ''Hariharasudhan''<ref>Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)</ref> – meaning the "son of [[Harihara]]" or a fusion deity of ''Hari'' and ''Hara'', the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.<ref>Younger, p.22</ref> He is also called ''Manikanta'' from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,<ref>{{cite web|title=maNi|url=http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Mani&direct=se|website=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|publisher=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref> and ''kanta'', Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.<ref name="Dalal2010p43"/>
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==Life and legends==
==Life and legends==
The life legends and mythology of Ayyappa varies across region like other Hindu gods and goddesses, reflecting a tradition that evolved and enriched over time, sometimes in conflicting ways.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–25}}<ref name=kent83/> For example, the ''Sribhutanatha Purana'' text presents Ayyappan as an incarnation of the Hindu deity [[Harihara]]putra, the son of Shiva and Mohini. This interaction between Shiva and Mohini is mentioned in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', but Ayyappan is not mentioned.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goudriaan|first=Teun|title=Māyā divine and human|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|year=1978|pages=42–43|chapter=The Māyā of the Gods: Mohini|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15-heLWM3UcC&pg=PA42|isbn=978-81-208-2389-1}}</ref> In the oral tradition as represented by Malayalam folk songs, Ayyappa is presented as a warrior hero of Pandala kingdom. According to Eliza Kent, the legends in the Ayyappa tradition seem to be "artificially mixed and assembled into a kind of collage".<ref name=kent83>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=80–83}}</ref> Ruth Vanita suggests that Ayyappan probably emerged from the fusion of a [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] god of tribal provenance and the Puranic story of Shiva and Mohini's interaction.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbvIDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA94|page=94|title=Same-Sex Love in India: Readings in Indian Literature|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|author1=Ruth Vanita|author-link=Ruth Vanita|author2=Saleem Kidwai|author2-link=Saleem Kidwai|year=2000|isbn=1137054808}}</ref>
The legends and mythology of Ayyappa varies across region like other Hindu gods and goddesses, reflecting a tradition that evolved and enriched over time, sometimes in conflicting ways.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–25}}<ref name=kent83/> For example, the ''Sribhutanatha Purana'' text presents Ayyappan as an incarnation of the Hindu deity [[Harihara]]putra, the son of Shiva and Mohini. This interaction between Shiva and Mohini is mentioned in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', but Ayyappan is not mentioned.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goudriaan|first=Teun|title=Māyā divine and human|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|year=1978|pages=42–43|chapter=The Māyā of the Gods: Mohini|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15-heLWM3UcC&pg=PA42|isbn=978-81-208-2389-1}}</ref> In the oral tradition as represented by Malayalam folk songs, Ayyappa is presented as a warrior hero of Pandala kingdom. According to Eliza Kent, the legends in the Ayyappa tradition seem to be "artificially mixed and assembled into a kind of collage".<ref name=kent83>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=80–83}}</ref> Ruth Vanita suggests that Ayyappan probably emerged from the fusion of a [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] god of tribal provenance and the Puranic story of Shiva and Mohini's interaction.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbvIDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA94|page=94|title=Same-Sex Love in India: Readings in Indian Literature|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|author1=Ruth Vanita|author-link=Ruth Vanita|author2=Saleem Kidwai|author2-link=Saleem Kidwai|year=2000|isbn=1137054808}}</ref>


===Core story===
===Core story===
[[File:Cheerappan Chira Kalari,Room used by Lord Swamy Ayyappa when he was staying and training in this ancient Thiyyar Chekavar kalari,which trace their origin to Kadathanadu.Malikapurathamma worshipped at Shabarimala is from cheerappanchira.jpg|thumb|left|Room at [[Cheerappanchira]] Kalari used by Lord Swamy Ayyappa when he was staying and training in this ancient [[Ezhava]] Chekavar Kalari, where he learned [[Kalaripayattu]], which trace their origin to Kadathanadu.It is said that lord Ayyappa fell in love with daughter of his Guru at [[Cheerappanchira]] during his training and is now worshipped as [[Maalikapurathamma]]]]


There once was a kingdom of Pandalam where Ayyappan originated.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The royal family was childless. One day the king of Pandalam found a baby boy in a forest.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref name=Quinn/> The king carried the baby to an ascetic in the forest to inquire about the boy.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The ascetic advised the king to take the baby home, raise him like his own son, and that in 12 years he would discover who the baby was.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The royal family did so, naming the baby Manikantha.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}}
There once was a kingdom of Pandalam where Ayyappan originated.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The royal family was childless. One day the king of Pandalam found a baby boy in a forest.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref name=Quinn/> The king carried the baby to an ascetic in the forest to inquire about the boy.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The ascetic advised the king to take the baby home, raise him like his own son, and that in 12 years he would discover who the baby was.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The royal family did so, naming the baby Manikantha.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}}
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| footer = Ayyappan, also called Hariharaputra, is believed to be born from the union of Shiva and Mohini.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=79–80}}</ref>
| footer = Ayyappan, also called Hariharaputra, is believed to be born from the union of Shiva and Mohini.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=79–80}}</ref>
}}
}}
At age 12, the king wanted to formally invest Manikantha as the heir prince (''yuvraja''). However, the queen under the influence of an evil minister objected. The minister had advised the queen that only her younger biological child should be the next king. The younger child was disabled and lacked the ability to perform the duties of the king, something that the scheming evil minister thought would make him the de facto ruler.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The minister persuaded the queen to feign an illness, ask for "tiger's milk" to cure her illness and demand that Manikantha be sent to get the milk from the forest. Manikantha volunteers, goes into the forest and returns riding a tigress.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The king, realising Manikantha's special ability recognizes the adopted son to be a divine being, resolves to make a shrine for him. For location, Manikantha shoots an arrow that lands thirty kilometers away. The young boy then transforms into Ayyappan. The place where arrow landed is now an Ayyappa shrine, a site of a major pilgrimage that is particularly popular for visits on [[Makar Sankranti|Makara Sankranti]] (about January 14).{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–19}}
At age 12, the king wanted to formally invest Manikantha as the heir prince (''yuvraja''). However, the queen under the influence of an evil minister objected. The minister had advised the queen that only her younger biological child should be the next king. The younger child was disabled and lacked the ability to perform the duties of the king, something that the scheming evil minister thought would make him the de facto ruler.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The minister persuaded the queen to feign an illness, ask for "tiger's milk" to cure her illness and demand that Manikantha be sent to get the milk from the forest. Manikantha volunteers, goes into the forest, and returns riding a tigress.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The king, realising Manikantha's special ability recognizes the adopted son to be a divine being, resolves to make a shrine for him. For the location, Manikantha shoots an arrow that lands thirty kilometers away. The young boy then transforms into Ayyappan. The place where arrow landed is now an Ayyappa shrine, a site of a major pilgrimage that is particularly popular for visits on [[Makar Sankranti|Makara Sankranti]] (about January 14).{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–19}}


The above core story is shared wherever Ayyappan is revered in India.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–22}} Sometimes the story is slightly different or extended, such as the younger son of the queen is not disabled, Ayyappan does bring tigress milk for the queen riding on a tiger, but after doing so Ayyappan renounces the kingdom, becomes an ascetic yogi and returns to live as a great warrior in the forested mountain.<ref name="Pattanaik2014p109">{{cite book|author=Devdutt Pattanaik|title=Pashu: Animal Tales from Hindu Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojqQBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-81-8475-692-0|pages=109–111}}</ref>
The above core story is shared wherever Ayyappan is revered in India.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–22}} Sometimes the story is slightly different or extended, such as the younger son of the queen is not disabled, Ayyappan does bring tigress milk for the queen riding on a tiger, but after doing so Ayyappan renounces the kingdom, becomes an ascetic yogi and returns to live as a great warrior in the forested mountain.<ref name="Pattanaik2014p109">{{cite book|author=Devdutt Pattanaik|title=Pashu: Animal Tales from Hindu Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojqQBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-81-8475-692-0|pages=109–111}}</ref>


===Medieval interpretations===
===Medieval interpretations===
[[File:Ayyanar with Poorna Pushkala IMG 20170813 170522 1.jpg|thumb|Dharma sastha is a complete incarnation, worshiped as a celibate deity, but in some places one of his incarnation sasthav is worshipped as grihastha deity along with two consorts.]]
[[File:Ayyanar with Poorna Pushkala IMG 20170813 170522 1.jpg|thumb|Dharma Shasta is a complete incarnation, worshiped as a celibate deity, but in some places one of his incarnations, Shasta is worshipped as Ayyanar along with two consorts.]]
In the medieval age, the stories of Ayyappan expanded. One story has roots between the 1st and 3rd century CE, where Ayyappan evolves to be a deity who also protects traders and merchants from enemies such as robbers and plundering outlaws.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} Ayyappa came to be portrayed as a military genius. His temple and tradition inspired Hindu yogi mercenaries who protected the trade routes in South India from criminals and looters, restoring Dharmic trading practices.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}}
In the medieval age, the stories of Ayyappan expanded. One story has roots between the 1st and 3rd century CE, where Ayyappan evolves to be a deity who also protects traders and merchants from enemies such as robbers and plundering outlaws.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} Ayyappa came to be portrayed as a military genius. His temple and tradition inspired Hindu yogi mercenaries who protected the trade routes in South India from criminals and looters, restoring Dharmic trading practices.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}}


In one of the stories, Ayyappan is portrayed as a child of a priest whose father was murdered by the fearsome outlaw Udayanan. The outlaw also kidnaps a princess. Ayyappan then makes a daring rescue, attacks and kills evil Udayanan.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} In another version of this story, the rulers of Pantalam themselves sent Ayyappan as a mercenary to the Pantya rulers to whom the ruler of Pantalam was related. In another late medieval era variation of the story, Ayyappan forms an alliance with the Muslim warrior Vavar against Udayanan, the basis for some devotees worshiping both in a mosque and then in the Hindu temple before starting a pilgrimage to Ayyappan shrine.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}}
In one of the stories, Ayyappan is portrayed as a child of a priest whose father was murdered by the fearsome outlaw Udayanan. The outlaw also kidnaps a princess. Ayyappan then makes a daring rescue, attacks and kills evil Udayanan.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} In another version of this story, the rulers of Pantalam themselves sent Ayyappan as a mercenary to the Pantya rulers to whom the ruler of Pantalam was related. In another late medieval era variation of the story, Ayyappan forms an alliance with the Muslim warrior Vavar against Udayanan, the basis for some devotees worshiping both in a mosque and then in the Hindu temple before starting a pilgrimage to Ayyappan shrine.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}}


[[File:Veroor Sri Dharmashastha Temple(1).jpg|thumb|Ayyappan (Dharma Sastha) temple in Vadakkekkara, [[Changanassery]].]]
According to Paul Younger, supplementary legends appeared in the late medieval times that linked other Hindu deities and mythologies to Ayyappan heritage.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} One such story links Ayyappan to the buffalo-demon Mahishasura and buffalo-demoness Mahishasuri. The divine beings [[Dattatreya|Datta]] and Lila came to earth as humans. Datta wanted to return to the divine realm, but Lila enjoyed her life on earth and Datta's company. She wanted to stay on earth.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=21}} Datta became angry and cursed her to become a Mahishi, or water buffalo demoness. Lila in turn cursed him to become a Mahisha, or water buffalo demon. They plundered earth with their evil acts. The water buffalo demon Mahishasura was killed by goddess [[Durga]], while the water demoness Mahishasuri was killed by Ayyapan, ending the terror of evil and liberating divine Lila who was previously cursed.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–22}} These legends, states Younger, syncretically link and combine various Hindu traditions around Shiva ([[Shaivism]]), Vishnu ([[Vaishnavism]]) and [[Devi]] ([[Shaktism]]).{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–22}}
According to Paul Younger, supplementary legends appeared by the late medieval times that linked other Hindu deities and mythologies to Ayyappan heritage.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} One such story links Ayyappan to the buffalo-demon Mahishasura and buffalo-demoness Mahishasuri. The divine beings [[Dattatreya|Datta]] and Lila came to earth as humans. Datta wanted to return to the divine realm, but Lila enjoyed her life on earth and Datta's company. She wanted to stay on earth.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=21}} Datta became angry and cursed her to become a Mahishi, or water buffalo demoness. Lila in turn cursed him to become a Mahisha, or water buffalo demon. They plundered earth with their evil acts. The water buffalo demon Mahishasura was killed by goddess [[Durga]], while the water demoness Mahishasuri was killed by Ayyapan, ending the terror of evil and liberating divine Lila who was previously cursed.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–22}} These legends, states Younger, syncretically link and combine various Hindu traditions around Shiva ([[Shaivism]]), Vishnu ([[Vaishnavism]]) and [[Devi]] ([[Shaktism]]).{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–22}}


== Temples ==
== Temples ==
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===Sabarimala===
===Sabarimala===
[[File:Sabarimala pilgrims walking.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Ayyappan pilgrims walking barefoot to the Sabarimala shrine.]]
[[File:Sabarimala pilgrims walking.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Ayyappan pilgrims walking barefoot to the Sabarimala shrine.]]
Ayyappan has roots in Kerala, but his influence and popularity has grown among the Hindus in South Indian states. Of his many temples, the most significant is at Sabarimala (also spelled Sabarimalai), set in the forests of the pathanamthitta district Western Ghats on the banks of river Pamba, southeast of [[Kottayam]]. It is a major pilgrimage, attracting millions of Hindus every year, particularly of Malayali, Tamil, kannada and Telugu heritage.<ref name="Smith1978p3">{{cite book|author=Fred Clothey|editor=Bardwell L. Smith|title=Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x2Jzn_LuLasC |year=1978|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05674-2|pages=3–9 with footnotes}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18-23}}<ref name="Eck2012p13"/>
Ayyappan has roots in Kerala, but his influence and popularity have grown among the Hindus in South Indian states. Of his many temples, the most significant is at [[Sabarimala]] (also spelled Sabarimalai), set in the forests of the Pathanamthitta district in the Western Ghats on the banks of river Pamba, southeast of [[Kottayam]]. It is a major pilgrimage, attracting millions of Hindus every year, particularly of Malayali, Tamil, Kannada and Telugu heritage.<ref name="Smith1978p3">{{cite book|author=Fred Clothey|editor=Bardwell L. Smith|title=Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x2Jzn_LuLasC |year=1978|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05674-2|pages=3–9 with footnotes}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18-23}}<ref name="Eck2012p13"/>


[[File:SabarimalaRush2010.JPG|thumb|A crowd in front of the Ayyappan temple, Sabarimala]]
[[File:SabarimalaRush2010.JPG|thumb|A crowd in front of the Ayyappan temple, Sabarimala]]
Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or ''[[sadhu]]''-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/><ref name="Kent2013p14">{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref name="Eck2012p13"/> The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: ''swami''.<ref name="Eck2012p13">{{cite book|author=Diana L Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&pg=PA13|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-53191-7|pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1987p244">{{cite book|author=E. Valentine Daniel|title=Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwZatzse3CsC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06167-5|pages=244–262}}</ref> After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting ''[[shlokas]]''.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Knapp|title=Spiritual India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&pg=PT416 |year=2009| publisher=Jaico|isbn=978-81-8495-024-3|pages=416–419}}</ref>
Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or ''[[sadhu]]''-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/><ref name="Kent2013p14">{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref name="Eck2012p13"/> The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: ''swami''.<ref name="Eck2012p13">{{cite book|author=Diana L Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&pg=PA13|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-53191-7|pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1987p244">{{cite book|author=E. Valentine Daniel|title=Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwZatzse3CsC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06167-5|pages=244–262}}</ref> After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting ''[[shlokas]]''.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Knapp|title=Spiritual India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&pg=PT416 |year=2009| publisher=Jaico|isbn=978-81-8495-024-3|pages=416–419}}</ref>


To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Girls and older women are welcome and join the journey with men, but women between the ages of 10-50 are strictly prohibited in sabarimala. Because of the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a [[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]] (celibate) deity.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/><ref name=bri/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry ''irumudi'' (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.<ref name="Daniel1987p244"/>
To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Women of menstruating age (between the ages of 10-50) were strictly prohibited in the temple until 2018. This was said to be due to the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a [[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]] (celibate) deity.<ref name=bri/><ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} The Supreme Court of India ruled on 28 September 2018 that [[Entry of women to Sabarimala|women could not be prohibited from entering the temple]]. This led to violent protests.
 
===Other Ayappan Temples in India===
1. Ayappa Temple, RK Puram, New Delhi
 
2. Noida Ayappa Temple
 
3. Lord Ayappa Temple, Lucknow
 
4. Raja Annamalai Puram Ayappan Temple,R.A.Puram, Chennai
 
5. Sri Ayappa Swamy Temple, Hyderabad
 
6. Lord Shree Ayappa Temple - Gandhinagar Gujarat
 
7. Ayappa Temple - Jabalpur
 
8. Anna Nagar Ayyappan Koil, Chennai
 
9. Sree Ayyappa temple, Sector 7, Rohini, Delhi
 
10. Siddaputhur Ayyappan koil, Coimbatore
 
11. Ayappa Swamy Temple, Warangal, Telangana
 
12. Ayyappan koil, Ayyappan Kavu, Ernakulam (Near Ernakulam North Railway station), Kerala
<ref>[[Anna Nagar Ayyappan Koil, Chennai]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=February 2021}}


13. Sri Sri Sri Manikanta Swamy Vaari Devasthanam, kattempudi, ponnuru, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry ''irumudi'' (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.<ref name="Smith1978p3" />{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.<ref name="Daniel1987p244" />


==Other religions==
==Other religions==
[[File:Vavar mosque kerala.jpg|thumb|right|Vavar's mosque on the way to Sabarimala.]]
[[File:Vavar mosque kerala.jpg|thumb|right|Vavar's mosque on the way to Sabarimala.]]
He is also revered by [[Islam in Kerala|Muslims in Kerala]]<ref name=Quinn/> due to his friendship with [[Vavar]],<ref>Mohammada, Malika (23 August 2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA333 "The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India"]. Aakar Books. Retrieved on 23 August 2017 – via Google Books.</ref> who is identified as a Muslim brigand in local versions of the Ayyappan myth.<ref>Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (23 August 2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=yGLrI8-io_AC&pg=PA148 "Men and Masculinities in South India"]. Anthem Press – via Google Books.</ref> In this mythology, Ayyappan confronts the plunder-driven pirate robber Vavar in the jungle on his way to collect tigress milk. They fight. Ayyappan defeats Vavar, and Vavar changes his way, becomes Ayyappan's trusted lieutenant helping fight other pirates and robbers.<ref name=kent81>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=81–86}}</ref> In another version, Vavar is stated to be a Muslim saint from Arabia, who works with Ayyappan.<ref name=kent81/><ref> https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/before-arriving-at-sabarimala-temple-in-kerala-devotees-visit-a-mosque/articleshow/50334905.cms</ref>
He is also revered by [[Islam in Kerala|Muslims in Kerala]]<ref name=Quinn/> due to his friendship with [[Vavar]],<ref>Mohammada, Malika (23 August 2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA333 "The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India"]. Aakar Books. Retrieved on 23 August 2017 – via Google Books.</ref> who is identified as a Muslim brigand in local versions of the Ayyappan myth.<ref>Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (23 August 2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=yGLrI8-io_AC&pg=PA148 "Men and Masculinities in South India"]. Anthem Press – via Google Books.</ref> In this mythology, Ayyappan confronts the plunder-driven pirate robber Vavar in the jungle on his way to collect tigress milk. They fight. Ayyappan defeats Vavar, and Vavar changes his way, becomes Ayyappan's trusted lieutenant helping fight other pirates and robbers.<ref name=kent81>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=81–86}}</ref> In another version, Vavar is stated to be a Muslim saint from Arabia, who works with Ayyappan.<ref name=kent81/><ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/before-arriving-at-sabarimala-temple-in-kerala-devotees-visit-a-mosque/articleshow/50334905.cms | title=Before arriving at Sabarimala temple in Kerala, devotees visit a mosque | newspaper=The Economic Times | last1=Kumar | first1=KP Narayana }}</ref>


A mosque dedicated to Ayyappan's lieutenant Vavar swami stands next to Kadutha swami shrine at the foot of the pilgrimage path, both as a form of guardian deities. Some pilgrims offer a prayer to both, before beginning their Sabarimala forest and mountain pilgrimage hike.<ref name=kent81/> According to Kent, the mosque does not contain mortal remains of Vavar swami though the mosque near Sabarimala includes a grave, and no one can date Vavar nor provide when and where he lived, so he may be a myth. The Vavar legend and ''palli'' shrines may reflect the Hindu approach to accepting and co-opting legendary figures or saints of other religions within its fold.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=84–88}}</ref>
A mosque dedicated to Ayyappan's lieutenant Vavar swami stands next to the Kadutha swami shrine at the foot of the pilgrimage path, both as a form of guardian deities. Some pilgrims offer a prayer to both, before beginning their Sabarimala forest and mountain pilgrimage hike.<ref name=kent81/> According to Kent, the mosque does not contain mortal remains of Vavar swami though the mosque near Sabarimala includes a grave, and no one can date Vavar nor provide when and where he lived, so he may be a myth. The Vavar legend and ''palli'' shrines may reflect the Hindu approach to accepting and co-opting legendary figures or saints of other religions within its fold.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=84–88}}</ref>


==Movies and TV shows==
== Popular culture ==
A number of Indian films have been made about the deity. These include: ''[[Sabarimala Ayyappan]]'' (1961) by [[S. M. Sriramulu Naidu]], [[Swami Ayyappan (1975 film)|''Swami Ayyappan'']] (1975) by [[P. Subramaniam]], ''[[Saranam Ayyappa]]'' (1980) by Dasarathan, ''Arul Tharum Ayyappan'' (1987) by Dasarathan, ''Shiv Putra Swami Ayappa'' (1990) by P.S. Mani, [[Sabarimala Sri Ayyappan]] (1990) by Renuka Sharma, ''[[Engal Swamy Ayyappan]]'' (1990) by Dasarathan, ''Ayyappa Swamy Mahatyam'' (1991), ''Ayyappa Deeksha Mahimalu'' (1992) by Guda Rama Krishna, ''Swami Ayappa Shabarimalai'' (1993) by [[K. Shankar]], ''Jai Hari Hara Putra Ayyappa'' (1995), ''Bhagwaan Ayyappa'' (2007) by Irajaral Bhakhta and V. Swaminathan, ''[[Swami Ayyappan (2012 film)|Swami Ayyappan]]'' (2012) by Chetan Sharma and Mahesh Vettiyar, ''Om Sharanam Ayyappa'' (2015) by K. Sharath, ''Sri Omkara Ayyappane'' (2016) by [[Sai Prakash]], ''Ayyappa Kataksham'' (2019) by Rudrapatla Venugopal.<ref name="RajadhyakshaWillemen1999">{{cite book|last1=Rajadhyaksha|first1=Ashish|last2=Willemen|first2=Paul|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja|url-access=registration|accessdate=|year=1999|publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Ayyappan now in toon avatar |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/ayyappan-now-in-toon-avatar/article3549553.ece |date=June 20, 2012| access-date = 2014-06-21 }}</ref>
A number of Indian films have been made about the deity. These include: ''[[Sabarimala Ayyappan]]'' (1961) by [[S. M. Sriramulu Naidu]], [[Swami Ayyappan (1975 film)|''Swami Ayyappan'']] (1975) by [[P. Subramaniam]], ''[[Saranam Ayyappa]]'' (1980) by Dasarathan, ''Arul Tharum Ayyappan'' (1987) by Dasarathan, ''Shiv Putra Swami Ayappa'' (1990) by P.S. Mani, [[Sabarimala Sri Ayyappan]] (1990) by Renuka Sharma, ''[[Engal Swamy Ayyappan]]'' (1990) by Dasarathan, ''Ayyappa Swamy Mahatyam'' (1991), ''Ayyappa Deeksha Mahimalu'' (1992) by Guda Rama Krishna, ''Swami Ayappa Shabarimalai'' (1993) by [[K. Shankar]], ''Jai Hari Hara Putra Ayyappa'' (1995), ''Bhagwaan Ayyappa'' (2007) by Irajaral Bhakhta and V. Swaminathan, ''[[Swami Ayyappan (2012 film)|Swami Ayyappan]]'' (2012) by Chetan Sharma and Mahesh Vettiyar, ''Om Sharanam Ayyappa'' (2015) by K. Sharath, ''Sri Omkara Ayyappane'' (2016) by [[Sai Prakash]], ''Ayyappa Kataksham'' (2019) by Rudrapatla Venugopal.<ref name="RajadhyakshaWillemen1999">{{cite book|last1=Rajadhyaksha|first1=Ashish|last2=Willemen|first2=Paul|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja|url-access=registration|accessdate=|year=1999|publisher=British Film Institute|isbn=9780851706696 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Ayyappan now in toon avatar |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/ayyappan-now-in-toon-avatar/article3549553.ece |date=June 20, 2012| access-date = 2014-06-21 }}</ref>


The Indian television channel [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] launched a [[Malayalam]]-language series named [[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)|''Swami Ayyappan'']] in 2006, this was followed by ''Swami Ayyappan Saram'' (2010), ''Sabarimala Shri Dharmashasta'' (2012) and ''Sabarimala Swami Ayappan'' (2019).
The Indian television channel [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] launched a [[Malayalam]]-language series named [[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)|''Swami Ayyappan'']] in 2006, this was followed by ''Swami Ayyappan Saram'' (2010), ''Sabarimala Shri Dharmashasta'' (2012) and ''Sabarimala Swami Ayappan'' (2019). The 2021 movie [[The Great Indian Kitchen]] prominently features a family of devotees of Ayyappan.


The story of Ayyappa is dictated by [[Parvati]] to [[Ganesha]] in the Indian TV show on [[Sony TV]], called [[Vighnaharta Ganesha|Vighnaharta Ganesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sonyliv.com/details/episodes/6117114715001/Ep.-608---Story-Time-For-The-Kids---Vighnaharta-Ganesh---19-December-2019|title=Ep. 608 - Story Time For The Kids - Vighnaharta Ganesh|website=SonyLIV}}</ref>
The story of Ayyappa is dictated by [[Parvati]] to [[Ganesha]] in the Indian TV show on [[Sony TV]], called [[Vighnaharta Ganesha|Vighnaharta Ganesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sonyliv.com/details/episodes/6117114715001/Ep.-608---Story-Time-For-The-Kids---Vighnaharta-Ganesh---19-December-2019|title=Ep. 608 - Story Time For The Kids - Vighnaharta Ganesh|website=SonyLIV}}</ref>
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* [[Maalikapurathamma]]
* [[Maalikapurathamma]]
* [[Makara Jyothi]]
* [[Makara Jyothi]]
* [[Pallikal kavu]]
* [[Sabarimala]]
* [[Sabarimala]]
* [[Tazhamon Madom]]
* [[Tazhamon Madom]]

Revision as of 06:15, 13 June 2022


"Ayyappa" redirects here. For other uses, see Ayyappa (disambiguation).
Ayyappan
God of righteousness and celibacy
A painting of Ayyapppan seated on a tiger with a herd of tigers behind him.
Ayyappan, c. 1950s
AffiliationHinduism
AbodeSabarimala
MantraSwamiye Saranam Ayyappa and Ayyapan Gayatri Mantra
WeaponBow and arrow, sword
SymbolsBell, bow and arrow
MountTiger
TextsBrahmanda Purana
Personal information
Parents

Ayyappan (Malayalam: അയ്യപ്പൻ), also called Dharmasastha and Manikandan, is a Hindu deity popular in Southern India, He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.

Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier in South India, his popularity rose only in the late 20th century.[1][2][3] According to Hindu theology, he is the son of Harihara (Vishnu in the form of Mohini and Shiva).[3][4] Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.[2][3]

The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate (Brahmachari) deity doing yoga and as an epitome of Dharma, who wears a bell around his neck. He is also honoured by Muslims in Kerala, with legends wherein Ayyappan defeats and gains worship of the Muslim brigand Vavar.[2][4][5] In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape-shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior yogi champion of ethical and dharmic living.[2][6][7] In South Indian portrayals, Ayyappan images show him riding a tigress, but in some places such as Sri Lanka he is shown as riding a white elephant.[8][9]

Ayyappan's popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at Sabarimala, nestled in the hills of Pathanamthitta of Kerala. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,[4] making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.[10][11] The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity. He remains one of the few deities in Hindu tradition, who is respected by other religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.[2] The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku (Makara Sankranti), observed around the winter solstice.[3][12]

Names and iconography

Ayyappan icon similar to the Sabarimala icon in a yogic position.

The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father". The name may literally come from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes Mohini (Mohini here called father, she is a female form of the god Vishnu) and Shiva respectively.[13] However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era Puranas, leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word acchan and Tamil word appa which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".[14][15] The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being Sastava (Sasta, Sashta, Sastra), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".[15] The words Sastha and Dharmasastha in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.[16]

Ayyappan is also known as Hariharasudhan[17] – meaning the "son of Harihara" or a fusion deity of Hari and Hara, the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.[18] He is also called Manikanta from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,[19] and kanta, Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.[16]

Ayyappan is a warrior deity. He is revered for his ascetic devotion to Dharma – the ethical and right way of living, to deploy his military genius and daring yogic war abilities to destroy those who are powerful but unethical, abusive and arbitrary.[20] His iconography is usually shown with a bow and arrow upraised in his left hand, while in his right he holds either a bow or a sword diagonally across his left thigh.[21] Other depictions of Ayyappan, particularly paintings, generally show him in a yogic posture wearing a bell around his neck[2] and sometimes shown riding a tiger.[22]

Life and legends

The legends and mythology of Ayyappa varies across region like other Hindu gods and goddesses, reflecting a tradition that evolved and enriched over time, sometimes in conflicting ways.[23][24] For example, the Sribhutanatha Purana text presents Ayyappan as an incarnation of the Hindu deity Hariharaputra, the son of Shiva and Mohini. This interaction between Shiva and Mohini is mentioned in the Bhagavata Purana, but Ayyappan is not mentioned.[25] In the oral tradition as represented by Malayalam folk songs, Ayyappa is presented as a warrior hero of Pandala kingdom. According to Eliza Kent, the legends in the Ayyappa tradition seem to be "artificially mixed and assembled into a kind of collage".[24] Ruth Vanita suggests that Ayyappan probably emerged from the fusion of a Dravidian god of tribal provenance and the Puranic story of Shiva and Mohini's interaction.[26]

Core story

There once was a kingdom of Pandalam where Ayyappan originated.[27] The royal family was childless. One day the king of Pandalam found a baby boy in a forest.[2][3][4] The king carried the baby to an ascetic in the forest to inquire about the boy.[27] The ascetic advised the king to take the baby home, raise him like his own son, and that in 12 years he would discover who the baby was.[27] The royal family did so, naming the baby Manikantha.[27]

Ayyappan, also called Hariharaputra, is believed to be born from the union of Shiva and Mohini.[28]

At age 12, the king wanted to formally invest Manikantha as the heir prince (yuvraja). However, the queen under the influence of an evil minister objected. The minister had advised the queen that only her younger biological child should be the next king. The younger child was disabled and lacked the ability to perform the duties of the king, something that the scheming evil minister thought would make him the de facto ruler.[27] The minister persuaded the queen to feign an illness, ask for "tiger's milk" to cure her illness and demand that Manikantha be sent to get the milk from the forest. Manikantha volunteers, goes into the forest, and returns riding a tigress.[27] The king, realising Manikantha's special ability recognizes the adopted son to be a divine being, resolves to make a shrine for him. For the location, Manikantha shoots an arrow that lands thirty kilometers away. The young boy then transforms into Ayyappan. The place where arrow landed is now an Ayyappa shrine, a site of a major pilgrimage that is particularly popular for visits on Makara Sankranti (about January 14).[29]

The above core story is shared wherever Ayyappan is revered in India.[30] Sometimes the story is slightly different or extended, such as the younger son of the queen is not disabled, Ayyappan does bring tigress milk for the queen riding on a tiger, but after doing so Ayyappan renounces the kingdom, becomes an ascetic yogi and returns to live as a great warrior in the forested mountain.[31]

Medieval interpretations

Dharma Shasta is a complete incarnation, worshiped as a celibate deity, but in some places one of his incarnations, Shasta is worshipped as Ayyanar along with two consorts.

In the medieval age, the stories of Ayyappan expanded. One story has roots between the 1st and 3rd century CE, where Ayyappan evolves to be a deity who also protects traders and merchants from enemies such as robbers and plundering outlaws.[32] Ayyappa came to be portrayed as a military genius. His temple and tradition inspired Hindu yogi mercenaries who protected the trade routes in South India from criminals and looters, restoring Dharmic trading practices.[32]

In one of the stories, Ayyappan is portrayed as a child of a priest whose father was murdered by the fearsome outlaw Udayanan. The outlaw also kidnaps a princess. Ayyappan then makes a daring rescue, attacks and kills evil Udayanan.[32] In another version of this story, the rulers of Pantalam themselves sent Ayyappan as a mercenary to the Pantya rulers to whom the ruler of Pantalam was related. In another late medieval era variation of the story, Ayyappan forms an alliance with the Muslim warrior Vavar against Udayanan, the basis for some devotees worshiping both in a mosque and then in the Hindu temple before starting a pilgrimage to Ayyappan shrine.[32]

According to Paul Younger, supplementary legends appeared in the late medieval times that linked other Hindu deities and mythologies to Ayyappan heritage.[32] One such story links Ayyappan to the buffalo-demon Mahishasura and buffalo-demoness Mahishasuri. The divine beings Datta and Lila came to earth as humans. Datta wanted to return to the divine realm, but Lila enjoyed her life on earth and Datta's company. She wanted to stay on earth.[33] Datta became angry and cursed her to become a Mahishi, or water buffalo demoness. Lila in turn cursed him to become a Mahisha, or water buffalo demon. They plundered earth with their evil acts. The water buffalo demon Mahishasura was killed by goddess Durga, while the water demoness Mahishasuri was killed by Ayyapan, ending the terror of evil and liberating divine Lila who was previously cursed.[34] These legends, states Younger, syncretically link and combine various Hindu traditions around Shiva (Shaivism), Vishnu (Vaishnavism) and Devi (Shaktism).[34]

Temples

Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh. The entrance shows Ayyappan riding a tiger.

There are many temples in Kerala whose presiding deity is Ayyappan, the most famous among them being the Sabarimala temple. Padinettam Padi Karuppan is Guardian Of Ayyappan temple. The temple attracts millions of visitors every year during mandala season from mid November to mid January. Other important temples are Kulathupuzha Sastha Temple, Aryankavu Sastha Temple, Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple, Erumely Sree Dharmasastha Temple and Ponnambalamedu Temple.

Ayyappan temples typically show him as a celibate yogi. A few important temples such as the one at Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple near Travancore, however, depict him as a married man with two wives Poorna and Pushkala, as well as a son Satyaka.[35][36] Some of Ayyappan temples are believed to have been established by the Vishnu avatar Parashurama.[37]

Sabarimala

Ayyappan pilgrims walking barefoot to the Sabarimala shrine.

Ayyappan has roots in Kerala, but his influence and popularity have grown among the Hindus in South Indian states. Of his many temples, the most significant is at Sabarimala (also spelled Sabarimalai), set in the forests of the Pathanamthitta district in the Western Ghats on the banks of river Pamba, southeast of Kottayam. It is a major pilgrimage, attracting millions of Hindus every year, particularly of Malayali, Tamil, Kannada and Telugu heritage.[38][39][40]

A crowd in front of the Ayyappan temple, Sabarimala

Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or sadhu-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.[38][41][40] The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: swami.[40][42] After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting shlokas.[38][43][44]

To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Women of menstruating age (between the ages of 10-50) were strictly prohibited in the temple until 2018. This was said to be due to the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a Brahmachari (celibate) deity.[2][38][43] The Supreme Court of India ruled on 28 September 2018 that women could not be prohibited from entering the temple. This led to violent protests.

The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry irumudi (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.[38][43] For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.[42]

Other religions

Vavar's mosque on the way to Sabarimala.

He is also revered by Muslims in Kerala[4] due to his friendship with Vavar,[45] who is identified as a Muslim brigand in local versions of the Ayyappan myth.[46] In this mythology, Ayyappan confronts the plunder-driven pirate robber Vavar in the jungle on his way to collect tigress milk. They fight. Ayyappan defeats Vavar, and Vavar changes his way, becomes Ayyappan's trusted lieutenant helping fight other pirates and robbers.[47] In another version, Vavar is stated to be a Muslim saint from Arabia, who works with Ayyappan.[47][48]

A mosque dedicated to Ayyappan's lieutenant Vavar swami stands next to the Kadutha swami shrine at the foot of the pilgrimage path, both as a form of guardian deities. Some pilgrims offer a prayer to both, before beginning their Sabarimala forest and mountain pilgrimage hike.[47] According to Kent, the mosque does not contain mortal remains of Vavar swami though the mosque near Sabarimala includes a grave, and no one can date Vavar nor provide when and where he lived, so he may be a myth. The Vavar legend and palli shrines may reflect the Hindu approach to accepting and co-opting legendary figures or saints of other religions within its fold.[49]

Popular culture

A number of Indian films have been made about the deity. These include: Sabarimala Ayyappan (1961) by S. M. Sriramulu Naidu, Swami Ayyappan (1975) by P. Subramaniam, Saranam Ayyappa (1980) by Dasarathan, Arul Tharum Ayyappan (1987) by Dasarathan, Shiv Putra Swami Ayappa (1990) by P.S. Mani, Sabarimala Sri Ayyappan (1990) by Renuka Sharma, Engal Swamy Ayyappan (1990) by Dasarathan, Ayyappa Swamy Mahatyam (1991), Ayyappa Deeksha Mahimalu (1992) by Guda Rama Krishna, Swami Ayappa Shabarimalai (1993) by K. Shankar, Jai Hari Hara Putra Ayyappa (1995), Bhagwaan Ayyappa (2007) by Irajaral Bhakhta and V. Swaminathan, Swami Ayyappan (2012) by Chetan Sharma and Mahesh Vettiyar, Om Sharanam Ayyappa (2015) by K. Sharath, Sri Omkara Ayyappane (2016) by Sai Prakash, Ayyappa Kataksham (2019) by Rudrapatla Venugopal.[50][51]

The Indian television channel Asianet launched a Malayalam-language series named Swami Ayyappan in 2006, this was followed by Swami Ayyappan Saram (2010), Sabarimala Shri Dharmashasta (2012) and Sabarimala Swami Ayappan (2019). The 2021 movie The Great Indian Kitchen prominently features a family of devotees of Ayyappan.

The story of Ayyappa is dictated by Parvati to Ganesha in the Indian TV show on Sony TV, called Vighnaharta Ganesh.[52]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Chandra, Suresh (1998). Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Sarup and Sons. p. 28. ISBN 8176250392.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 "Ayyappan – Hindu deity". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2014.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9, page 58
  5. ↑ "Hindu pilgrims pray at a mosque in Kerala – Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis". 12 January 2010.
  6. ↑ Jeffery D. Long (2011). Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Scarecrow Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8108-7960-7.
  7. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 17-21.
  8. ↑ MN Srinivas (2002). Collected Essays. Oxford University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-19-565174-4.
  9. ↑ D. P. Dubey (1995). Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions. SPS. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-81-900520-1-6.
  10. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 22–24.
  11. ↑ Press Trust of India (June 23, 2011). "Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  12. ↑ Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. pp. 238, 350. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  13. ↑ Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe; Alexander Wynne (2012). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-136-52088-4.; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see Four Noble Truths) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)
  14. ↑ Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov (1996). A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 49. ISBN 978-3-447-03811-9.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Johannes Bronkhorst; Madhav Deshpande (1999). Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-1-888789-04-1.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  17. ↑ Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)
  18. ↑ Younger, p.22
  19. ↑ "maNi". Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit. spokensanskrit.org. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  20. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 21–25.
  21. ↑ Williams, Joanna Gottfried (1981). Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India. p. 72. ISBN 9004064982.
  22. ↑ "The mount of Swami Ayyappan is tiger". media4news.com.
  23. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18–25.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 80–83. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  25. ↑ Goudriaan, Teun (1978). "The Māyā of the Gods: Mohini". Māyā divine and human. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-81-208-2389-1.
  26. ↑ Ruth Vanita; Saleem Kidwai (2000). Same-Sex Love in India: Readings in Indian Literature. Springer Publishing. p. 94. ISBN 1137054808.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 Younger 2002, p. 18.
  28. ↑ Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  29. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18–19.
  30. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18–22.
  31. ↑ Devdutt Pattanaik (2014). Pashu: Animal Tales from Hindu Mythology. Penguin Books. pp. 109–111. ISBN 978-81-8475-692-0.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Younger 2002, pp. 20–21.
  33. ↑ Younger 2002, p. 21.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Younger 2002, pp. 21–22.
  35. ↑ K. Srikumaran (2005). Theerthayathra: A Pilgrimage Through Various Temples. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 103, 120. ISBN 978-81-7276-363-3.
  36. ↑ Pattanaik, Devdutt (9 January 2014). The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 9781317766308.
  37. ↑ Maria A. David (2009). Beyond Boundaries: Hindu-Christian Relationship and Basic Christian Communities. ISPCK. p. 9. ISBN 978-81-8465-001-3.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 Fred Clothey (1978). Bardwell L. Smith (ed.). Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia. BRILL Academic. pp. 3–9 with footnotes. ISBN 90-04-05674-2.
  39. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18-23.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Diana L Eck (2012). India: A Sacred Geography. Random House. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7.
  41. ↑ Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 E. Valentine Daniel (1987). Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way. University of California Press. pp. 244–262. ISBN 978-0-520-06167-5.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Younger 2002, pp. 18–23.
  44. ↑ Stephen Knapp (2009). Spiritual India Handbook. Jaico. pp. 416–419. ISBN 978-81-8495-024-3.
  45. ↑ Mohammada, Malika (23 August 2017). "The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India". Aakar Books. Retrieved on 23 August 2017 – via Google Books.
  46. ↑ Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (23 August 2017). "Men and Masculinities in South India". Anthem Press – via Google Books.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 81–86. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  48. ↑ Kumar, KP Narayana. "Before arriving at Sabarimala temple in Kerala, devotees visit a mosque". The Economic Times.
  49. ↑ Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 84–88. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  50. ↑ Rajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen, Paul (1999). Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema. British Film Institute. ISBN 9780851706696.
  51. ↑ "Ayyappan now in toon avatar". The Hindu. June 20, 2012. Retrieved 2014-06-21.
  52. ↑ "Ep. 608 - Story Time For The Kids - Vighnaharta Ganesh". SonyLIV.

Bibliography

External links

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