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[[Religious nationalism]] has grown in the post-colonial era. Pakistan converted from a secular republic to an [[Islamic Republic]] after Independence,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ziring |first=Lawrence |title=From Islamic Republic to Islamic State in Pakistan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644077 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=24 |issue=9 |pages=931–946 |doi=10.2307/2644077 |issn=0004-4687}}</ref> while Bangladesh made Islam the state religion (though while maintaining secularism in the Constitution).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergman |first=David |title=Bangladesh court upholds Islam as religion of the state |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/3/28/bangladesh-court-upholds-islam-as-religion-of-the-state |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Hindutva|Hindu nationalism]] has grown since the 2014 election of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rise of Hindu Nationalism and Its Regional and Global Ramifications |url=https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-rise-of-hindu-nationalism-and-its-regional-and-global-ramifications/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Association for Asian Studies |language=en-US}}</ref>
[[Religious nationalism]] has grown in the post-colonial era. Pakistan converted from a secular republic to an [[Islamic Republic]] after Independence,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ziring |first=Lawrence |title=From Islamic Republic to Islamic State in Pakistan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644077 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=24 |issue=9 |pages=931–946 |doi=10.2307/2644077 |issn=0004-4687}}</ref> while Bangladesh made Islam the state religion (though while maintaining secularism in the Constitution).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergman |first=David |title=Bangladesh court upholds Islam as religion of the state |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/3/28/bangladesh-court-upholds-islam-as-religion-of-the-state |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Hindutva|Hindu nationalism]] has grown since the 2014 election of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rise of Hindu Nationalism and Its Regional and Global Ramifications |url=https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-rise-of-hindu-nationalism-and-its-regional-and-global-ramifications/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Association for Asian Studies |language=en-US}}</ref>


== South Asia by religion ==
== Indian subcontinent by religion ==
=== Hinduism ===
=== Hinduism ===
{{Excerpt|Hinduism in South Asia|templates=0|references=0}}
{{Excerpt|Hinduism in South Asia|templates=0|references=0}}

Revision as of 11:18, 28 January 2025

In 2010, Indian subcontinent had the world's largest population of Hindus,[1] about 51 crores Muslims,[1] over 2.7 crores Sikhs, 3.5 crores Christians and over 2.5 crores Buddhists.[2] Hindus make up about 68 percent or about 900 million and Muslims at 31 percent or 510 million of the overall South Asia population,[3] while Buddhists, Jains, Christians and Sikhs constitute most of the rest. The Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Christians are concentrated in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan, while the Muslims are concentrated in Afghanistan (99%), Bangladesh (90%), Pakistan (96%) and Maldives (100%).[1]

Indian religions (also known as Dharmic religions) are the religions that originated in the India; namely Hindu Dharma, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.[4] The Indian religions are distinct yet share terminology, concepts, goals and ideas, and from Indian subcontinent spread into East Asia and Southeast Asia.[4] Early Christianity and Islam were introduced into coastal regions of India by merchants who settled among the local populations. Later Sindh, Balochistan, and parts of the Punjab region saw Islamic invasion by the Arab caliphates along with an influx of Muslims from Persia and Central Asia, which resulted in spread of both Shia and Sunni Islam in parts of northwestern region of India. Subsequently, under the influence of Muslim rulers of the Islamic sultanates and the Mughal Empire, Islam spread in India,[5][6] About one-third of the world's Muslims are from Indian subcontinent.[7][8][9]

History

Main article: Religion in India § History

Ancient period

South Asia was primarily Hindu in ancient times. Buddhism appeared around 500 BCE.[10]

Christianity and Islam made an appearance in Kerala during this time period; Saint Thomas is believed to have travelled to Kerala soon after the death of Jesus and converted some people,[11] while the first mosque to be built in India was built during the Islamic prophet Muhammad's lifetime in Kerala.[12] Islam also established itself in Sindh due to Umayyad invasions soon after Muhammad's death.[13]

Some Jews and Zoroastrians came to South Asia because they were fleeing religious persecution.[14]

Medieval period

Centuries of Islamic invasion and rule over South Asia in the medieval era began to change the religious character of the region. Sufism played a significant role in the spread of Islam during this time.[15] Sikhism emerged in this era, bringing a message of equality and creating military resistance to Muslim rule.[16]

Nepal's formation during this period occurred in part due to the desire of Hindus to avoid being influenced by the dominant Muslim Mughal Empire and British Christian missionaries.[17]

Colonial era

Religion in British India in the 1871–1872 Census (data includes modern-day India, Bangladesh, most of Pakistan (including Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan), Kashmir, and coastal Myanmar))[18]

  Hinduism (73.07%)
  Islam (21.45%)
  Buddhism and Jainism (1.49%)
  Sikhism (0.62%)
  Christianity (0.47%)
  Others (2.68%)
  Religion not known (0.22%)

Christianity grew to some extent during the colonial era; the Goa Inquisition committed by the Portuguese helped Catholicism establish itself in Goa,[19][20] while British missionaries spread Christianity through the rest of India.[21][22]

Modern era

Religious tensions increased with the independence of British India, as it was partitioned into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan (which later became Pakistan and Bangladesh), and many died during the creation of the new countries.[23] Tensions further increased with Pakistani terrorist attacks on and Pakistani military conflicts with India.[24]

Religious nationalism has grown in the post-colonial era. Pakistan converted from a secular republic to an Islamic Republic after Independence,[25] while Bangladesh made Islam the state religion (though while maintaining secularism in the Constitution).[26] Hindu nationalism has grown since the 2014 election of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in India.[27]

Indian subcontinent by religion

Hinduism

Page 'Hinduism in South Asia' not found

Islam

Page 'Islam in South Asia' not found

Christianity

See also: Christianity in Asia

Sikhism

This section is an excerpt from Sikhism[edit]
The Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, India, the holiest site of the Sikh religion

Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( ', , from ), or Sikh Dharma, is a Dharmic religion and philosophy that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, around the end of the 15th century CE. It is one of the most recently founded major religious groups and stands at fifth-largest worldwide, with about 25–30million adherents (known as Sikhs).

Sikhism developed from the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the faith's first guru, and the nine Sikh gurus who succeeded him. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh (1666–1708), named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, bringing to a close the line of human gurus and establishing the scripture as the 11th and last eternally living guru, a religious spiritual/life guide for Sikhs. Guru Nanak taught that living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is above metaphysical truth, and that the ideal man "establishes union with God, knows His Will, and carries out that Will". Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru (1606–1644), established the concept of mutual co-existence of the miri ('political'/'temporal') and piri ('spiritual') realms.

The Sikh scripture opens with the Mul Mantar or alternatively spelled "Mool Mantar" (), fundamental prayer about Ik Onkar ().[28] The core beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the Guru Granth Sahib, include faith and meditation in the name of the one creator; divine unity and equality of all humankind; engaging in seva ('selfless service'); striving for justice for the benefit and prosperity of all; and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life. Following this standard, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on Absolute truth. Sikhism emphasizes simran (, meditation and remembrance of the teachings of Gurus), which can be expressed musically through kirtan, or internally through naam japna ('meditation on His name') as a means to feel God's presence. It teaches followers to transform the "Five Thieves" (i.e. lust, rage, greed, attachment, and ego).

The religion developed and evolved in times of religious persecution, gaining converts from both Hinduism and Islam. Mughal rulers of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus—Guru Arjan (1563–1605) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)—after they refused to convert to Islam.[29]

The persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 as an order to protect the freedom of conscience and religion,[29][30] with members expressing the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī ('saint-soldier').[31][32]

Buddhism

This section is an excerpt from Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent[edit]
Buddha attaining Parinirvana (Final Nirvana, also passing away). Image excavated at the place where Buddha attained Parinirvana; at the Mahaparinirvana Temple in India

The only two majority-Buddhist nations in the Indian Subcontinent are Sri Lanka and Bhutan. Buddhists are also found in Nepal, India (especially in Maharashtra, Ladakh and Sikkim) and Bangladesh in small minorities. Lord Buddha (Prince Siddhartha Gautam) was born in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal).

Bhutan has the highest Buddhist percentage among the countries of the Indian subcontinent. Though the exact percentage is uncertain, it is over 75%. Sri Lanka is 70% Buddhist, where it is the unofficial state religion. Buddhism is also the most important minority religion in Nepal (11% of Nepal's population). India has a Buddhist population of 0.8%, where has been growing rapidly in recent years, due to the conversion of Hindu dalits, while Theravada Buddhism is the third largest religion in Bangladesh with about 0.7% of the total population being Buddhist.

The cradle of the Indian civilisation was in the area of the Indus River Valley and the Punjab. The earliest members of the Indus Valley civilization occupied a considerable area of the northwest sometime between 3000 and 1800 B.C.E. Not much is known about the religious ideas and practices of these people. The civilisation was in decline when Indo-Aryan tribes migrated by crossing high mountain passes in the far northwest and settling in the regions nearby Punjab between 1800 and 1500 B.C. The religion of the Indo-Aryans was a regional variant of Indo-European practices, called Vedic. Unlike the peaceful agrarians of the Indus Valley, these people were rough cattle herders. As they acquired political and military power, their religion became classical Hinduism. While it is doubtful whether the office of priest (Brāhmaṇa) was hereditary among the early Indo-Aryans, by the time the Buddha taught, only members of the Brahmin varna could become priests. It was considered a personal honor to worship. Buddhism later branched off from that same stock, which grew and flourished on the religiously diverse plains of the Indus and Ganges.

Jainism

This section is an excerpt from Jainism[edit]

Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of Dharma), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira, around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism).

Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Ṇamōkāra mantra is its most common and basic prayer.

Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons (śrāvakas and śrāvikas). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has three sub-traditions: Mandirvāsī, Deravasi, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains, who reside mostly in India, where they number around 4.5 million as per the 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada, Europe, and the United States. Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana, Ashtanika, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Akshaya Tritiya, and Dipawali.

Religion in South Asian countries

Further information: Religion in Bangladesh, Religion in Bhutan, Religion in India, Religion in Nepal, Religion in Pakistan, and Religion in Sri Lanka
Country State religion Religious population as a percentage of total population
Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Kiratism Sikhism Others Year reported
Template:Flag+link Islam – – – 99.7% – – 0.3% 2019[33]
Template:Flag+link Islam 0.6% 0.4% 9.5% 90.4% – – – 2011[34]
Template:Flag+link Vajrayana Buddhism 74.8% 0.5% 22.6% 0.1% – – 2% 2010[35][36]
Template:Flag+link Secular (Hindu majority) 0.7% 2.3% 79.8% 14.2% – 1.7% 1.3% 2011[37][38]
Template:Flag+link Sunni Islam – – – 100% – – – [39][40][41]
Template:Flag+link Secular (Hindu majority) 9% 1.3% 81.3% 4.4% 3% – 0.8% 2013[42]
Template:Flag+link Islam – 1.59% 1.85% 96.28% – – 0.07% 2010[43]
Template:Flag+link Theravada Buddhism 70.2% 6.2% 12.6% 9.7% – – 1.4% 2011[44]

Afghanistan

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Bangladesh

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Bhutan

Page 'Religion in Bhutan' not found

India

This section is an excerpt from Religion in India[edit]
Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture and the Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, which are collectively known as native Indian Religions or Dharmic Religions.

Nepal

Page 'Religion in Nepal' not found

Pakistan

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Sri Lanka

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Caste system

This section is an excerpt from Caste[edit]
Indian Caste System.jpg

The caste system is a system in India that was once mainly used by Hindus. This system has been generally accepted for about 3000 years. There are four castes in this system, and one outcast group regarded as "untouchables". There are also castes in countries other than India as the system spread to South Asia about 2000 years ago. For centuries, this system has dictated one's marriages, geographical location, and occupation. The Indian government today works to decrease this discrimination with the quotas set in government jobs in 1950.

  • Brahmin - priests and scholars
  • Kshatriya - warriors and kings
  • Vaishya - merchants and landowners
  • Shudra - peasants and labourers
  • Untouchables or Dalits - came much later after the other four groups and consisted of people who did jobs considered ritually polluting. This included sweeping ashes after cremations or ridding of animal waste or skinning animals such as cows.

Indian caste system

This section is an excerpt from Caste system in India[edit]

The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic instance of social classification based on castes. It has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj.[45][46][47][48] It is today the basis of affirmative action programmes in India as enforced through its constitution.[49] The caste system consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system.

The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and the rise of the British colonial government in India.[45][50] The collapse of the Mughal era saw the rise of powerful men who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming the regal and martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless social groups into differentiated caste communities.[51] The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.[50] Between 1860 and 1920, the British incorporated the Indian caste system into their system of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to Christians and people belonging to certain castes.[52] Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy.[53] Caste was no longer used by the colonial authority to functionally organize civil society. This reflected changes in administrative practices, understandings of expertise, and the rise of new European scholarly institutions.[54] After the 1920s, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. In 1948, negative discrimination on the basis of caste was banned by law and further enshrined in the Indian constitution in 1950;[55] however, the system continues to be practiced in parts of India.[56] There are 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes in India, each related to a specific occupation.[57]

Muslim caste system

Page 'Caste system among South Asian Muslims' not found

Religious nationalism

Hindu nationalism

This section is an excerpt from Hindutva[edit]

Hindutva (lit. 'Hindu-ness') is a political ideology encompassing the cultural justification of Hindu nationalism.[58][59][60] The political ideology was formulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923.[61] It is used by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)[62][63] and other organisations, collectively called the Sangh Parivar.

The Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of right-wing extremism,[64] and as "almost fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony.[65][66] Some have also described Hindutva as a separatist ideology.[67][68] Some analysts dispute the identification of Hindutva with fascism, and suggest Hindutva is an extreme form of conservatism or "ethnic absolutism".[69]

Muslim nationalism

This section is an excerpt from Muslim nationalism in the Indian subcontinent[edit]
Part of a series on
Islam in India
Jamia Masjid is the largest Mosque of India
Administration
History
Architecture
Masjid Zeenath Baksh is the 3rd oldest mosque in India
Major figures
Famous Families and ethnicities
Religious jurisprudence
Schools of thought
Mosques in India
Universities
Influential bodies
From a historical perspective, Professor Ishtiaq Ahmed of the University of Stockholm and Professor Shamsul Islam of the University of Delhi classified the Muslims of South Asia into two categories during the era of the Indian independence movement: nationalist Muslims (individuals who opposed the partition of India) and Muslim nationalists (individuals who desired to create a separate country for Indian Muslims).[70] The All India Azad Muslim Conference represented nationalist Muslims, while the All-India Muslim League represented the Muslim nationalists.[70]

Sikh nationalism

This section is an excerpt from Khalistan movement[edit]
The proposed flag of Khalistan is often used as a symbol of the Khalistan movement.[71]

The Khalistan movement is a separatist movement seeking to create a homeland for Sikhs by establishing an ethno‐religious sovereign state called Khalistan (Punjabi: ਖ਼ਾਲਿਸਤਾਨ, lit. 'land of the Khalsa') in the Punjab region.[72] The proposed boundaries of Khalistan vary between different groups; some suggest the entirety of the Indian state of Punjab, while larger claims include Pakistani Punjab and other parts of North India such as Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.[73] Shimla and Lahore have been proposed as the capital of Khalistan.[74][75]

The call for a separate Sikh state began in the wake of the fall of the British Empire.[76] In 1940, the first explicit call for Khalistan was made in a pamphlet titled "Khalistan".[77][78] With financial and political support of the Sikh diaspora, the movement flourished in the Indian state of Punjab – which has a Sikh-majority population – continuing through the 1970s and 1980s, and reaching its zenith in the late 1980s. The Sikh separatist leader Jagjit Singh Chohan claimed that during his talks with Pakistani prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Bhutto had proposed "all out help" to the Khalistan cause, but this support never materialised.[79] In the 1990s, the insurgency petered out,[80] and the movement failed to reach its objective for multiple reasons including a heavy police crackdown on separatists, factional infighting, and disillusionment from the Sikh population.

There is some support within India and the Sikh diaspora, with yearly demonstrations in protest of those killed during Operation Blue Star.[81][82][83] In early 2018, some militant groups were arrested by police in Punjab, India.[84] Former Chief Minister of Punjab Amarinder Singh claimed that the recent extremism is backed by Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and "Khalistani sympathisers" in Canada, Italy, and the UK.[85] Simranjit Singh Mann, elected in 2022 from Sangrur, is currently the only openly Khalistani MP in the Indian parliament and his party, Shiromani Akali Dal (Amritsar), is currently the only pro-Khalistan party in the Indian parliament.[86][87]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Region: Asia-Pacific". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  2. ↑ "Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers | Pew Research Center". web.archive.org. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  3. ↑ "Region: South Asia". Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical Archived 2007-12-14 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: 15 July 2010; Quote: "Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also Theravāda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia".
  5. ↑ Irving, T., . D. R. M. (2013). Intercultural Exchange in Southeast Asia: History and Society in the Early Modern World (International Library of Historical Studies). I.B. Tauris.
  6. ↑ Balabanlilar, Lisa (2012). Imperial Identity in Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern Central Asia. I.B. Tauris. pp. 1–2, 7–10. ISBN 978-1-84885-726-1. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  7. ↑ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2.
  8. ↑ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
  9. ↑ Akhilesh Pillalamarri. "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
  10. ↑ "Buddhism - Definition, Founder & Origins". HISTORY. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  11. ↑ Magazine, Smithsonian; Zacharia, Lynn Johnson,Paul. "The Surprisingly Early History of Christianity in India". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2023-09-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Khan, Sameer. "Cheraman Juma Mosque: The oldest Masjid in India". The Siasat Daily. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  13. ↑ "Do you know how Islam spread in the Indian subcontinent?". EgyptToday. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  14. ↑ Goswami, Arunansh B. "Jews and Parsis: Pain, struggle and success". blogs.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  15. ↑ "The Changing Face of Sufism in South Asia". The Wire. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  16. ↑ "Mughal Power, the Sikhs and Other Local Groups in the Punjab". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  17. ↑ "The Struggle Between Hindutva and Secularism in Nepal". Harvard International Review. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  18. ↑ "The Census of British India of 1871–72". Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Journal of the Statistical Society of London Vol. 39, No. 2. 39 (2): 413. June 1876. JSTOR 2339124.
  19. ↑ "35 Brutal facts of Goa Inquisition (Christian Terrorism) - Portuguese Colonial period". Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  20. ↑ "RSS open to re-conversion of Goan Catholics". www.daijiworld.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  21. ↑ Hakam, Al. "How Christianity spread in British India: Crusade of the Clapham Sect". Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  22. ↑ Copland, Ian. "Christianity as an Arm of Empire: The Ambiguous Case of India under the Company, C. 1813-1858". The Historical Journal. 49 (4): 1025–1054. ISSN 0018-246X.
  23. ↑ Dalrymple, William. "The Mutual Genocide of Indian Partition". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  24. ↑ "Muqtedar Khan on Why Religious Nationalism Is Poisoning South Asia". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  25. ↑ Ziring, Lawrence. "From Islamic Republic to Islamic State in Pakistan". Asian Survey. 24 (9): 931–946. doi:10.2307/2644077. ISSN 0004-4687.
  26. ↑ Bergman, David. "Bangladesh court upholds Islam as religion of the state". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  27. ↑ "The Rise of Hindu Nationalism and Its Regional and Global Ramifications". Association for Asian Studies. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  28. ↑ Singha, H. S. (2000). The Encyclopedia of Sikhism. Hemkunt. pp. 20–21, 103. ISBN 978-81-7010-301-1.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Pashaura Singh (2005), Understanding the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan, Journal of Punjab Studies, 12(1), pp. 29–62
  30. ↑ Gandhi, Surjit Singh (2008). History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–1708. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. pp. 435, 676–77. ISBN 978-81-269-0857-8.
  31. ↑ Chanchreek, Jain (2007). Encyclopaedia of Great Festivals. Shree Publishers. p. 142. ISBN 978-81-8329-191-0.
  32. ↑ Dugga, Kartar (2001). Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The Last to Lay Arms. Abhinav Publications. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-7017-410-3.
  33. ↑ "CIA – The World Factbook – Afghanistan". CIA. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
  34. ↑ জানুন [Bangladesh] (PDF) (in Bengali). US department of States. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
  35. ↑ "CIA – The World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
  36. ↑ Pew Research Center – Global Religious Landscape 2010 – religious composition by country Archived 2016-12-13 at the Wayback Machine.
  37. ↑ "C −1 Population by religious community – 2011". Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
  38. ↑ Ahmadiyyas are considered a sect of Islam in India. Other minorities are 0.4 Jains and 0.23% irreligious population.
  39. ↑ "religion". Maldives. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  40. ↑ "Maldives". Law.emory.edu. Archived from the original on 11 February 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  41. ↑ Maldives – Religion Archived 2010-12-07 at the Wayback Machine, countrystudies.us
  42. ↑ Statistical Yearbook of Nepal – 2013. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics. p. 23. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
  43. ↑ "POPULATION BY RELIGION" (PDF). Pakistan Burau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan: 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  44. ↑ "Census of Population and Housing 2011". Department of Census and Statistic. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 de Zwart (2000).
  46. ↑ Bayly (2001), pp. 25–27, 392.
  47. ↑ St. John (2012), p. 103.
  48. ↑ Sathaye (2015), p. 214.
  49. ↑ "What is India's caste system?". BBC News. 25 February 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2017. Independent India's constitution banned discrimination on the basis of caste, and, in an attempt to correct historical injustices and provide a level playing field to the traditionally disadvantaged, the authorities announced quotas in government jobs and educational institutions for scheduled castes and tribes, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, in 1950.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Bayly (2001), p. 392.
  51. ↑ Bayly (2001), pp. 26–27:What happened in the initial phase of this two-stage sequence was the rise of the royal man of prowess. In this period, both kings and the priests and ascetics with whom men of power were able to associate their rule became a growing focus for the affirmation of a martial and regal form of caste ideal. (...) The other key feature of this period was the reshaping of many apparently casteless forms of devotional faith in a direction which further affirmed these differentiations of rank and community.
  52. ↑ Nehru, Jawaharlal (2004). The discovery of India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-670-05801-7. OCLC 57764885.
  53. ↑ Dirks (2001b), pp. 215–229.
  54. ↑ Guha, Sumit. "The Birth of Caste". Beyond Caste. Permanent Black. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-81-7824-513-3.
  55. ↑ "'I would tell the other girls at school that I was Brahmin': The struggle to challenge India's caste system". ABC News. 27 June 2022.
  56. ↑ "What is India's caste system?". BBC News. 25 February 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2017. Independent India's constitution banned discrimination on the basis of caste, and, in an attempt to correct historical injustices and provide a level playing field to the traditionally disadvantaged, the authorities announced quotas in government jobs and educational institutions for scheduled castes and tribes, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, in 1950.
  57. ↑ "What is India's caste system?". BBC News. 19 June 2019.
  58. ↑ Brown, Garrett W; McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair (2018), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics and International Relations, Oxford University Press, pp. 381–, ISBN 978-0-19-254584-8
  59. ↑ Haokip, Jangkholam (2014). Can God Save My Village?: A Theological Study of Identity among the Tribal People of North-East India with a Special Reference to the Kukis of Manipur. Langham Monographs. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-78368-981-1. Retrieved 2023-05-03. Hindutva is a political ideology that does not necessarily represent the view of the majority of Hindus in India.
  60. ↑ Gregory, Derek; Johnston, Ron; Pratt, Geraldine; Watts, Michael; Whatmore, Sarah (2011), The Dictionary of Human Geography, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 1–, ISBN 978-1-4443-5995-4
  61. ↑ Pavan Kulkarni (28 May 2019). "How Did Savarkar, a Staunch Supporter of British Colonialism, Come to Be Known as 'Veer'?". The Wire.
  62. ↑ "The Hindutva road". Frontline. 4 December 2004.
  63. ↑ Krishna 2011, p. 324.
  64. ↑ Leidig, Eviane (17 July 2020). "Hindutva as a variant of right-wing extremism". Patterns of Prejudice. 54 (3): 215–237. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2020.1759861. ISSN 0031-322X.
  65. ↑ Prabhat Patnaik (1993). "Fascism of our times". Social Scientist. 21 (3/4): 69–77. doi:10.2307/3517631. JSTOR 3517631.
  66. ↑ Frykenberg 2008, pp. 178–220: "This essay attempts to show how — from an analytical or from an historical perspective — Hindutva is a melding of Hindu fascism and Hindu fundamentalism."
  67. ↑ Anthony Parel (2000). Gandhi, Freedom, and Self-rule. Lexington Books. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-7391-0137-7. The agendas of Hindutva though strong on the issues of self - identity and self - definition, have tended to be separatist.
  68. ↑ Siddharth Varadarajan (2002). Gujarat, the Making of a Tragedy. Penguin Books. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-14-302901-4.
  69. ↑ Chetan Bhatt; Parita Mukta (May 2000). "Hindutva in the West: Mapping the Antinomies of Diaspora Nationalism". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 23 (3): 407–441. doi:10.1080/014198700328935. S2CID 143287533. Quote: "It is also argued that the distinctively Indian aspects of Hindu nationalism, and the RSS's disavowal of the seizure of state power in preference for long-term cultural labour in civil society, suggests a strong distance from both German Nazism and Italian Fascism. Part of the problem in attempting to classify Golwalkar's or Savarkar's Hindu nationalism within the typology of 'generic fascism', Nazism, racism and ethnic or cultural nationalism is the unavailability of an appropriate theoretical orientation and vocabulary for varieties of revolutionary conservatism and far-right-wing ethnic and religious absolutist movements in 'Third World' countries".
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Ahmed, Ishtiaq (27 May 2016). "The dissenters". The Friday Times.
  71. ↑ Shah, Murtaza Ali (27 January 2022). "Khalistan flag installed on Gandhi Statue in Washington". Geo News. Archived from the original on 31 July 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
  72. ↑ Kinnvall, Catarina (2007-01-24). "Situating Sikh and Hindu Nationalism in India". Globalization and Religious Nationalism in India: The Search for Ontological Security. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-13-413570-7. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
  73. ↑ Crenshaw, Martha, 1995, Terrorism in Context, Pennsylvania State University, ISBN 978-0-271-01015-1 p. 364
  74. ↑ Canton, Naomi (10 June 2022). "Banned SFJ leader unveils 'Khalistan map', with Shimla as 'capital', before Pak press in Lahore". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  75. ↑ Mehtab Ali Shah, The Foreign Policy of Pakistan 1997, pp. 24–25.
  76. ↑ Axel, Brian Keith (2001). The Nation's Tortured Body: Violence, Representation, and the Formation of a Sikh "Diaspora". Duke University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8223-2615-1. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. The call for a Sikh homeland was first made in the 1930s, addressed to the quickly dissolving empire.
  77. ↑ Shani, Giorgio (2007). Sikh Nationalism and Identity in a Global Age. Routledge. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-134-10189-4. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. However, the term Khalistan was first coined by Dr V.S. Bhatti to denote an independent Sikh state in March 1940. Dr Bhatti made the case for a separate Sikh state in a pamphlet entitled 'Khalistan' in response to the Muslim League's Lahore Resolution.
  78. ↑ Bianchini, Stefano; Chaturvedi, Sanjay; Ivekovic, Rada; Samaddar, Ranabir (2004). Partitions: Reshaping States and Minds. Routledge. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-134-27654-7. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. Around the same time, a pamphlet of about forty pages, entitled 'Khalistan', and authored by medical doctor, V.S. Bhatti, also appeared.
  79. ↑ Gupta, Shekhar; Subramanian, Nirupaman (15 December 1993). "You can't get Khalistan through military movement: Jagat Singh Chouhan". India Today. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  80. ↑ "India gives Trudeau list of suspected Sikh separatists in Canada". Reuters. 22 February 2018. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2018. The Sikh insurgency petered out in the 1990s. He told state leaders his country would not support anyone trying to reignite the movement for an independent Sikh homeland called Khalistan.
  81. ↑ Ali, Haider (6 June 2018). "Mass protests erupt around Golden Temple complex as pro-Khalistan sikhs mark Blue Star anniversary". Daily Pakistan. Archived from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
  82. ↑ "UK: Pakistani-origin lawmaker leads protests in London to call for Kashmir, Khalistan freedom". Scroll. 27 January 2018. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
  83. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Anirudh (5 June 2017). "Pro-Khalistan groups plan event in Canada to mark Operation Bluestar anniversary". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
  84. ↑ "New brand of Sikh militancy: Suave, tech-savvy pro-Khalistan youth radicalised on social media". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
  85. ↑ Majumdar, Ushinor. "Sikh Extremists in Canada, The UK And Italy Are Working With ISI Or Independently". Outlook India. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2018. Q. Is it clear which "foreign hand" is driving this entire nexus? A. Evidence gathered by the police and other agencies points to the ISI as the key perpetrator of extremism in Punjab. (Amarinder Singh Indian Punjab Chief Minister)
  86. ↑ "Simranjit Singh Mann stokes row, dedicates Sangrur win to Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale: Know about pro-Khalistan leader", Firstpost, 27 June 2022, archived from the original on 27 June 2022, retrieved 27 June 2022
  87. ↑ "Sangrur Bypoll Results Live: AAP loses Bhagwant Mann's seat, SAD-A wins by 6,800 votes", Hindustan Times, 2022-06-26, archived from the original on 26 June 2022, retrieved 2022-06-26

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