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{{Hinduism}} | {{Hinduism}} | ||
'''''Ishvara''''' ({{Langx|sa|ईश्वर|Īśvara|translit-std=IAST|engvar=gb}}) is a concept in [[Hinduism]], with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. | '''''Ishvara''''' ({{Langx|sa|ईश्वर|Īśvara|translit-std=IAST|engvar=gb}}) is a concept in [[Hinduism]], with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.<ref name="mmwizvara">[[Monier Monier Williams]], Sanskrit-English dictionary, [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/mwquery/ Search for Izvara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804120637/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/mwquery/ |date=4 August 2019 }}, University of Cologne, Germany</ref><ref name=riepe/> In ancient texts of [[Hindu philosophy]], depending on the context, ''Ishvara'' can mean lord, ruler, king, husband, queen, soul or the Supreme Self ([[Paramatman]]).<ref name=mmwizvara/> In medieval-era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, ''Ishvara'' means [[God]], Supreme Being, [[personal God]], or special [[Atman (Hinduism)|Self]].<ref name=riepe/><ref name=ianw/><ref name=mirceaelaide73/> | ||
In [[Shaivism]], ''Ishvara'' is an epithet of [[Shiva]]. | In [[Shaivism]], ''Ishvara'' is an epithet of [[Shiva]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=171|url-status=live|website=IITS Koeln|page=171|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309015920/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=171}}</ref><ref name=":1">James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 306</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Lord Śiva's Song: the Īśvara Gītā|translator=Andrew J. Nicholson |editor=Laurie Searl|year=2014|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-5102-2|oclc=880450730}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=235, 379–380}}</ref> In [[Vaishnavism]], it is synonymous with [[Vishnu]], like in his epithet of [[Venkateswara Temple|Venkateswara]].<ref name="olilea" /> In traditional [[Bhakti]] movements, ''Ishvara'' is one or more deities of an individual's preference ([[Iṣṭa-devatā (Hinduism)|Iṣṭa-devatā]]) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements like [[Arya Samaj]] and [[Brahmoism]], ''Ishvara'' takes the form of a monotheistic God.<ref name=rkpr>RK Pruthi (2004), Arya Samaj and Indian Civilization, {{ISBN|978-81-7141-780-3}}, pages 5–6, 48–49</ref> In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".<ref name=lpfl/> In [[Advaita Vedanta]], Ishvara is the manifested form of [[Brahman]] ([[Saguna brahman]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahm |first=Archie J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Su-SQNfNqgC&dq=ishvara+saguna+brahman&pg=PA140 |title=The World's Living Religions |date=1992 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87573-000-4 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
==Etymology== | ==Etymology== | ||
The root of the word Ishvara comes from {{Transliteration|sa|hunterian|Ish}} ({{lang|sa|ईश्|}} {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|īś-}}) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of". | The root of the word Ishvara comes from {{Transliteration|sa|hunterian|Ish}} ({{lang|sa|ईश्|}} {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|īś-}}) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".<ref>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-2000-5}}, page 47</ref> The second part of the word ''Ishvara'' is {{Transliteration|sa|hunterian|vara}} ({{lang|sa|वर|}} {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|vara}}), which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".<ref>Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-2000-5}}, page 270</ref> The composite word, ''Ishvara'' literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover". | ||
As a concept, ''Ishvara'' in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means a ruler or king, a husband, God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Shiva, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number '[[11 (number)|eleven]]'. | As a concept, ''Ishvara'' in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means a ruler or king, a husband, God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Shiva, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number '[[11 (number)|eleven]]'.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Apte Sanskrit-English dictionary, [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/AP90Scan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php Search for Izvara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106133053/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/AP90Scan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php |date=6 November 2022 }}, University of Cologne, Germany</ref> | ||
The word ''Īśvara'' does not appear in [[Rigveda]]. | The word ''Īśvara'' does not appear in [[Rigveda]].<ref name=madhav/> However, the verb ''īś-'' does appear in Rigveda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".<ref name=madhav>Madhav Deshpande (1991), Sense and Syntax in Vedic (Editors: Joel Brereton and Stephenie Jamison), Volumes 4–5, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-09356-0}}, pages 23–27</ref> It is absent in [[Samaveda]], is rare in [[Atharvaveda]], but it appears in [[Samhita]]s of [[Yajurveda]]. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian [[Pāṇini]] explains, is neither god nor supreme being.<ref name=madhav/> | ||
The word ''Ishvara'' appears in numerous ancient [[Dharmaśāstra#Principal Root Texts|Dharmasutra]]s. However, there ''Ishvara'' does not mean God, but means [[Veda]]s. | The word ''Ishvara'' appears in numerous ancient [[Dharmaśāstra#Principal Root Texts|Dharmasutra]]s. However, there ''Ishvara'' does not mean God, but means [[Veda]]s.<ref name=patrick/> ''Ishvara'' in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as ''Ishvara'' (the king) on matters of public importance".<ref name=patrick>Patrick Olivelle (2006), Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-530532-6}}, page 176</ref> | ||
The term is used as part of the compounds [[Maheshvara]] ("The Great Lord") and [[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshvara]] ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. In [[Mahayana Buddhism]] it is used as part of the compound "[[Avalokiteśvara]]" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see [[Avalokiteśvara#Etymology|etymology section]] there), the name of a [[bodhisattva]] revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in [[Shaktism]], the feminine [[Ishvari]] is sometimes used. | The term is used as part of the compounds [[Maheshvara]] ("The Great Lord") and [[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshvara]] ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. In [[Mahayana Buddhism]] it is used as part of the compound "[[Avalokiteśvara]]" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see [[Avalokiteśvara#Etymology|etymology section]] there), the name of a [[bodhisattva]] revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in [[Shaktism]], the feminine [[Ishvari]] is sometimes used.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=376}}</ref> | ||
In [[Advaita Vedanta]] school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything. | In [[Advaita Vedanta]] school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.<ref name=lance>Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref><ref name=jkoller/> | ||
==Schools of thought== | ==Schools of thought== | ||
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Among the six systems of [[Hindu philosophy]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Mimamsa]] do not consider the concept of ''Ishvara'' (i.e., a supreme being) relevant. [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Vedanta]] and [[Nyaya]] schools of Hinduism discuss ''Ishvara'', but assign different meanings. | Among the six systems of [[Hindu philosophy]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Mimamsa]] do not consider the concept of ''Ishvara'' (i.e., a supreme being) relevant. [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Vedanta]] and [[Nyaya]] schools of Hinduism discuss ''Ishvara'', but assign different meanings. | ||
''Ishvara'' is a metaphysical concept in the ''[[Yogasutras]]''. | ''Ishvara'' is a metaphysical concept in the ''[[Yogasutras]]''.<ref name=mmd>Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity in Patanjali's Yoga-Sutra, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-3336-4}}, page 131</ref> The book does not mention a specific deity or describe any devotional practices (''[[Bhakti]]''), nor does it provide characteristics of ''Ishvara'' typically associated with a deity.<ref name=mmd/> In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga school of Hinduism]], states Ian Whicher, a professor of religion at the [[University of Manitoba]], ''Ishvara'' is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name=ianw/> Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedantic philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term ''Ishvara'' as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".<ref name=ianw>Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3815-2}}, pages 82–86</ref><ref name="knut"/> Angelika Malinar, a professor of [[Indology|Indian studies]] at the [[University of Zurich]], too, writes that, among the Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism, ''Ishvara'' is neither a creator God nor a salvific God.<ref>A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1-4725-1151-5}}, page 79</ref> | ||
Bhakti sub-schools refer to ''Ishvara'' as a divine lord or the specified deity of the Bhakti sub-school. | Bhakti sub-schools refer to ''Ishvara'' as a divine lord or the specified deity of the Bhakti sub-school.<ref>Zimmer (1951), Philosophies of India, Reprinted by Routledge in 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-415-46232-7}}, pages 242–243, 309–311</ref> Some contemporary sectarian movements have emphasised ''Ishvara'' as a supreme lord—for example, the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]]{{'s}} theology is monotheistic, with [[Krishna]] being the universe's supreme divinity.<ref>[[Karel Werner]] (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1049-2}}, page 54</ref> In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as the [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanuja]] and [[Dvaita]] of Madhva, ''Ishvara'' is identified as [[Vishnu]] and/or [[Narayana]], who is distinct from the ''[[prakṛti]]'' (material world) and ''[[purusha]]'' (Self). | ||
The diversity in interpretations of ''Ishvara'' aligns with theistic Hinduism's notion of a personal God. | The diversity in interpretations of ''Ishvara'' aligns with theistic Hinduism's notion of a personal God.<ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-01958-1}}, pages 37–39, 401–403, 498–503</ref> Thus, Hinduisms also allow practicing individuals choice in their conceptualisations of ''Ishvara'', whether that be in the form of a specific deity or the formless ''[[Brahman]]'' of ultimate reality.<ref name=mirceaelaide73>[[Mircea Eliade]] (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-14203-6}}, pages 73–76</ref><ref name=riepe>Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1293-2}}, pages 177–184, 208–215</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1975), Our savage god: The perverse use of eastern thought, {{ISBN|978-0-8362-0611-1}}, pages 69–72</ref><ref>R.C. Zaehner (1966), Hinduism, Oxford University Press, 1980 edition: pages 126–129, Reprinted in 1983 as {{ISBN|978-0-19-888012-7}}</ref> | ||
===In Samkhya=== | ===In Samkhya=== | ||
[[Samkhya]] is commonly considered an atheistic school of Hindu philososphy. | [[Samkhya]] is commonly considered an atheistic school of Hindu philososphy.<ref name=lpfl>Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 38–39</ref><ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-64887-5}}, page 39</ref><ref>Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie Volume 11, {{ISBN|978-1-4840-3061-5}}, pages 25–27 (in German)</ref> However, some, such as Norwegian scholar [[Knut A. Jacobsen]], consider Samkhya to be more accurately described as a form of [[nontheism]].<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 15–16</ref> Still others, including [[State University of New York]] [[Indologist]] and professor [[Andrew J. Nicholson]], argue that Samkhya was originally theistic but transitioned to atheism during the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Andrew|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010|location=New York|pages=69–78}}</ref> ''Ishvara'' as a being is occasionally affirmed—but more often denied—in the Samkhya school.<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 76–77</ref> For example, arguments are advanced in the ''[[Samkhya Pravachana Sutra]]'' and its commentaries against the existence of ''Ishvara'', chiefly that a being that is both a creator and free cannot exist.<ref>Andrew J. Nicholson (2017), 'Refuting Vedantic Theism in the Samkhya-Sutra' in The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, ed. [[Jonardon Ganeri]], [[Oxford University Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-19-750381-2}}, pages 598–622</ref> | ||
===In Yoga=== | ===In Yoga=== | ||
The ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'', the foundational text of the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, uses the term ''Ishvara'' in 11 verses: I.23–I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Since the ''Sutras'' were compiled, Hindu scholars have debated the identity and purpose of ''Ishvara'', with beliefs ranging from ''Ishvara''-as-"personal god" to it being "special Self", and to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual". | The ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'', the foundational text of the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, uses the term ''Ishvara'' in 11 verses: I.23–I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Since the ''Sutras'' were compiled, Hindu scholars have debated the identity and purpose of ''Ishvara'', with beliefs ranging from ''Ishvara''-as-"personal god" to it being "special Self", and to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".<ref name=lpfl/><ref>Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129</ref> Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or nontheistic, the compiler's concept of ''Ishvara'' in Yogic philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the ''yogin'' on the path to spiritual emancipation".<ref>Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3815-2}}, page 86</ref> | ||
Patanjali defines ''Ishvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1 as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, ''[[puruṣa]]-viśeṣa'')", | Patanjali defines ''Ishvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1 as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, ''[[puruṣa]]-viśeṣa'')",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Āgāśe |first1=K. S. |title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi |date=1904 |publisher=Ānandāśrama |location=Puṇe |page=25 |url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n33/mode/2up}}</ref> | ||
<blockquote>{{langx|sa|क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष '''ईश्वरः''' ॥२४॥}}<br/> | |||
– ''Yoga Sutras'' I.24 | – ''Yoga Sutras'' I.24</blockquote> | ||
This sutra adds the characteristics of ''Ishvara'' as the special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, ''[[Kleshas (Hinduism)|klesha]]''), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya). | This sutra adds the characteristics of ''Ishvara'' as the special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, ''[[Kleshas (Hinduism)|klesha]]''), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).<ref name=se5>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=aparAmRSTa&script=&direction=SE&link=yes aparAmRSTa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129053310/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=aparAmRSTa&script=&direction=SE&link=yes |date=29 January 2015 }}, [http://spokensanskrit.de kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817204122/http://www.spokensanskrit.de/ |date=17 August 2017 }}; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref><ref>Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pages 31–45</ref> | ||
Patanjali's concept of ''Ishvara'' is neither as a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]]. | Patanjali's concept of ''Ishvara'' is neither as a creator God nor the universal Absolute of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name=ianw/><ref name=knut>[[:no:Knut A. Jacobsen|Knut Jacobsen]] (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, page 77</ref> | ||
===In Vaisesika=== | ===In Vaisesika=== | ||
The [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BCE, neither required nor relied on ''Ishvara'' for its [[atomism|atomistic]] naturalist philosophy. To it, substances and ''paramāṇu'' (atoms) are eternal; they move and interact based on impersonal, eternal ''adrsta'' (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature. | The [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BCE, neither required nor relied on ''Ishvara'' for its [[atomism|atomistic]] naturalist philosophy. To it, substances and ''paramāṇu'' (atoms) are eternal; they move and interact based on impersonal, eternal ''adrsta'' (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.<ref name=klausk/><ref>A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0-86590-278-7}}, pages 149–151</ref> The concept of ''Ishvara'', among others, entered into the Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium CE.<ref name=klausk/><ref>R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00187-9}}, page 836</ref> The evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. Later ancient Vaisheshika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added ''Ishvara'' as another 'eternal'—albeit one who is also omniscient and omnipresent (but not omnipotent). Vaisheshika scholars posited that ''Ishvara'' did not create the world; he created laws that operate the world before becoming passive and letting those universal laws affect reality without divine intervention .<ref name=klausk/> Thus, Vaisheshika's ''Ishvara'' mirrors the ''[[Deus otiosus]]'' of [[deism]]. [[Klaus Klostermaier]], in a 2007 survey of Hinduism, writes that ''Ishvara'' can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but only to the point that he "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".<ref name=klausk>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, page 337</ref> | ||
===In Nyaya=== | ===In Nyaya=== | ||
Early [[Nyaya]] school scholars considered ''Ishvara'' a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons, and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.{{Contradictory inline|article=Ishvara|section=Schools of thought|reason=This sentence directly contradicts the sentences before and after it, respectively.|date=August 2025}} | Early [[Nyaya]] school scholars considered ''Ishvara'' a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons, and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.{{Contradictory inline|article=Ishvara|section=Schools of thought|reason=This sentence directly contradicts the sentences before and after it, respectively.|date=August 2025}}<ref>John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, page 150</ref><ref>G. Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der Indischen Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1-34</ref> Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.<ref name=fxc>Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-973872-4}}, pages 18–19, 35–39</ref> | ||
Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1, examines what causes the production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in the universe. It considers many hypotheses, including ''Ishvara''. Verses 19–21 postulate that Ishvara exists and is the cause, state a consequence of the postulate, then present contrary evidence, and from the contradiction conclude that the postulate must be invalid. | Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1, examines what causes the production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in the universe. It considers many hypotheses, including ''Ishvara''. Verses 19–21 postulate that Ishvara exists and is the cause, state a consequence of the postulate, then present contrary evidence, and from the contradiction conclude that the postulate must be invalid.<ref name=fxc2/> | ||
{{Blockquote|text= | {{Blockquote|text= | ||
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : '''ईश्वरः''' कारणम्, पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् | सिद्धान्तसूत्र : '''ईश्वरः''' कारणम्, पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात्<br/> | ||
पूर्वपक्षसूत्र : न, पुरुषकर्माभावे फ्लानिष्पत्तेः | पूर्वपक्षसूत्र : न, पुरुषकर्माभावे फ्लानिष्पत्तेः<br/> | ||
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : तत्कारितत्वादहेतुः | सिद्धान्तसूत्र : तत्कारितत्वादहेतुः<br/> | ||
Proposition sutra: '''Ishvara''' is the cause, since we see sometimes human action lacks fruits (results). | Proposition sutra: '''Ishvara''' is the cause, since we see sometimes human action lacks fruits (results).<br/> | ||
Prima facie objection sutra: This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no fruit is accomplished without human action. | Prima facie objection sutra: This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no fruit is accomplished without human action.<br/> | ||
Conclusion sutra: Not so, since it is influenced by him. | Conclusion sutra: Not so, since it is influenced by him. | ||
|Nyaya Sutra|IV.1.19 – IV.1.21 | |Nyaya Sutra|IV.1.19 – IV.1.21<ref name=fxc2>Original Sanskrit: [https://archive.org/details/Anandashram_Samskrita_Granthavali_Anandashram_Sanskrit_Series Nyayasutra] Anand Ashram Sanskrit Granthvali, pages 290–292; [http://www.sanskritworld.in/public/mpdf/downloadpdf.php?filename=book_50f6f8075590b.txt Alternate Archive] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107181842/http://www.sanskritworld.in/public/mpdf/downloadpdf.php?filename=book_50f6f8075590b.txt |date=7 November 2016 }}<br/>English translation: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-973872-4}}, page 37</ref>}} | ||
Centuries later, the 5th-century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by [[Udayana]], who in his text ''[[Nyayakusumanjali]]'', interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara. | Centuries later, the 5th-century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by [[Udayana]], who in his text ''[[Nyayakusumanjali]]'', interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.<ref name=csharma>Sharma, C. (1997). ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy'', Delhi: [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|81-208-0365-5}}, pp. 209-10</ref> In developing his arguments, he inherently defined ''Ishvara'' as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes the [[karma]] doctrine work.<ref name=csharma/><ref>VR Rao (1987), Selected Doctrines from Indian Philosophy, {{ISBN|81-70990009}}, pages 11–12</ref> | ||
===In Mimamsa=== | ===In Mimamsa=== | ||
[[Mīmāṃsā]] scholars of Hinduism questioned what ''Ishvara'' (God) is. | [[Mīmāṃsā]] scholars of Hinduism questioned what ''Ishvara'' (God) is.<ref name=fxc3>FX Clooney (1997), What's a god? The quest for the right understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, August 1997, Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 337–385</ref> They used their ''[[pramana]]'' tools to cross-examine answers offered by other schools of Hinduism. For example, when Nyaya scholars stated that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and infallible, that the world is the result of God's creation, which is proved by the presence of creatures, just like human work proves human existence, Mimamsa scholars asked, Why does this God create the world, for what reason? Further, they added, it cannot be because of Ishvara's love for human beings, because this world, if Ishvara created it, is imperfect, and human souls suffer. Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism raised numerous objections to any definition of Ishvara and its premises. They deconstructed justifications for the concept of ''Ishvara'' and considered it unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (spiritual liberation).<ref name=fxc3/><ref name=bilimoria>P. Bilimoria (2001), Hindu doubts about God: Towards Mimamsa Deconstruction, in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Volume 4, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-3611-2}}, pages 87–106</ref> | ||
===In Vedanta=== | ===In Vedanta=== | ||
| Line 78: | Line 78: | ||
====Advaita Vedanta==== | ====Advaita Vedanta==== | ||
The [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level, Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ). Ishvara is that which is "free from ''avidyā'' (ignorance), free from ''ahaṃkṛti'' (ego-sense), free from ''bandhana'' (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated". | The [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level, Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ). Ishvara is that which is "free from ''avidyā'' (ignorance), free from ''ahaṃkṛti'' (ego-sense), free from ''bandhana'' (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".<ref name=lance/><ref name=jkoller>John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pages 99–107</ref> | ||
Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the fundamental nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness, and bliss) is non-different from the fundamental nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal, and declare that there is oneness between the two, having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the 'mukti' or ultimate realisation level and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level, there is no otherness nor distinction between ''[[Jiva]]'' (living being) and ''Ishvara'', and any attempts to distinguish the two are a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta. | Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the fundamental nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness, and bliss) is non-different from the fundamental nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal, and declare that there is oneness between the two, having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the 'mukti' or ultimate realisation level and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level, there is no otherness nor distinction between ''[[Jiva]]'' (living being) and ''Ishvara'', and any attempts to distinguish the two are a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.<ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99</ref> | ||
{{Blockquote| | {{Blockquote| | ||
ईश्वरः अहम् | ईश्वरः अहम् <br/> | ||
Ishvara, I am. | Ishvara, I am. | ||
|[[Adi Shankara]]| Upadesasahasri 2.3.1, 2.10.8 | |[[Adi Shankara]]| Upadesasahasri 2.3.1, 2.10.8<ref name=lance/>}} | ||
Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the [[monism|monist]] views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, delusions, and the root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, accurate to truth, liberated like Ishvara. | Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the [[monism|monist]] views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, delusions, and the root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, accurate to truth, liberated like Ishvara.<ref>William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1251-2}}, page 23-25</ref><ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1467-7}}, pages 547–551</ref> | ||
When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualising the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the universe's existence. | When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualising the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the universe's existence.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dalal |first=Neil |title=Śaṅkara |date=2021 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/shankara/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-04-16 |edition=Winter 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416190619/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/shankara/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
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[[Advaita Vedanta|Advaitism]] holds that when human beings think of [[Brahman]], the Supreme Cosmic Spirit is projected upon the limited, finite human mind and appears as ''Ishvara''. | [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaitism]] holds that when human beings think of [[Brahman]], the Supreme Cosmic Spirit is projected upon the limited, finite human mind and appears as ''Ishvara''.<ref name="{{ISBN|81-208-2144-0}}">See generally, Sinha, H.P. (1993), ''Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā'' (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-2144-0}}.</ref>{{pn|date=January 2015}} Therefore, the mind projects human attributes, such as personality, motherhood, and fatherhood, on the Supreme Being. An interesting metaphor is that when the "reflection" of the Cosmic Spirit falls upon the mirror of ''[[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]'' (''{{IAST|Māyā}}''; the principle of illusion, which binds the mind), it appears as the Supreme Lord.<ref name="{{ISBN|81-208-2144-0}}"/>{{pn|date=January 2015}} Brahman is not thought to have such attributes in the true sense.<ref name="{{ISBN|1-884852-02-5}}">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) {{ISBN|1-884852-02-5}}</ref>{{pn|date=January 2015}} However it may be helpful to project such attributes onto Brahman. | ||
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====Vishishtadvaita Vedanta==== | ====Vishishtadvaita Vedanta==== | ||
''Ishvara'', in [[Vishishtadvaita]] Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation". | ''Ishvara'', in [[Vishishtadvaita]] Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".<ref name=mcc>McCasland et al. (1969), Religions of the world, Random House, {{ISBN|978-0-394-30384-0}}, page 471</ref> Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th century [[Ramanuja]] state, is the supreme creator and synonymous with [[Brahman]].<ref name="Chari1988p212">{{cite book |author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Tattvamuktākalāpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un1i5icdpdoC |year=1988 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0266-7 |pages=212, 231–233}}</ref> Equated with Vishnu in Vishishtadvaita or one of his [[avatar]],<ref>{{cite book |author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Tattvamuktākalāpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un1i5icdpdoC |year=1988 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0266-7 |pages=18, 228, 340–341}}</ref> he is both the material and efficient cause, transcendent and immanent.<ref name=mcc/> Ishvara manifests in five forms, according to the Vishishtadvaitins: ''para'' (transcendent), ''vyuha'' (emanations), ''vibhava'' (incarnations), ''antaryamin'' (dwells inside), and ''arca'' (icons).<ref name=johngrimes/> According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities: ''jnana'' (knowledge), ''bala'' (strength), ''aisvarya'' (lordship), ''sakti'' (power), ''virya'' (virility) and ''tejas'' (splendor).<ref name=johngrimes>John Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3067-5}}, page 143</ref> | ||
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by [[Sri Aurobindo]] | Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by [[Sri Aurobindo]]<ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3-11-034255-0}}, page 151</ref> and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's [[Lingayatism]].<ref>Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8135-4068-9}}, pages 243–244</ref> | ||
====Dvaita Vedanta==== | ====Dvaita Vedanta==== | ||
The Dvaita ([[Dualistic cosmology#In Hinduism|dualism]]) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th 13th-century Madhva, defines ''Ishvara'' as the creator God that is distinct from ''Jiva'' (individual Selves in living beings). | The Dvaita ([[Dualistic cosmology#In Hinduism|dualism]]) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th 13th-century Madhva, defines ''Ishvara'' as the creator God that is distinct from ''Jiva'' (individual Selves in living beings).<ref name=rajpra>R. Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pages 345–347</ref> [[Narayana]] (Vishnu) is considered to be ''Ishvara'', and the [[Vaishnavism]] movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.<ref name=olilea>Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17358-2}}, page 251</ref> | ||
''Ishvara'' (God) is a complete, perfect, and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously, the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta. | ''Ishvara'' (God) is a complete, perfect, and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously, the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta.<ref name=olilea/> In [[Dvaita]] sub-school, ''Jiva'' (individual Self) is different, yet dependent on ''Ishvara'' (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss, and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all-encompassing. The attributes of ''Jiva'' struggle to manifest, while God fully manifests them.<ref name=rajpra/> | ||
Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between ''Jiva'' (individual Self) and ''Ishvara'' (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative. | Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between ''Jiva'' (individual Self) and ''Ishvara'' (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative.<ref name=tompad/> Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state of [[moksha]] in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.<ref name=tompad>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3-11-034255-0}}, pages 155–157</ref> | ||
The world, called ''Maya'', is held as the divine will of Ishvara. | The world, called ''Maya'', is held as the divine will of Ishvara.<ref name=rajpra/> ''Jiva'' suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" (''ajnana''). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana.<ref name=rajpra/> It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance of ''sattva'' [[Guṇa|guna]] (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live a [[Dharma|dharmic]] life while constantly remembering, deeply loving ''Ishvara''.<ref name=rajpra/> | ||
====Achintya-Bheda-Abheda==== | ====Achintya-Bheda-Abheda==== | ||
{{IAST|Acintya bhedābheda}} is a sub-school of [[Vedanta]] representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara ([[Krishna]]). | {{IAST|Acintya bhedābheda}} is a sub-school of [[Vedanta]] representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara ([[Krishna]]).<ref name=Kaviraja>{{cite book | author = Kaviraja, K.G. | title = Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | publisher = [[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] }}[http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/108-109/en1 ''Madhya'' 20.108-109] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511153501/http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/108-109/en1 |date=11 May 2008 }} "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire."</ref><ref>{{IAST|Kṛṣṇa Upaniṣad}} 1.25: ''{{IAST|...na bhinnam. nā bhinnamābhirbhinno na vai vibhuḥ}}''</ref> | ||
In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates to 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: ''jiva'') is considered a part of God, and thus one with Him in quality, yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference. | In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates to 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: ''jiva'') is considered a part of God, and thus one with Him in quality, yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spiritual Dialectics |last=Mukundananda |first=Swami |publisher=Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog |year=2013 |page=96 |quote=Hence, he called his philosophy Achintya Bhedabhed vad, or Inconceivable Simultaneous Oneness and Difference.}}</ref> | ||
Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva is understood to be part of a progression to devotional [[theism]]. [[Rāmānuja]] had agreed with [[Śaṅkara|{{IAST|Śaṅkara}}]] that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the ''[[jiva]]'': he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda). | Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva is understood to be part of a progression to devotional [[theism]]. [[Rāmānuja]] had agreed with [[Śaṅkara|{{IAST|Śaṅkara}}]] that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the ''[[jiva]]'': he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).<ref name = SDG>{{Cite book| first = dasa Goswami| last = Satsvarupa| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami| title =Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself| publisher = Assoc Publishing Group| year = 1976| pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9}}</ref> | ||
===In Carvaka=== | ===In Carvaka=== | ||
[[Cārvāka]], another atheist tradition in [[sramana]], was materialist and a school of [[philosophical scepticism]]. They rejected all concepts of ''Ishvara'' and all forms of supernaturalism. | [[Cārvāka]], another atheist tradition in [[sramana]], was materialist and a school of [[philosophical scepticism]]. They rejected all concepts of ''Ishvara'' and all forms of supernaturalism.<ref>Robert Flint, {{Google books|7es0AQAAIAAJ|Anti-theistic theories|page=463}}, Appendix Note VII – Hindu Materialism: The Charvaka System; William Blackwood, London</ref><ref>V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the [[Samkhya]], there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x}}</ref><ref>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, [[Motilal Banarsidass]], {{ISBN|978-81-208-1607-7}}, page 67, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Caravaka system, is a Hindu system."</ref> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
Latest revision as of 10:37, 22 March 2026
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Ishvara (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.[1][2] In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean lord, ruler, king, husband, queen, soul or the Supreme Self (Paramatman).[1] In medieval-era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self.[2][3][4] In Shaivism, Ishvara is an epithet of Shiva.[5][6][7][8] In Vaishnavism, it is synonymous with Vishnu, like in his epithet of Venkateswara.[9] In traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements like Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God.[10] In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".[11] In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara is the manifested form of Brahman (Saguna brahman).[12]
Etymology[edit | edit source]
The root of the word Ishvara comes from Ish (ईश् īś-) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".[13] The second part of the word Ishvara is vara (वर vara), which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".[14] The composite word, Ishvara literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".
As a concept, Ishvara in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means a ruler or king, a husband, God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Shiva, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number 'eleven'.[5][6][15]
The word Īśvara does not appear in Rigveda.[16] However, the verb īś- does appear in Rigveda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".[16] It is absent in Samaveda, is rare in Atharvaveda, but it appears in Samhitas of Yajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian Pāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being.[16]
The word Ishvara appears in numerous ancient Dharmasutras. However, there Ishvara does not mean God, but means Vedas.[17] Ishvara in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as Ishvara (the king) on matters of public importance".[17]
The term is used as part of the compounds Maheshvara ("The Great Lord") and Parameshvara ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of Vishnu and Shiva. In Mahayana Buddhism it is used as part of the compound "Avalokiteśvara" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see etymology section there), the name of a bodhisattva revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in Shaktism, the feminine Ishvari is sometimes used.[18]
In Advaita Vedanta school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.[19][20]
Schools of thought[edit | edit source]
Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of Ishvara (i.e., a supreme being) relevant. Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara, but assign different meanings.
Ishvara is a metaphysical concept in the Yogasutras.[21] The book does not mention a specific deity or describe any devotional practices (Bhakti), nor does it provide characteristics of Ishvara typically associated with a deity.[21] In the Yoga school of Hinduism, states Ian Whicher, a professor of religion at the University of Manitoba, Ishvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta.[3] Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedantic philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term Ishvara as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".[3][22] Angelika Malinar, a professor of Indian studies at the University of Zurich, too, writes that, among the Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism, Ishvara is neither a creator God nor a salvific God.[23]
Bhakti sub-schools refer to Ishvara as a divine lord or the specified deity of the Bhakti sub-school.[24] Some contemporary sectarian movements have emphasised Ishvara as a supreme lord—for example, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness's theology is monotheistic, with Krishna being the universe's supreme divinity.[25] In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as the Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja and Dvaita of Madhva, Ishvara is identified as Vishnu and/or Narayana, who is distinct from the prakṛti (material world) and purusha (Self).
The diversity in interpretations of Ishvara aligns with theistic Hinduism's notion of a personal God.[26] Thus, Hinduisms also allow practicing individuals choice in their conceptualisations of Ishvara, whether that be in the form of a specific deity or the formless Brahman of ultimate reality.[4][2][27][28]
In Samkhya[edit | edit source]
Samkhya is commonly considered an atheistic school of Hindu philososphy.[11][29][30] However, some, such as Norwegian scholar Knut A. Jacobsen, consider Samkhya to be more accurately described as a form of nontheism.[31] Still others, including State University of New York Indologist and professor Andrew J. Nicholson, argue that Samkhya was originally theistic but transitioned to atheism during the Middle Ages.[32] Ishvara as a being is occasionally affirmed—but more often denied—in the Samkhya school.[33] For example, arguments are advanced in the Samkhya Pravachana Sutra and its commentaries against the existence of Ishvara, chiefly that a being that is both a creator and free cannot exist.[34]
In Yoga[edit | edit source]
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the foundational text of the Yoga school of Hinduism, uses the term Ishvara in 11 verses: I.23–I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Since the Sutras were compiled, Hindu scholars have debated the identity and purpose of Ishvara, with beliefs ranging from Ishvara-as-"personal god" to it being "special Self", and to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[11][35] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or nontheistic, the compiler's concept of Ishvara in Yogic philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[36]
Patanjali defines Ishvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1 as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[37]
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– Yoga Sutras I.24
This sutra adds the characteristics of Ishvara as the special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[38][39]
Patanjali's concept of Ishvara is neither as a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta.[3][22]
In Vaisesika[edit | edit source]
The Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BCE, neither required nor relied on Ishvara for its atomistic naturalist philosophy. To it, substances and paramāṇu (atoms) are eternal; they move and interact based on impersonal, eternal adrsta (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.[40][41] The concept of Ishvara, among others, entered into the Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium CE.[40][42] The evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. Later ancient Vaisheshika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added Ishvara as another 'eternal'—albeit one who is also omniscient and omnipresent (but not omnipotent). Vaisheshika scholars posited that Ishvara did not create the world; he created laws that operate the world before becoming passive and letting those universal laws affect reality without divine intervention .[40] Thus, Vaisheshika's Ishvara mirrors the Deus otiosus of deism. Klaus Klostermaier, in a 2007 survey of Hinduism, writes that Ishvara can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but only to the point that he "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".[40]
In Nyaya[edit | edit source]
Early Nyaya school scholars considered Ishvara a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons, and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.Template:Contradictory inline[43][44] Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.[45]
Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1, examines what causes the production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in the universe. It considers many hypotheses, including Ishvara. Verses 19–21 postulate that Ishvara exists and is the cause, state a consequence of the postulate, then present contrary evidence, and from the contradiction conclude that the postulate must be invalid.[46]
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : ईश्वरः कारणम्, पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात्
पूर्वपक्षसूत्र : न, पुरुषकर्माभावे फ्लानिष्पत्तेः
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : तत्कारितत्वादहेतुः
Proposition sutra: Ishvara is the cause, since we see sometimes human action lacks fruits (results).
Prima facie objection sutra: This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no fruit is accomplished without human action.
Conclusion sutra: Not so, since it is influenced by him.
— IV.1.19 – IV.1.21[46]
Centuries later, the 5th-century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by Udayana, who in his text Nyayakusumanjali, interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.[47] In developing his arguments, he inherently defined Ishvara as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes the karma doctrine work.[47][48]
In Mimamsa[edit | edit source]
Mīmāṃsā scholars of Hinduism questioned what Ishvara (God) is.[49] They used their pramana tools to cross-examine answers offered by other schools of Hinduism. For example, when Nyaya scholars stated that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and infallible, that the world is the result of God's creation, which is proved by the presence of creatures, just like human work proves human existence, Mimamsa scholars asked, Why does this God create the world, for what reason? Further, they added, it cannot be because of Ishvara's love for human beings, because this world, if Ishvara created it, is imperfect, and human souls suffer. Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism raised numerous objections to any definition of Ishvara and its premises. They deconstructed justifications for the concept of Ishvara and considered it unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (spiritual liberation).[49][50]
In Vedanta[edit | edit source]
Advaita Vedanta[edit | edit source]
The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level, Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ). Ishvara is that which is "free from avidyā (ignorance), free from ahaṃkṛti (ego-sense), free from bandhana (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".[19][20] Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the fundamental nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness, and bliss) is non-different from the fundamental nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal, and declare that there is oneness between the two, having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the 'mukti' or ultimate realisation level and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level, there is no otherness nor distinction between Jiva (living being) and Ishvara, and any attempts to distinguish the two are a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.[51]
ईश्वरः अहम्
Ishvara, I am.— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 2.3.1, 2.10.8[19]
Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the monist views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, delusions, and the root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, accurate to truth, liberated like Ishvara.[52][53]
When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualising the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the universe's existence.[54]
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta[edit | edit source]
Ishvara, in Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".[55] Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th century Ramanuja state, is the supreme creator and synonymous with Brahman.[56] Equated with Vishnu in Vishishtadvaita or one of his avatar,[57] he is both the material and efficient cause, transcendent and immanent.[55] Ishvara manifests in five forms, according to the Vishishtadvaitins: para (transcendent), vyuha (emanations), vibhava (incarnations), antaryamin (dwells inside), and arca (icons).[58] According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities: jnana (knowledge), bala (strength), aisvarya (lordship), sakti (power), virya (virility) and tejas (splendor).[58]
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by Sri Aurobindo[59] and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's Lingayatism.[60]
Dvaita Vedanta[edit | edit source]
The Dvaita (dualism) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th 13th-century Madhva, defines Ishvara as the creator God that is distinct from Jiva (individual Selves in living beings).[61] Narayana (Vishnu) is considered to be Ishvara, and the Vaishnavism movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.[9]
Ishvara (God) is a complete, perfect, and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously, the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta.[9] In Dvaita sub-school, Jiva (individual Self) is different, yet dependent on Ishvara (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss, and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all-encompassing. The attributes of Jiva struggle to manifest, while God fully manifests them.[61]
Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between Jiva (individual Self) and Ishvara (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative.[62] Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state of moksha in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.[62]
The world, called Maya, is held as the divine will of Ishvara.[61] Jiva suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" (ajnana). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana.[61] It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance of sattva guna (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live a dharmic life while constantly remembering, deeply loving Ishvara.[61]
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda[edit | edit source]
Acintya bhedābheda is a sub-school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference, in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara (Krishna).[63][64]
In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable', bheda translates as 'difference', and abheda translates to 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: jiva) is considered a part of God, and thus one with Him in quality, yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.[65]
Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva is understood to be part of a progression to devotional theism. Rāmānuja had agreed with Śaṅkara that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. Madhva had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the jiva: he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).[66]
In Carvaka[edit | edit source]
Cārvāka, another atheist tradition in sramana, was materialist and a school of philosophical scepticism. They rejected all concepts of Ishvara and all forms of supernaturalism.[67][68][69]
See also[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionary, Search for Izvara Archived 4 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine, University of Cologne, Germany
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1293-2, pages 177–184, 208–215
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York press, ISBN 978-0-7914-3815-2, pages 82–86
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6, pages 73–76
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary". IITS Koeln. p. 171. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 306
- ↑ Laurie Searl, ed. (2014). Lord Śiva's Song: the Īśvara Gītā. Translated by Andrew J. Nicholson. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-5102-2. OCLC 880450730.
- ↑ Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. pp. 235, 379–380. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-17358-2, page 251
- ↑ RK Pruthi (2004), Arya Samaj and Indian Civilization, ISBN 978-81-7141-780-3, pages 5–6, 48–49
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9, pages 38–39
- ↑ Bahm, Archie J. (1992). The World's Living Religions. Jain Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87573-000-4.
- ↑ Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2000-5, page 47
- ↑ Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2000-5, page 270
- ↑ Apte Sanskrit-English dictionary, Search for Izvara Archived 6 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, University of Cologne, Germany
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Madhav Deshpande (1991), Sense and Syntax in Vedic (Editors: Joel Brereton and Stephenie Jamison), Volumes 4–5, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-09356-0, pages 23–27
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Patrick Olivelle (2006), Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-530532-6, page 176
- ↑ Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-78294-4, pages 99–107
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity in Patanjali's Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3336-4, page 131
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9, page 77
- ↑ A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1-4725-1151-5, page 79
- ↑ Zimmer (1951), Philosophies of India, Reprinted by Routledge in 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-46232-7, pages 242–243, 309–311
- ↑ Karel Werner (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-1049-2, page 54
- ↑ Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1, pages 37–39, 401–403, 498–503
- ↑ RC Zaehner (1975), Our savage god: The perverse use of eastern thought, ISBN 978-0-8362-0611-1, pages 69–72
- ↑ R.C. Zaehner (1966), Hinduism, Oxford University Press, 1980 edition: pages 126–129, Reprinted in 1983 as ISBN 978-0-19-888012-7
- ↑ Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, page 39
- ↑ Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie Volume 11, ISBN 978-1-4840-3061-5, pages 25–27 (in German)
- ↑ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9, pages 15–16
- ↑ Nicholson, Andrew (2010). Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 69–78.
- ↑ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9, pages 76–77
- ↑ Andrew J. Nicholson (2017), 'Refuting Vedantic Theism in the Samkhya-Sutra' in The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, ed. Jonardon Ganeri, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-750381-2, pages 598–622
- ↑ Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129
- ↑ Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-3815-2, page 86
- ↑ Āgāśe, K. S. (1904). Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p. 25.
- ↑ aparAmRSTa Archived 29 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya Archived 17 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
- ↑ Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9, pages 31–45
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, page 337
- ↑ A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, ISBN 978-0-86590-278-7, pages 149–151
- ↑ R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-00187-9, page 836
- ↑ John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-12627-4, page 150
- ↑ G. Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der Indischen Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1-34
- ↑ Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-973872-4, pages 18–19, 35–39
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Original Sanskrit: Nyayasutra Anand Ashram Sanskrit Granthvali, pages 290–292; Alternate Archive Archived 7 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine
English translation: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-973872-4, page 37 - ↑ 47.0 47.1 Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0365-5, pp. 209-10
- ↑ VR Rao (1987), Selected Doctrines from Indian Philosophy, ISBN 81-70990009, pages 11–12
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 FX Clooney (1997), What's a god? The quest for the right understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, August 1997, Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 337–385
- ↑ P. Bilimoria (2001), Hindu doubts about God: Towards Mimamsa Deconstruction, in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Volume 4, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2, pages 87–106
- ↑ Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99
- ↑ William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2, page 23-25
- ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7, pages 547–551
- ↑ Dalal, Neil (2021), "Śaṅkara", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, archived from the original on 16 April 2023, retrieved 16 April 2023
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 McCasland et al. (1969), Religions of the world, Random House, ISBN 978-0-394-30384-0, page 471
- ↑ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1988). Tattvamuktākalāpa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 212, 231–233. ISBN 978-81-208-0266-7.
- ↑ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1988). Tattvamuktākalāpa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 18, 228, 340–341. ISBN 978-81-208-0266-7.
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 John Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5, page 143
- ↑ Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-034255-0, page 151
- ↑ Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-4068-9, pages 243–244
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 R. Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, ISBN 978-81-8069-595-7, pages 345–347
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-034255-0, pages 155–157
- ↑ Kaviraja, K.G. Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.Madhya 20.108-109 Archived 11 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire."
- ↑ Kṛṣṇa Upaniṣad 1.25: ...na bhinnam. nā bhinnamābhirbhinno na vai vibhuḥ
- ↑ Mukundananda, Swami (2013). Spiritual Dialectics. Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog. p. 96.
Hence, he called his philosophy Achintya Bhedabhed vad, or Inconceivable Simultaneous Oneness and Difference.
- ↑ Satsvarupa, dasa Goswami (1976). Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself. Assoc Publishing Group. pp. 240 pages. ISBN 0-912776-88-9.
- ↑ Robert Flint, Anti-theistic theories, p. 463, at Google Books, Appendix Note VII – Hindu Materialism: The Charvaka System; William Blackwood, London
- ↑ V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x
- ↑ KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1607-7, page 67, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Caravaka system, is a Hindu system."
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