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| image = Ayyappa Swamy bazaar art, c.1950's.jpg
| image = Ayyappa Swamy bazaar art, c.1950's.jpg
| alt = A painting of Ayyapppan seated on a tiger with a herd of tigers behind him.
| alt = A painting of Ayyapppan seated on a tiger with a herd of tigers behind him.
| caption = Ayyappan, c. 1950s
| caption = A painting of Ayyappan dating to c. 1950s
| script_name =  
| script_name =  
| script =  
| script =  
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| symbols = [[Bell]], [[bow and arrow]]
| symbols = [[Bell]], [[bow and arrow]]
| father = [[Shiva]]
| father = [[Shiva]]
| mother = [[Mohini]] (female avatar of [[Vishnu]])
| mother = [[Vishnu]] as [[Mohini]]
| texts = ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]''
| texts = ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]''
}}
}}
'''Ayyappan''' (Malayalam: അയ്യപ്പൻ), also called '''Dharmasastha''' and '''Manikandan,''' is a [[Hindu]] deity popular in [[Southern India]], He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.
'''Ayyappan''', also called '''Dharmasastha''' and '''Manikandan,''' is a [[Hindu]] deity popular in [[Southern India]], He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.


Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier in South India, his popularity rose only in the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Suresh|last=Chandra|year=1998|title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfTE6kpz6XEC|publisher=Sarup and Sons|page=28|isbn=8176250392}}</ref><ref name="bri" /><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78" /> According to Hindu theology, he is the son of [[Harihara]] ([[Vishnu]] in the form of [[Mohini]] and [[Shiva]]).<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78">{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush|author2=Catherine A. Robinson|author3=Michael York|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|page=78}}</ref><ref name=Quinn>Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5458-9}}, page 58</ref> Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/>
Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier in South India, his popularity rose only in the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Suresh|last=Chandra|year=1998|title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfTE6kpz6XEC|publisher=Sarup and Sons|page=28|isbn=8176250392}}</ref><ref name="bri" /><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78" /> According to Hindu theology, he is the son of [[Harihara]] ([[Vishnu]] in the form of [[Mohini]], and [[Shiva]]).<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78">{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush|author2=Catherine A. Robinson|author3=Michael York|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|page=78}}</ref><ref name=Quinn>Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5458-9}}, page 58</ref> Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/>


The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate ([[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]) deity doing yoga and as an epitome of [[Dharma]], who wears a bell around his neck. He is also honoured by [[Muslims]] in Kerala, with legends wherein Ayyappan defeats and gains worship of the Muslim brigand Vavar.<ref name=bri/><ref name=Quinn/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-hindu-pilgrims-pray-at-a-mosque-in-kerala-1334002|title=Hindu pilgrims pray at a mosque in Kerala – Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|date=12 January 2010}}</ref> In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape-shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior [[yogi]] champion of ethical and dharmic living.<ref name=bri/><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=17-21}} In South Indian portrayals, Ayyappan images show him riding a tigress, but in some places such as [[Sri Lanka]] he is shown as riding a white elephant.<ref>{{cite book|author=MN Srinivas|title=Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_ZAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565174-4|pages=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=D. P. Dubey|title=Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHLXAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=SPS|isbn=978-81-900520-1-6|pages=136–137}}</ref>
The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate ([[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]) deity doing yoga and as an epitome of [[Dharma]], who wears a bell around his neck. In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape-shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior [[yogi]] champion of ethical and dharmic living.<ref name=bri/><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=17-21}} In South Indian portrayals, Ayyappan images show him riding a tigress, but in some places such as [[Sri Lanka]] he is shown as riding a white elephant.<ref>{{cite book|author=MN Srinivas|title=Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_ZAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565174-4|pages=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=D. P. Dubey|title=Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHLXAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=SPS|isbn=978-81-900520-1-6|pages=136–137}}</ref>


Ayyappan's popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at [[Sabarimala]], nestled in the hills of [[Pathanamthitta]] of [[Kerala]]. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,<ref name=Quinn/> making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=22–24}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Press Trust of India|title=Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared|url=http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|access-date=13 July 2011|newspaper=The New Indian Express|date=June 23, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083502/http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity. He remains one of the few deities in Hindu tradition, who is respected by other religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.<ref name=bri>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ayyappan| title=Ayyappan – Hindu deity|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica|year= 2014}}</ref> The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku ([[Makara Sankranti]]), observed around the winter solstice.<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA350 |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=238, 350}}</ref>
Ayyappan's popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at [[Sabarimala]], nestled in the hills of [[Pathanamthitta]] of [[Kerala]]. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,<ref name=Quinn/> making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=22–24}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Press Trust of India|title=Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared|url=http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|access-date=13 July 2011|newspaper=The New Indian Express|date=June 23, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083502/http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity. He remains one of the few deities in Hindu tradition, who is respected by other religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.<ref name=bri>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ayyappan| title=Ayyappan – Hindu deity|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica|year= 2014}}</ref> The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku ([[Makara Sankranti]]), observed around the winter solstice.<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA350 |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=238, 350}}</ref>


==Names and iconography==
==Names and iconography==
[[File:Lord Ayyappa old painting.jpg|thumb|A painting of lord Ayyapppan sitting in yogapattasana]]
[[File:Ayyapan(1).jpg|thumb|Ayyappan icon similar to the Sabarimala icon in a yogic position.]]
[[File:Ayyapan(1).jpg|thumb|Ayyappan icon similar to the Sabarimala icon in a yogic position.]]
The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father". The name may literally come from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes [[Mohini]] (Mohini here called father, she is a female form of the god [[Vishnu]]) and [[Shiva]] respectively.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Williams|author2=Anthony Tribe|author3=Alexander Wynne|title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ |year=2012| publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-136-52088-4|page=62}}; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see [[Four Noble Truths]]) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)</ref> However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era [[Puranas]], leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word ''acchan'' and Tamil word ''appa'' which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".<ref>{{cite book|author=Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov|title=A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H422cDV5qX4C&pg=PA49|year=1996|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03811-9|page=49}}</ref><ref name=bronkhorst>{{cite book|author1=Johannes Bronkhorst|author2=Madhav Deshpande|title=Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies|isbn=978-1-888789-04-1|pages=177–178}}</ref> The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being ''Sastava'' (''Sasta'', ''Sashta'', ''Sastra''), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".<ref name=bronkhorst/> The words ''Sastha'' and ''Dharmasastha'' in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.<ref name="Dalal2010p43">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|page=43}}</ref>
The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father". The name may literally come from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes [[Mohini]] (Mohini here called father, she is a female form of the god [[Vishnu]]) and [[Shiva]] respectively.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Williams|author2=Anthony Tribe|author3=Alexander Wynne|title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ |year=2012| publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-136-52088-4|page=62}}; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see [[Four Noble Truths]]) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)</ref> However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era [[Puranas]], leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word ''acchan'' and Tamil word ''appa'' which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".<ref>{{cite book|author=Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov|title=A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H422cDV5qX4C&pg=PA49|year=1996|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03811-9|page=49}}</ref><ref name=bronkhorst>{{cite book|author1=Johannes Bronkhorst|author2=Madhav Deshpande|title=Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies|isbn=978-1-888789-04-1|pages=177–178}}</ref> The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being ''Sastava'' (''Sasta'', ''Sashta'', ''Sastra''), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".<ref name=bronkhorst/> The words ''Sastha'' and ''Dharmasastha'' in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.<ref name="Dalal2010p43">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|page=43}}</ref>
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Ayyappan is also known as ''Hariharasudhan''<ref>Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)</ref> – meaning the "son of [[Harihara]]" or a fusion deity of ''Hari'' and ''Hara'', the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.<ref>Younger, p.22</ref> He is also called ''Manikanta'' from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,<ref>{{cite web|title=maNi|url=http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Mani&direct=se|website=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|publisher=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref> and ''kanta'', Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.<ref name="Dalal2010p43"/>
Ayyappan is also known as ''Hariharasudhan''<ref>Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)</ref> – meaning the "son of [[Harihara]]" or a fusion deity of ''Hari'' and ''Hara'', the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.<ref>Younger, p.22</ref> He is also called ''Manikanta'' from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,<ref>{{cite web|title=maNi|url=http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Mani&direct=se|website=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|publisher=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref> and ''kanta'', Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.<ref name="Dalal2010p43"/>


Ayyappan is a warrior deity. He is revered for his ascetic devotion to Dharma – the ethical and right way of living, to deploy his military genius and daring yogic war abilities to destroy those who are powerful but unethical, abusive and arbitrary.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–25}} His iconography is usually shown with a bow and arrow upraised in his left hand, while in his right he holds either a bow or a sword diagonally across his left thigh.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Joanna Gottfried|year=1981|isbn=9004064982|page=72|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India}}</ref> Other depictions of Ayyappan, particularly paintings, generally show him in a yogic posture wearing a bell around his neck<ref name=bri/> and sometimes shown riding a tiger.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.media4news.com/the-mount-of-swami-ayyappan-is-tiger/|title=The mount of Swami Ayyappan is tiger|work=media4news.com}}</ref>
Ayyappan is a warrior deity. He is revered for his ascetic devotion to Dharma – the ethical and right way of living, to deploy his military genius and daring yogic war abilities to destroy those who are powerful but unethical, abusive and arbitrary.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–25}} His iconography is usually shown with a bow and arrow upraised in his left hand, while in his right he holds either a bow or a sword diagonally across his left thigh.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Joanna Gottfried|year=1981|isbn=9004064982|page=72|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India}}</ref> Other depictions of Ayyappan, particularly paintings, generally show him in a yogic posture wearing a bell around his neck<ref name=bri/> and sometimes shown riding a tiger.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}


==Life and legends==
==Life and legends==
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== Temples ==
== Temples ==
[[File:Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District.jpg|thumb|Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District, [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The entrance shows Ayyappan riding a tiger.]]
[[File:Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District.jpg|thumb|Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District, [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The entrance shows Ayyappan riding a tiger.]]
There are many temples in [[Kerala]] whose presiding deity is Ayyappan, the most famous among them being the [[Sabarimala]] temple. Padinettam Padi Karuppan is Guardian Of Ayyappan temple. The temple attracts millions of visitors every year during mandala season from mid November to mid January. Other important temples are [[Kulathupuzha Sastha Temple]], [[Aryankavu Sastha Temple]], [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple]], [[Erumely Sree Dharmasastha Temple]] and [[Ponnambalamedu]] Temple.
There are many [[Temple|temples]] in [[Kerala]] whose presiding deity is Ayyappan, the most famous among them being the [[Sabarimala]] temple. Padinettam Padi Karuppan is Guardian Of [[Ayyappan Temple|Ayyappan temple]]. The temple attracts millions of visitors every year during mandala season from mid November to mid January. Other important temples are [[Kulathupuzha Sastha Temple]], [[Aryankavu Sastha Temple]], [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple]], [[Erumely Sree Dharmasastha Temple]] and [[Ponnambalamedu]] Temple.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}


Ayyappan temples typically show him as a celibate yogi. A few important temples such as the one at [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple]] near Travancore, however, depict him as a married man with two wives Poorna and Pushkala, as well as a son ''Satyaka''.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Srikumaran|title=Theerthayathra: A Pilgrimage Through Various Temples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGvXAAAAMAAJ |year=2005|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|isbn=978-81-7276-363-3|pages=103, 120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ky3GBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT127|title=The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore|page=127 |first=Devdutt|last=Pattanaik |date=9 January 2014|publisher= Routledge|isbn=9781317766308}}</ref> Some of Ayyappan temples are believed to have been established by the Vishnu avatar [[Parashurama]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Maria A. David|title=Beyond Boundaries: Hindu-Christian Relationship and Basic Christian Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYlC_qF_eB0C&pg=PA9 |year=2009| publisher=ISPCK| isbn=978-81-8465-001-3|page=9}}</ref>
Ayyappan temples typically show him as a celibate yogi. A few important temples such as the one at [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple]] near Travancore, however, depict him as a married man with two wives Poorna and Pushkala, as well as a son ''Satyaka''.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Srikumaran|title=Theerthayathra: A Pilgrimage Through Various Temples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGvXAAAAMAAJ |year=2005|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|isbn=978-81-7276-363-3|pages=103, 120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ky3GBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT127|title=The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore|page=127 |first=Devdutt|last=Pattanaik |date=9 January 2014|publisher= Routledge|isbn=9781317766308}}</ref> Some of Ayyappan temples are believed to have been established by the Vishnu avatar [[Parashurama]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Maria A. David|title=Beyond Boundaries: Hindu-Christian Relationship and Basic Christian Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYlC_qF_eB0C&pg=PA9 |year=2009| publisher=ISPCK| isbn=978-81-8465-001-3|page=9}}</ref>
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Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or ''[[sadhu]]''-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/><ref name="Kent2013p14">{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref name="Eck2012p13"/> The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: ''swami''.<ref name="Eck2012p13">{{cite book|author=Diana L Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&pg=PA13|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-53191-7|pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1987p244">{{cite book|author=E. Valentine Daniel|title=Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwZatzse3CsC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06167-5|pages=244–262}}</ref> After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting ''[[shlokas]]''.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Knapp|title=Spiritual India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&pg=PT416 |year=2009| publisher=Jaico|isbn=978-81-8495-024-3|pages=416–419}}</ref>
Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or ''[[sadhu]]''-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/><ref name="Kent2013p14">{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref name="Eck2012p13"/> The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: ''swami''.<ref name="Eck2012p13">{{cite book|author=Diana L Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&pg=PA13|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-53191-7|pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1987p244">{{cite book|author=E. Valentine Daniel|title=Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwZatzse3CsC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06167-5|pages=244–262}}</ref> After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting ''[[shlokas]]''.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Knapp|title=Spiritual India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&pg=PT416 |year=2009| publisher=Jaico|isbn=978-81-8495-024-3|pages=416–419}}</ref>


To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Women of menstruating age (between the ages of 10-50) were strictly prohibited in the temple until 2018. This was said to be due to the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a [[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]] (celibate) deity.<ref name=bri/><ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} The Supreme Court of India ruled on 28 September 2018 that [[Entry of women to Sabarimala|women could not be prohibited from entering the temple]]. This led to violent protests.
To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Women of menstruating age (between the ages of 10-50) were strictly prohibited in the temple until 2018. This was said to be due to the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a [[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]] (celibate) deity.<ref name=bri/><ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} The Supreme Court of India ruled on 28 September 2018 that [[Entry of women to Sabarimala|women could not be prohibited from entering the temple]]. This led to violent protests.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}


The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry ''irumudi'' (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.<ref name="Smith1978p3" />{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.<ref name="Daniel1987p244" />
The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry ''irumudi'' (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.<ref name="Smith1978p3" />{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.<ref name="Daniel1987p244" />
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* [[Aranmula kottaram]] (Aranmula palace)
* [[Aranmula kottaram]] (Aranmula palace)
* [[Gurunathanmukadi]]
* [[Gurunathanmukadi]]
* [[Harihara]]
* [[Harivarasanam]]
* [[Harivarasanam]]
* [[Maalikapurathamma]]
* [[Maalikapurathamma]]
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== References ==
== References ==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


===Bibliography===
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{citation|last=Younger|first=Paul|title=Playing Host to Deity: Festival Religion in the South Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqPmCwAAQBAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0195140443}}
* {{citation|last=Younger|first=Paul|title=Playing Host to Deity: Festival Religion in the South Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqPmCwAAQBAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0195140443}}
*{{cite book|first=P. Pratap|last=Kumar|title=Contemporary Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2d_BAAAQBAJ|publisher=Routledge|date=2014|isbn=978-1317546351}}
*{{cite book|first=P. Pratap|last=Kumar|title=Contemporary Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2d_BAAAQBAJ|publisher=Routledge|date=2014|isbn=978-1317546351}}
{{Refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
 
* [http://www.npsin.in/mandir/sree-ayyappa-temple Sree Ayyappa Temple, RK Puram Delhi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826201253/http://www.npsin.in/mandir/sree-ayyappa-temple |date=2017-08-26 }}
* [http://www.makarajyothi.com Historical and Mythological details about Swamy Ayyapa]
* [http://www.swamyayyappa.com About Lord Swamy Ayyappa]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090815150914/http://www.ayyappa.my/ Malaysian Lord Ayyappa Charity and Welfare Organisation]
* [http://www.ayyappan-ldc.com Oldest site on Lord Ayyappan (Non profit Org)]
* [http://www.ayyappatemple.in/history.html Lord Ayyappan History (Non profit Org)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111130203001/http://www.d2i.in/visit/Ayappa-Temple_Nigdi_Pune_Pilgrimage/1755 Ayappa Temple, Nigdi, Pune]
* [http://www.londonayyappan.org London Ayappan Temple, UK]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111230051237/http://sabash.org/ Sastha Ayyanar and Ayyappan]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111231062709/http://viswastrust.org/ Ashta Sastha Temple]
*[http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/album/TD02105.html Songs on Ayyappan fight with King Udayan and the Mukkal Vettom temple]


{{Hindu deities and texts}}
{{Hindu deities and texts}}

Revision as of 20:12, 19 January 2023


"Ayyappa" redirects here. For other uses, see Ayyappa (disambiguation).
Ayyappan
God of righteousness and celibacy
A painting of Ayyapppan seated on a tiger with a herd of tigers behind him.
A painting of Ayyappan dating to c. 1950s
AffiliationHinduism
AbodeSabarimala
MantraSwamiye Saranam Ayyappa and Ayyapan Gayatri Mantra
WeaponBow and arrow, sword
SymbolsBell, bow and arrow
MountTiger
TextsBrahmanda Purana
Personal information
Parents

Ayyappan, also called Dharmasastha and Manikandan, is a Hindu deity popular in Southern India, He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.

Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier in South India, his popularity rose only in the late 20th century.[1][2][3] According to Hindu theology, he is the son of Harihara (Vishnu in the form of Mohini, and Shiva).[3][4] Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.[2][3]

The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate (Brahmachari) deity doing yoga and as an epitome of Dharma, who wears a bell around his neck. In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape-shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior yogi champion of ethical and dharmic living.[2][5][6] In South Indian portrayals, Ayyappan images show him riding a tigress, but in some places such as Sri Lanka he is shown as riding a white elephant.[7][8]

Ayyappan's popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at Sabarimala, nestled in the hills of Pathanamthitta of Kerala. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,[4] making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.[9][10] The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity. He remains one of the few deities in Hindu tradition, who is respected by other religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.[2] The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku (Makara Sankranti), observed around the winter solstice.[3][11]

Names and iconography

A painting of lord Ayyapppan sitting in yogapattasana
Ayyappan icon similar to the Sabarimala icon in a yogic position.

The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father". The name may literally come from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes Mohini (Mohini here called father, she is a female form of the god Vishnu) and Shiva respectively.[12] However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era Puranas, leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word acchan and Tamil word appa which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".[13][14] The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being Sastava (Sasta, Sashta, Sastra), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".[14] The words Sastha and Dharmasastha in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.[15]

Ayyappan is also known as Hariharasudhan[16] – meaning the "son of Harihara" or a fusion deity of Hari and Hara, the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.[17] He is also called Manikanta from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,[18] and kanta, Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.[15]

Ayyappan is a warrior deity. He is revered for his ascetic devotion to Dharma – the ethical and right way of living, to deploy his military genius and daring yogic war abilities to destroy those who are powerful but unethical, abusive and arbitrary.[19] His iconography is usually shown with a bow and arrow upraised in his left hand, while in his right he holds either a bow or a sword diagonally across his left thigh.[20] Other depictions of Ayyappan, particularly paintings, generally show him in a yogic posture wearing a bell around his neck[2] and sometimes shown riding a tiger.[citation needed]

Life and legends

The legends and mythology of Ayyappa varies across region like other Hindu gods and goddesses, reflecting a tradition that evolved and enriched over time, sometimes in conflicting ways.[21][22] For example, the Sribhutanatha Purana text presents Ayyappan as an incarnation of the Hindu deity Hariharaputra, the son of Shiva and Mohini. This interaction between Shiva and Mohini is mentioned in the Bhagavata Purana, but Ayyappan is not mentioned.[23] In the oral tradition as represented by Malayalam folk songs, Ayyappa is presented as a warrior hero of Pandala kingdom. According to Eliza Kent, the legends in the Ayyappa tradition seem to be "artificially mixed and assembled into a kind of collage".[22] Ruth Vanita suggests that Ayyappan probably emerged from the fusion of a Dravidian god of tribal provenance and the Puranic story of Shiva and Mohini's interaction.[24]

Core story

There once was a kingdom of Pandalam where Ayyappan originated.[25] The royal family was childless. One day the king of Pandalam found a baby boy in a forest.[2][3][4] The king carried the baby to an ascetic in the forest to inquire about the boy.[25] The ascetic advised the king to take the baby home, raise him like his own son, and that in 12 years he would discover who the baby was.[25] The royal family did so, naming the baby Manikantha.[25]

Ayyappan, also called Hariharaputra, is believed to be born from the union of Shiva and Mohini.[26]

At age 12, the king wanted to formally invest Manikantha as the heir prince (yuvraja). However, the queen under the influence of an evil minister objected. The minister had advised the queen that only her younger biological child should be the next king. The younger child was disabled and lacked the ability to perform the duties of the king, something that the scheming evil minister thought would make him the de facto ruler.[25] The minister persuaded the queen to feign an illness, ask for "tiger's milk" to cure her illness and demand that Manikantha be sent to get the milk from the forest. Manikantha volunteers, goes into the forest, and returns riding a tigress.[25] The king, realising Manikantha's special ability recognizes the adopted son to be a divine being, resolves to make a shrine for him. For the location, Manikantha shoots an arrow that lands thirty kilometers away. The young boy then transforms into Ayyappan. The place where arrow landed is now an Ayyappa shrine, a site of a major pilgrimage that is particularly popular for visits on Makara Sankranti (about January 14).[27]

The above core story is shared wherever Ayyappan is revered in India.[28] Sometimes the story is slightly different or extended, such as the younger son of the queen is not disabled, Ayyappan does bring tigress milk for the queen riding on a tiger, but after doing so Ayyappan renounces the kingdom, becomes an ascetic yogi and returns to live as a great warrior in the forested mountain.[29]

Medieval interpretations

Dharma Shasta is a complete incarnation, worshiped as a celibate deity, but in some places one of his incarnations, Shasta is worshipped as Ayyanar along with two consorts.

In the medieval age, the stories of Ayyappan expanded. One story has roots between the 1st and 3rd century CE, where Ayyappan evolves to be a deity who also protects traders and merchants from enemies such as robbers and plundering outlaws.[30] Ayyappa came to be portrayed as a military genius. His temple and tradition inspired Hindu yogi mercenaries who protected the trade routes in South India from criminals and looters, restoring Dharmic trading practices.[30]

In one of the stories, Ayyappan is portrayed as a child of a priest whose father was murdered by the fearsome outlaw Udayanan. The outlaw also kidnaps a princess. Ayyappan then makes a daring rescue, attacks and kills evil Udayanan.[30] In another version of this story, the rulers of Pantalam themselves sent Ayyappan as a mercenary to the Pantya rulers to whom the ruler of Pantalam was related. In another late medieval era variation of the story, Ayyappan forms an alliance with the Muslim warrior Vavar against Udayanan, the basis for some devotees worshiping both in a mosque and then in the Hindu temple before starting a pilgrimage to Ayyappan shrine.[30]

According to Paul Younger, supplementary legends appeared in the late medieval times that linked other Hindu deities and mythologies to Ayyappan heritage.[30] One such story links Ayyappan to the buffalo-demon Mahishasura and buffalo-demoness Mahishasuri. The divine beings Datta and Lila came to earth as humans. Datta wanted to return to the divine realm, but Lila enjoyed her life on earth and Datta's company. She wanted to stay on earth.[31] Datta became angry and cursed her to become a Mahishi, or water buffalo demoness. Lila in turn cursed him to become a Mahisha, or water buffalo demon. They plundered earth with their evil acts. The water buffalo demon Mahishasura was killed by goddess Durga, while the water demoness Mahishasuri was killed by Ayyapan, ending the terror of evil and liberating divine Lila who was previously cursed.[32] These legends, states Younger, syncretically link and combine various Hindu traditions around Shiva (Shaivism), Vishnu (Vaishnavism) and Devi (Shaktism).[32]

Temples

Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh. The entrance shows Ayyappan riding a tiger.

There are many temples in Kerala whose presiding deity is Ayyappan, the most famous among them being the Sabarimala temple. Padinettam Padi Karuppan is Guardian Of Ayyappan temple. The temple attracts millions of visitors every year during mandala season from mid November to mid January. Other important temples are Kulathupuzha Sastha Temple, Aryankavu Sastha Temple, Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple, Erumely Sree Dharmasastha Temple and Ponnambalamedu Temple.[citation needed]

Ayyappan temples typically show him as a celibate yogi. A few important temples such as the one at Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple near Travancore, however, depict him as a married man with two wives Poorna and Pushkala, as well as a son Satyaka.[33][34] Some of Ayyappan temples are believed to have been established by the Vishnu avatar Parashurama.[35]

Sabarimala

Ayyappan pilgrims walking barefoot to the Sabarimala shrine.

Ayyappan has roots in Kerala, but his influence and popularity have grown among the Hindus in South Indian states. Of his many temples, the most significant is at Sabarimala (also spelled Sabarimalai), set in the forests of the Pathanamthitta district in the Western Ghats on the banks of river Pamba, southeast of Kottayam. It is a major pilgrimage, attracting millions of Hindus every year, particularly of Malayali, Tamil, Kannada and Telugu heritage.[36][37][38]

A crowd in front of the Ayyappan temple, Sabarimala

Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or sadhu-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.[36][39][38] The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: swami.[38][40] After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting shlokas.[36][41][42]

To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Women of menstruating age (between the ages of 10-50) were strictly prohibited in the temple until 2018. This was said to be due to the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a Brahmachari (celibate) deity.[2][36][41] The Supreme Court of India ruled on 28 September 2018 that women could not be prohibited from entering the temple. This led to violent protests.[citation needed]

The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry irumudi (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.[36][41] For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.[40]

Other religions

Vavar's mosque on the way to Sabarimala.

He is also revered by Muslims in Kerala[4] due to his friendship with Vavar,[43] who is identified as a Muslim brigand in local versions of the Ayyappan myth.[44] In this mythology, Ayyappan confronts the plunder-driven pirate robber Vavar in the jungle on his way to collect tigress milk. They fight. Ayyappan defeats Vavar, and Vavar changes his way, becomes Ayyappan's trusted lieutenant helping fight other pirates and robbers.[45] In another version, Vavar is stated to be a Muslim saint from Arabia, who works with Ayyappan.[45][46]

A mosque dedicated to Ayyappan's lieutenant Vavar swami stands next to the Kadutha swami shrine at the foot of the pilgrimage path, both as a form of guardian deities. Some pilgrims offer a prayer to both, before beginning their Sabarimala forest and mountain pilgrimage hike.[45] According to Kent, the mosque does not contain mortal remains of Vavar swami though the mosque near Sabarimala includes a grave, and no one can date Vavar nor provide when and where he lived, so he may be a myth. The Vavar legend and palli shrines may reflect the Hindu approach to accepting and co-opting legendary figures or saints of other religions within its fold.[47]

Popular culture

A number of Indian films have been made about the deity. These include: Sabarimala Ayyappan (1961) by S. M. Sriramulu Naidu, Swami Ayyappan (1975) by P. Subramaniam, Saranam Ayyappa (1980) by Dasarathan, Arul Tharum Ayyappan (1987) by Dasarathan, Shiv Putra Swami Ayappa (1990) by P.S. Mani, Sabarimala Sri Ayyappan (1990) by Renuka Sharma, Engal Swamy Ayyappan (1990) by Dasarathan, Ayyappa Swamy Mahatyam (1991), Ayyappa Deeksha Mahimalu (1992) by Guda Rama Krishna, Swami Ayappa Shabarimalai (1993) by K. Shankar, Jai Hari Hara Putra Ayyappa (1995), Bhagwaan Ayyappa (2007) by Irajaral Bhakhta and V. Swaminathan, Swami Ayyappan (2012) by Chetan Sharma and Mahesh Vettiyar, Om Sharanam Ayyappa (2015) by K. Sharath, Sri Omkara Ayyappane (2016) by Sai Prakash, Ayyappa Kataksham (2019) by Rudrapatla Venugopal.[48][49]

The Indian television channel Asianet launched a Malayalam-language series named Swami Ayyappan in 2006, this was followed by Swami Ayyappan Saram (2010), Sabarimala Shri Dharmashasta (2012) and Sabarimala Swami Ayappan (2019). The 2021 movie The Great Indian Kitchen prominently features a family of devotees of Ayyappan.

The story of Ayyappa is dictated by Parvati to Ganesha in the Indian TV show on Sony TV, called Vighnaharta Ganesh.[50]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Chandra, Suresh (1998). Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Sarup and Sons. p. 28. ISBN 8176250392.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 "Ayyappan – Hindu deity". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2014.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9, page 58
  5. ↑ Jeffery D. Long (2011). Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Scarecrow Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8108-7960-7.
  6. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 17-21.
  7. ↑ MN Srinivas (2002). Collected Essays. Oxford University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-19-565174-4.
  8. ↑ D. P. Dubey (1995). Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions. SPS. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-81-900520-1-6.
  9. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 22–24.
  10. ↑ Press Trust of India (June 23, 2011). "Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  11. ↑ Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. pp. 238, 350. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  12. ↑ Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe; Alexander Wynne (2012). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-136-52088-4.; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see Four Noble Truths) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)
  13. ↑ Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov (1996). A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 49. ISBN 978-3-447-03811-9.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Johannes Bronkhorst; Madhav Deshpande (1999). Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-1-888789-04-1.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  16. ↑ Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)
  17. ↑ Younger, p.22
  18. ↑ "maNi". Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit. spokensanskrit.org. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  19. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 21–25.
  20. ↑ Williams, Joanna Gottfried (1981). Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India. p. 72. ISBN 9004064982.
  21. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18–25.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 80–83. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  23. ↑ Goudriaan, Teun (1978). "The Māyā of the Gods: Mohini". Māyā divine and human. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-81-208-2389-1.
  24. ↑ Ruth Vanita; Saleem Kidwai (2000). Same-Sex Love in India: Readings in Indian Literature. Springer Publishing. p. 94. ISBN 1137054808.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 Younger 2002, p. 18.
  26. ↑ Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  27. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18–19.
  28. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18–22.
  29. ↑ Devdutt Pattanaik (2014). Pashu: Animal Tales from Hindu Mythology. Penguin Books. pp. 109–111. ISBN 978-81-8475-692-0.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Younger 2002, pp. 20–21.
  31. ↑ Younger 2002, p. 21.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Younger 2002, pp. 21–22.
  33. ↑ K. Srikumaran (2005). Theerthayathra: A Pilgrimage Through Various Temples. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 103, 120. ISBN 978-81-7276-363-3.
  34. ↑ Pattanaik, Devdutt (9 January 2014). The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 9781317766308.
  35. ↑ Maria A. David (2009). Beyond Boundaries: Hindu-Christian Relationship and Basic Christian Communities. ISPCK. p. 9. ISBN 978-81-8465-001-3.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Fred Clothey (1978). Bardwell L. Smith (ed.). Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia. BRILL Academic. pp. 3–9 with footnotes. ISBN 90-04-05674-2.
  37. ↑ Younger 2002, pp. 18-23.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Diana L Eck (2012). India: A Sacred Geography. Random House. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7.
  39. ↑ Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 E. Valentine Daniel (1987). Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way. University of California Press. pp. 244–262. ISBN 978-0-520-06167-5.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Younger 2002, pp. 18–23.
  42. ↑ Stephen Knapp (2009). Spiritual India Handbook. Jaico. pp. 416–419. ISBN 978-81-8495-024-3.
  43. ↑ Mohammada, Malika (23 August 2017). "The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India". Aakar Books. Retrieved on 23 August 2017 – via Google Books.
  44. ↑ Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (23 August 2017). "Men and Masculinities in South India". Anthem Press – via Google Books.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 81–86. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  46. ↑ Kumar, KP Narayana. "Before arriving at Sabarimala temple in Kerala, devotees visit a mosque". The Economic Times.
  47. ↑ Eliza Kent (2013). Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia. Syracuse University Press. pp. 84–88. ISBN 978-0-8156-5225-0.
  48. ↑ Rajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen, Paul (1999). Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema. British Film Institute. ISBN 9780851706696.
  49. ↑ "Ayyappan now in toon avatar". The Hindu. June 20, 2012. Retrieved 2014-06-21.
  50. ↑ "Ep. 608 - Story Time For The Kids - Vighnaharta Ganesh". SonyLIV.

Bibliography

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