Proto-Dravidian language: Difference between revisions

What links here Related changes Page information Get shortened URL
Created by Dqfuller1973
Last edited March 20, 2026
VisualWikitext
imported>Dqfuller1973
m →References: added reference already mentioned in entry but not cited.
 
m cleanup
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{short description|common ancestor of the Dravidian languages}}
{{Short description|Reconstructed common ancestor of the Dravidian languages}}
{{infobox proto-language  
{{infobox proto-language  
|name=Proto-Dravidian
|name=Proto-Dravidian
|familycolor=Dravidian
|familycolor=Dravidian
|target=[[Dravidian languages]]
|target=[[Dravidian languages]]
|era=ca. 4th–3rd m. BCE
|era= c. 4000–3000 BCE
|region= possibly Northwestern India or West Central India
|region= Indian subcontinent, exact region unknown
|child1=[[Proto-South Dravidian language|Proto-South Dravidian]]
|child1=[[Proto South-Dravidian language|Proto South-Dravidian]]
|child2=Proto South-Central-Dravidian
|child3=Proto Central-Dravidian
|child4=Proto North-Dravidian
}}
}}
{{Dravidian}}
{{Dravidian}}


'''Proto-Dravidian''' is the [[linguistic reconstruction]] of the common ancestor of the [[Dravidian languages]].{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} It is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, and [[Proto-South Dravidian]], although the date of diversification is still debated.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bhadriraju Krishnamurti |title=The Dravidian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC&pg=PA492 |date=16 January 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-43533-8 |page=492 }}</ref>
'''Proto-Dravidian''' is the [[linguistic reconstruction]] of the common ancestor of the [[Dravidian languages]] native to the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} It is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, and [[Proto-South Dravidian]], although the date of diversification is still debated.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=492}}


==History==
==History==
{{See also|Elamo-Dravidian languages}}
As a [[proto-language]], Proto-Dravidian is not itself attested in historical records. Its modern conception is based solely on [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstruction]]. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started evolving into various branches around 3rd-millennium BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History and Archaeology. vol. 1, no. 1–2 |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chvjAAAAMAAJ&q=the+proto-+Dravidian+linguistic+community+disintegrated+at+the+beginning+of+the+4th+millennium+B.+C |page=234 |publisher=Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad |oclc=11579254}}<!--Please provide the title of the contribution and its author; the preview on Google Books doesn't provide a contents list.--></ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2022}}
 
As a [[proto-language]], Proto-Dravidian is not itself attested in historical records. Its modern conception is based solely on [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstruction]]. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=chvjAAAAMAAJ&q=the+proto-+Dravidian+linguistic+community+disintegrated+at+the+beginning+of+the+4th+millennium+B.+C&dq=the+proto-+Dravidian+linguistic+community+disintegrated+at+the+beginning+of+the+4th+millennium+B.+C&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y History and Archaeology, Volume 1, Issues 1-2] p.234, Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad</ref>


The [[Dravidian people#Origins|origin and territory of the Proto-Dravidian speakers]] is uncertain, but some suggestions have been made based on the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian vocabulary. The reconstruction has been done on the basis of cognate words present in the different branches ([[Northern Dravidian languages|Northern]], [[Central Dravidian Languages|Central]] and [[South Dravidian|Southern]]) of the Dravidian language family.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353}}
The [[Dravidian people#Origins|origin and territory of the Proto-Dravidian speakers]] is uncertain, but some suggestions have been made based on the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian vocabulary. The reconstruction has been done on the basis of cognate words present in the different branches ([[Northern Dravidian languages|Northern]], [[Central Dravidian Languages|Central]] and [[South Dravidian|Southern]]) of the Dravidian language family.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353}}


According to Dorian Fuller (2007), the botanical vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian is characteristic of the [[dry deciduous forest]]s of central and peninsular India. This region extends from [[Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests|Saurashtra]] and [[Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests|Central India]] to [[South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests|South India]]. It thus represents the general area in which the Dravidians were living before separation of branches.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353}}
According to {{harvp|Fuller|2007}}, the botanical vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian is characteristic of the [[dry deciduous forest]]s of central and peninsular India. For the Southern Dravidians, this region extends from [[Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests|Saurashtra]] and [[Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests|Central India]] to [[South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests|South India]]. It thus represents the general area in which the Dravidians were living before the separation of branches.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353}}  


According to [[Franklin Southworth]] (2005), the Proto-Dravidian vocabulary is characteristic of a rural economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. However, there are some indications of a society more complex than a rural one:{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353-354}}
According to [[Franklin Southworth]] (2005),{{sfn|Southworth|2005}} the Proto-Dravidian vocabulary is characteristic of a rural economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. However, there are some indications of a society more complex than a rural one:{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353–354}}


* Words for an [[storey|upper storey]] and [[beam (structure)|beam]]
* Words for an [[storey|upper storey]] ''(mel)'' and [[beam (structure)|beam]] ''(paṭṭa)''
* Metallurgy
* [[Metallurgy]]
* Trade
* Trade
* Payment of dues (possibly taxes or contributions to religious ceremonies)
* Payment of dues (possibly taxes or contributions to religious ceremonies)
* Social stratification
* Social stratification


This evidence is not sufficient to determine with certainty the territory of the Proto-Dravidians. These characteristics can be accommodated within multiple contemporary cultures, including:{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353-354}}
This evidence is not sufficient to determine with certainty the territory of the Proto-Dravidians. These characteristics can be accommodated within multiple contemporary cultures, including:{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=353–354}}


* 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of present-day [[Ahar-Banas culture|western Rajasthan]], [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and other parts of the peninsula.
* 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of [[Mehrgarh]] and present-day [[Ahar-Banas culture|western Rajasthan]], [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and other parts of the peninsula.
* [[List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites|Indus Valley civilization sites]] in Saurashtra (Sorath) area of present-day [[Gujarat]].  
* Early [[Indus Valley civilisation]] sites in [[Pakistan]] and later ones in the Saurashtra (Sorath) area of present-day [[Gujarat]].
* [[Asko Parpola]] identifies Proto-North Dravidians with the [[Indus Valley civilization]] (IVC) and the [[Meluhha]] people mentioned in [[Sumer]]ian records, and has suggested that the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian words ''mel(u)-akam'' ("highland country, high abode").{{sfn|Parpola|Parpola|1975|p=217–225}}
* [[Loan words]] identified in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] such as the words for [[ivory]] ''(zuamsi)'' and [[sesame]] ''(ĝeš-i₃)'' are considered to be derived from Proto-Dravidian and spread from Indus Valley civilisation to [[Mesopotamia]] due to trade.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=354}}{{sfn|Ansumali Mukhopadhyay|2021}}


*[[Asko Parpola]] identifies Proto-Dravidians with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (IVC) and the [[Meluhha]] people mentioned in [[Sumer]]ian records. According to him, the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian words ''mel-akam'' ("highland country").
==Phonology==
*[[Loan words]] identified in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] such as the words for [[ivory]] and [[sesame]]  are considered to be derived from Proto-Dravidian and spread from IVC to [[Mesopotamia]] due to trade.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=354}}<ref name=Bahata>{{cite web | last1 = Mukhopadhyay | first1 = Bahata Ansumali |title = Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics | url =https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00868-w}}</ref>


==Phonology==
===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Proto-Dravidian contrasted between five short and long vowels: ''*a'', ''*ā'', ''*i'', ''*ī'', ''*u'', ''*ū'', ''*e'', ''*ē'', ''*o'', ''*ō''. The sequences ''*ai'' and ''*au'' are treated as ''*ay'' and ''*av'' (or *''aw'')<ref>{{cite book  | last = Baldi | first = Philip |author-link=Philip Baldi  | title = Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology  | publisher = Walter de Gruyter  | year = 1990 | isbn = 3-11-011908-0 | page = 342}}</ref>
Proto-Dravidian contrasted between five short and long vowels: ''*a'', ''*ā'', ''*i'', ''*ī'', ''*u'', ''*ū'', ''*e'', ''*ē'', ''*o'', ''*ō''. The sequences ''*ai'' and ''*au'' are treated as ''*ay'' and ''*av'' (or *''aw'').{{sfn|Baldi|1990|p=342}}


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Proto-Dravidian has been reconstructed as having the following consonant phonemes (Subrahmanyam 1983:p40, [[Kamil Zvelebil|Zvelebil]] 1990, [[Bhadriraju Krishnamurti|Krishnamurthi]] 2003):
Proto-Dravidian has been reconstructed as having the following consonant phonemes:{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|1983|p=40}}{{sfn|Zvelebil|1990}}{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003}}
{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable Unicode" border="1" style="text-align:center"
|-
! !![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Retroflex]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Plosives]]
| *p || *t || *ṯ || *ʈ || *c || *k ||
|-
![[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| *m || *n || (*ṉ){{efn|reconstructed by [[P. S. Subrahmanyam]]}} || *ɳ || *ɲ ||  ||
|-
![[Lateral consonant|Laterals]]
| || || *l || *ɭ || || ||
|-
![[Rhotic consonant|Rhotics]]
| || || *r || *ɻ{{efn|may also be represented as ḻ or r̤}} || || ||
|-
|-
!
![[Semivowels]]
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
| *w || || || || *j || || *H
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
! [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| *m
| *n̪
| *n
| *ɳ
| *ɲ
| (*ŋ)
|
|- align=center
! [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| *p
| *t̪
| *t
| *ʈ
| *c
| *k
|
|- align=center
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
|
|
| *ɭ (*ṛ, *r̤)
|
|
| (*h)
|- align=center
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
|
| *ɾ
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| *ʋ
|
| *l
| *ɭ
| *j
|
|
|}
|}
{{Notelist}}
The singular alveolar plosive ''*ṯ'' developed into an alveolar trill {{IPA|/r/}} in many of the South and South Central languages, it later merged with the tap in many of them; Tulu has /d͡ʒ, d̪, ɾ/ as reflexes, Manda-Kui made it /d͡ʒ/ and Hill-Maria Gondi made it /ʁ/. ''*ṯṯ'' and ''*nṯ'' became /r̥, nr/ in Konda and [tr, ndr] in many Tamil dialects. Apart from them, other languages did not rhotacize it, instead either preserving them or merging it with other sets of stops like dentals in Kannada, retroflexes in Telugu or palatals in Manda-Kui and some languages of Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Tribal Languages of Kerala | url=http://www.languageinindia.com/july2013/ravisankarkeralatriballanguages.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721004115/http://www.languageinindia.com:80/july2013/ravisankarkeralatriballanguages.pdf | archive-date=2013-07-21}}</ref> Central made all alveolars dental which is one of the features distinguishing it from South Central branch and North made it /r, s/.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003}}<ref>{{Cite web| title=Dravidian Comparative Phonology | url=https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0012142_Dravidian_comparative_phonology.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601185052/https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0012142_Dravidian_comparative_phonology.pdf | archive-date=2023-06-01}}</ref> For example, Tamil ''āṟu'', Tulu ''āji'', Naiki ''sādi'', Kui ''hāja''; Tamil ''puṟṟu'', Tulu ''puñca'', Kannada ''huttu'', Naiki ''puṭṭa'', Konda ''puRi'', Malto ''pute''; Tamil ''onṟu'', Tulu ''oñji'', Pengo ''ronje'', Brahui ''asi''.
Velar nasal ''*ṅ'' occurred only before ''*k'' in Proto-Dravidian (as in many of its daughter languages). Therefore, it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam, [[Gondi language|Gondi]], [[Konda language (Dravidian)|Konda]] and [[Pengo language|Pengo]] because the original sequence ''*ṅk'' was simplified to ''*ṅ'' or ''*ṅṅ''.{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|1983}}


The alveolar stop ''*ṯ'' developed into an alveolar trill {{IPA|/r/}} in many daughter languages. The stop sound is retained in [[Kota language (India)|Kota]] and [[Toda language|Toda]] (Subrahmanyam 1983). [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] still retains the original (alveolar) stop sound in gemination (''ibid''). In Old Tamil it took the enunciative vowel like the other stops. In other words, ''*ṯ'' (or ''*ṟ'') did not occur word-finally without the enunciative vowel (''ibid''){{Explain|date=August 2021}}.
The glottal fricative ''*H'' has been proposed by {{harvp|Krishnamurti|2003}} to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (''Āytam'') and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena.


Velar nasal ''*/ŋ/'' occurred only before ''*k'' in Proto-Dravidian (as in many of its daughter languages). Therefore, it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam, [[Gondi language|Gondi]], [[Konda language (Dravidian)|Konda]] and [[Pengo language|Pengo]] because the original sequence ''*ṅk'' was simplified to ''*ṅ''. (Subrahmanyam 1983)
[[P. S. Subrahmanyam]] reconstructs 6 nasals for PD compared to 4 by Krishnamurti, who also does not reconstruct a laryngeal.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/23734414 | title=Professor P. S. Subrahmanyam, (1939-2016) the distinguished Dravidian linguist: A short profile and his publications | last1=Prema | first1=S. | last2=Sreekumar | first2=P. | date=28 March 2016 }}</ref>


The glottal fricative ''*h'' has been proposed by Bh. Krishnamurthi to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (''Āytam'') and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena (Krishnamurthi 2003).
The [[Northern Dravidian languages]] [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], [[Malto language|Malto]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]] cannot easily be derived from the traditional Proto-Dravidian phonological system. Bhadriraju and others traditionally proposes *c, *k retracting to *k, *q before vowels other than *i(:), and Brahui and Kurukh spirantized the *q, e.g. Tamil kaṇ, Malto qanu; Kananda kem-, Brahui xisun; but there are exceptions, Tamil cōr, Malto curg̣e; Koraga jōku, Brahui cōshing. {{harvp|McAlpin|2003}} proposes that they branched off from an earlier stage of Proto-Dravidian than the conventional reconstruction, which would apply only to the other languages. He suggests reconstructing a richer system of dorsal stop consonants:


The Northern Dravidian languages [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], [[Malto language|Malto]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]] cannot easily be derived from the traditional Proto-Dravidian phonological system. McAlpin (2003)<ref>{{cite journal|first=David W.|last=McAlpin|title=Velars, Uvulars and the Northern Dravidian hypothesis|year=2003|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=123:3|pp=521–546}}</ref> proposes that they branched off from an earlier stage of Proto-Dravidian than the conventional reconstruction, which would apply only to the other languages. He suggests reconstructing a richer system of dorsal stop consonants:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Early Proto-Dravidian !! Late Proto-Dravidian<br>(Proto-Non-North Dravidian) !! Proto-Kurukh-Malto !! Brahui
! Early Proto-Dravidian !! Late Proto-Dravidian<br />(Proto-Non-North Dravidian) !! Proto-Kurukh-Malto !! Brahui
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| *c || *c || *c ||<!--tʃ?-->
| *c || *c || *c ||<!--tʃ?-->
Line 117: Line 92:
| *k || *k || *k || k
| *k || *k || *k || k
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
| *q || *k || *q || x<br/>k / _i(ː)
| *q || *k || *q || x<br />k / _i(ː)
|}
|}


==Numerals==
==Numerals==
{{main|Dravidian languages#Numerals}}
{{main|wikt:Appendix:Cognate sets for Dravidian languages#Numerals}}


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
===Crop plants===
===Crop plants===
Below are some crop plants that have been found in the Southern Neolithic complex of [[Karnataka]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], along with their Proto-Dravidian or Proto-South Dravidian reconstructions by [[Franklin Southworth]] (2005). In some cases, the proto-form glosses differ from the species identified from archaeological sites. For example, the two Southern Neolithic staple grasses ''[[Brachiaria]] ramosa'' and ''[[Setaria verticillata]]'' respectively correspond to the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms for ''[[Sorghum vulgare]]'' and ''[[Setaria italica]]'' as early Dravidian speakers shifted to [[millet]] species that were later introduced to South India.<ref>Southworth, Franklin C. 2005. ''[https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~fsouth/from_ccat/Proto-DravidianAgriculture.pdf Proto-Dravidian Agriculture]''. Paper presented at the 7th ESCA Round Table Conference, Kyoto, June 2005.</ref>
Below are some crop plants that have been found in the Southern Neolithic complex of [[Karnataka]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], along with their Proto-Dravidian or Proto-South Dravidian reconstructions by {{harvp|Southworth|2005}}. In some cases, the proto-form glosses differ from the species identified from archaeological sites. For example, the two Southern Neolithic staple grasses ''[[Brachiaria]] ramosa'' and ''[[Setaria verticillata]]'' respectively correspond to the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms for ''[[Sorghum vulgare]]'' and ''[[Setaria italica]]'' as early Dravidian speakers shifted to [[millet]] species that were later introduced to South India.{{sfn|Southworth|2005}}


:{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Pulses
|+Pulses
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
Line 133: Line 109:
| [[horsegram]] || ''[[Macrotyloma uniflorum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *koḷ || [[horsegram]]
| [[horsegram]] || ''[[Macrotyloma uniflorum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *koḷ || [[horsegram]]
|-
|-
| [[mung bean]] || ''[[Vigna radiata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *pac-Vt/Vl || [[mung bean]]
| [[green gram]] || ''[[Vigna radiata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pacVṯ-|*pacVṯ-]]/[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pacVl|*pacVl]]|| [[green gram]]
|-
|-
| [[urad (bean)|urad]] || [[Vigna mungo|''Vigna'' cf. ''mungo'']]; ''[[Vigna trilobata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *uẓ-untu, *min(t) || [[urad (bean)|urad]]
| [[black gram]] || [[Vigna mungo|''Vigna'' cf. ''mungo'']]; ''[[Vigna trilobata]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/uẓuntu|*uẓ-untu]], *min(t) || [[black gram]]
|-
|-
| [[hyacinth bean]] || ''[[Lablab purpureus]]'' || Proto-Tamil || *ava-rai || ''[[Dolichos lablab]]''
| [[hyacinth bean]] || ''[[Lablab purpureus]]'' || Proto-Tamil || *ava-rai || ''[[Dolichos lablab]]''
Line 142: Line 118:
|}
|}


:{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Millets and related grasses
|+Millets and related grasses
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
Line 163: Line 139:
|}
|}


:{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Large cereals
|+Large cereals
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
Line 169: Line 145:
| [[barley]] || ''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'' ||  ||  ||  
| [[barley]] || ''[[Hordeum vulgare]]'' ||  ||  ||  
|-
|-
| [[wheat]] || ''[[Triticum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian ? || *kūli || [[wheat]]/[[rice]]
| [[wheat]] || ''[[Triticum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian? || *kūli || [[wheat]]
|-
|-
| [[rice]] || ''[[Oryza]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian ? || *(v)ar-iñci || [[rice]]
| [[rice]] || ''[[Oryza]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian? || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/wariñci|*war-iñci]] || [[rice]]
|}
|}


:{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Other food/crop plants
|+Other food/crop plants
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
Line 190: Line 166:
| [[flax]] || ''[[Linum usitatissimum]]'' || Proto-South Dravidian || *ak-V-ce ||  
| [[flax]] || ''[[Linum usitatissimum]]'' || Proto-South Dravidian || *ak-V-ce ||  
|-
|-
| [[cotton]] || ''[[Gossypium]]'' sp. || Proto-South Dravidian || *par-utti ||  
| [[cotton]] || ''[[Gossypium]]'' sp. || Proto-South Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-South_Dravidian/parutti|*par-utti]] ||  
|-
|-
| [[okra]] || ''[[Abelmoschus]]'' sp. ||  ||  ||  
| [[okra]] || ''[[Abelmoschus]]'' sp. ||  ||  ||  
|-
|-
| [[parenchyma]] fragments ||  || Early Proto-Dravidian || *kic-ampu ||  
| [[parenchyma]] fragments ||  || Early Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kicampu|*kic-ampu]] ||
|-
| [[date palm]] || ''Phoenix'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian||[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/cīntu|*cīntu]] ||
|-
|}
|}


:{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Not identified archaeologically in the Southern Neolithic
|+Not identified archaeologically in the Southern Neolithic
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Reconstruction level !! Proto-form !! Gloss of proto-form
|-
|-
| [[onion]]/[[garlic]] || ''[[Allium]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *uḷḷi ||  
| [[onion]]/[[garlic]] || ''[[Allium]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/uḷḷi|*uḷḷi]] ||  
|-
|-
| [[eggplant]] || ''[[Solanum]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *vaẓ-Vt || [[sesame]]
| [[eggplant]] || ''[[Solanum]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/waẓVtV|*waẓ-VtV]] ||  
|-
|-
| [[sesame]] || ''[[Sesamum indicum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || *nū(v)- ||  
| [[sesame]] || ''[[Sesamum indicum]]'' || Late Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/nū(w)|*nū(v)]] || [[sesame]]
|-
|-
| [[sugarcane]] || ''[[Saccharum]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *cet-Vkk ||  
| [[sugarcane]] || ''[[Saccharum]]'' sp. || Early Proto-Dravidian || *cet-Vkk ||  
|-
|-
| [[hemp]] || ''[[Cannabis]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian ? || *boy-Vl ||  
| [[hemp]] || ''[[Cannabis]]'' sp. || Late Proto-Dravidian ? || *boy-Vl ||  
|-
| [[tamarind]] || ''[[Tamarindus indica]]'' || Early Proto-Dravidian || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/cintta|*cintta]] ||
|-
| holy [[basil]] || ''[[Ocimum tenuiflorum]]'' || Proto-Peninsular || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/tuḷacV|*tuḷacV]] ||
|}
|}


===Basic vocabulary===
===Basic vocabulary===
Basic vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian selected from Krishnamurti (2003):<ref name="Krishnamurti-2003">{{cite book |first=Bhadriraju |last=Krishnamurti |title=The Dravidian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-43533-8}}</ref>
Basic vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian selected from {{harvp|Krishnamurti|2003}}:{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p={{pn|date=August 2022}}}}


:{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%"
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%"
! gloss !! Proto-Dravidian
! gloss !! Proto-Dravidian
|-
|-
| ‘one’ || *on-ṯu
| one || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/onṯu|*on-ṯu]]
|-
|-
| ‘one’ (adj.) || *ōr-/*or-V-
| one (adj.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/oru|*ōr-/*or-V-]]
|-
|-
| ‘two’ || *īr/*ir-V
| two || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/ir-|*īr/*ir-V]]
|-
|-
| ‘three’ (adj.) || *muH-/*mū-
| three (adj.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/muH|*muH-/*mū-]]
|-
|-
| ‘four’ (adj.) || *nāl/*nal-V-
| four (adj.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/nāl|*nāl/*nal-V-]]
|-
|-
| ‘five’ (adj.) || *cay-m-
| five (adj.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/cay|*cay-m-]]
|-
|-
| ‘six’ (adj.) || *caṯ-V
| six (adj.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/caṯ-|*caṯ-V]]
|-
|-
| ‘seven’ (adj.) || *eẓ-V
| seven (adj.) || *eẓ-V
|-
|-
| ‘eight’ (adj.) || *eṇ
| eight (adj.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/eṇ-|*eṇ]]
|-
|-
| ‘nine, 9/10’ || *toḷ-/*toṇ-
| nine, 9/10 || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/toḷ|*toḷ-/*toṇ-]]
|-
|-
| ‘ten minus one’ || *on-patV
| ten minus one || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/on|*on-patV]]
|-
|-
| ‘ten’ (adj.) || *paH-
| ten (adj.) || *paH-
|-
|-
| ‘head, hair, top’ || *tal-ay
| head, hair, top || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/talay|*tal-ay]]
|-
|-
| ‘cheek’ || *kap-Vḷ
| cheek || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kapVḷ|*kap-Vḷ]]
|-
|-
| ‘eye’ || *kaṇ
| eye || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kaṇ|*kaṇ]]
|-
|-
| ‘eyeball’ || *kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V
| eyeball || *kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V
|-
|-
| ‘ear’ || *kew-i
| ear || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kewi|*kew-i]]
|-
|-
| ‘nose, beak’ || *mū-nk(k)u/-nc-
| nose, beak || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/mūnk(k)u|*mū-nk(k)u/-nc-]]
|-
|-
| ‘tooth’ || *pal
| tooth || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pal|*pal]]
|-
|-
| ‘mouth’<ref>Note: also ''edge, beak, mouth of vessel, aperture, blade of sword''</ref> || *wāy
| mouth{{efn|Also 'edge, beak, mouth of vessel, aperture, blade of sword'.}} || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/wāy|*wāy]]
|-
|-
| ‘hand, arm’ || *kay
| hand, arm || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kay|*kay]]
|-
|-
| ‘leg, foot’ || *kāl
| leg, foot || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kāl|*kāl]]
|-
|-
| ‘heart, kidney’ || *kuṇṭV
| heart, kidney || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kuṇṭV|*kuṇṭV]]
|-
|-
| ‘liver’ || *taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk
| liver || *taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk
|-
|-
| ‘milk, breast’ || *pāl
| milk, breast || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pāl|*pāl]]
|-
|-
| ‘bone’ || *el-V-mp/-nk
| bone || *el-V-mp/-nk
|-
|-
| ‘bone marrow’ || *mūḷ-V-
| bone marrow || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/mūḷV-|*mūḷ-V-]]
|-
|-
| ‘excrement’ || *piy/*pī
| excrement || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pī|*piy/*pī]]
|-
|-
| ‘house’ || *il
| house || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/il|*il]]
|-
|-
| ‘husband’ || *maẓc-a-
| husband || *maẓc-a-
|-
|-
| ‘man, husband’ || *māy-tt-/*mā-cc-
| man, husband || *māy-tt-/*mā-cc-
|-
|-
| ‘woman’ || *peṇ
| woman || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/peṇ|*peṇ]]
|-
|-
| ‘name’ || *pin-cc-Vr
| name || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pinccVr|*pin-cc-Vr]]
|-
|-
| ‘sky’ || *wān-am
| sky || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/wānam|*wān-am]]
|-
|-
| ‘sun’ || *en-ṯ-
| sun || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/*enṯ-|*en-ṯ-]]
|-
|-
| ‘sun’ || *pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu
| sun || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/poẓutu|*pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu]]
|-
|-
| ‘moon, moonlight’ || *nel-a-nc/-ncc
| moon, moonlight || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/*nelanc(c)-|*nel-a-nc/-ncc]]
|-
|-
| ‘month’ || *nel-V-
| month || *nel-V-
|-
|-
| ‘star’ || *cukk-V
| star || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/cukkV|*cukk-V]]
|-
|-
| ‘star’ || *miHn
| star || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/miHn|*miHn]]
|-
|-
| ‘cloud’ || *muy-il
| cloud || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/muyil|*muy-il]]
|-
|-
| ‘water’ || *nīr
| water || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/nīr|*nīr]]
|-
|-
| ‘river, stream’ || *yĀtu
| river, stream || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/yĀṯu|*yĀṯu]]
|-
|-
| ‘lake’ || *kuḷ-am/-Vnc-
| lake || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-South Dravidian/kuḷ|*kuḷ-]]
|-
|-
| ‘sea, ocean’ || *kaṭ-al
| sea, ocean || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-South Dravidian/kaṭal|*kaṭ-al]]
|-
|-
| ‘stone’ || *kal
| stone || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kal|*kal]]
|-
|-
| ‘wind’ || *waḷi
| wind || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/waḷi|*waḷi]]
|-
|-
| ‘day’ || *nāḷ
| day || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/nāḷ|*nāḷ]]
|-
|-
| ‘night’ || *nāḷ/*naḷ-V-
| night || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/nāḷ|*nāḷ/*naḷ-V-]]
|-
|-
| ‘year’ || *yAṇṭ-u
| year || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/yĀṇṭu|*yĀṇṭ-u]]
|-
|-
| ‘tree’ || *mar-am/-an
| tree || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/maran|*mar-an]]
|-
|-
| ‘fruit, pod’ || *kāy
| fruit, pod || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kāy|*kāy]]
|-
|-
| ‘forest’ || *kā(-n), kā-ṭu
| forest || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kā|*kā(-n), kā-ṭu]]
|-
|-
| ‘grass’ || *pul
| grass || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-South Dravidian/pul|*pul]]
|-
|-
| ‘thatched grass’ || *pīr
| thatched grass || *pīr
|-
|-
| ‘dog’ || *naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi
| dog || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/naH|*naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi]]
|-
|-
| ‘animal, beast, deer’ || *mā
| animal, beast, deer || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/mā|*mā]]
|-
|-
| ‘deer’ || *kur-V-c-
| deer || *kur-V-c-
|-
|-
| ‘tiger’ || *pul-i
| tiger || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/puli|*pul-i]]
|-
|-
| ‘rat’ || *el-i
| rat || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/eli|*el-i]]
|-
|-
| ‘snake’ || *pāmpu
| snake || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pāmpu|*pāmpu]]
|-
|-
| ‘meat’ || *iṯ-ay-cci
| meat || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-South_Dravidian/eṟaycci|*eṯ-ay-cci]]
|-
|-
| ‘meat’ || *ū/*uy
| meat || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-South Dravidian/ū|*ū/*uy]]
|-
|-
| ‘oil, ghee’ || *ney
| oil, ghee || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/ney|*ney]]
|-
|-
| ‘fish’ || *mīn
| fish || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/mīn|*mīn]]
|-
|-
| ‘louse’ || *pēn
| louse || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/pēn|*pēn]]
|-
|-
| ‘mosquito’ || *nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk-
| mosquito || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/nuẓVḷ|*nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk-]]
|-
|-
| ‘wing’ || *ceṯ-ank-/-ankk-
| wing || *ceṯ-ank-/-ankk-
|-
|-
| ‘black’ || *cir-
| black || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/cir-|*cir-]]
|-
|-
| ‘white’ || *weḷ/*weṇ
| white || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/weḷ|*weḷ/*weṇ]]
|-
|-
| ‘red’ || *kem
| red || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kem|*kem]]
|-
|-
| ‘sweet’ (adj./n.) || *in-
| sweet (adj./n.) || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/in-|*in-]]
|-
|-
| ‘sour’ || *puḷ-
| sour || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/puḷ|*puḷ]]
|-
|-
| ‘bitter; bitterness’ || *kac (> kay)
| bitter; bitterness || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kac-|*kac-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to eat, drink’ || *uHṇ-/*ūṇ-
| to eat, drink || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/uHṇ|*uHṇ-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to eat’ || *tiHn-
| to eat || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/tiHn|*tiHn-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to come’ || *waH-/*waH-r
| to come || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/waHr|*waH-/*waH-r]]
|-
|-
| ‘to walk’ || *naṭ-a
| to walk || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/naṭa|*naṭ-a]]
|-
|-
| ‘to give’ || *ciy-/*cī-
| to give || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/ciy-|*ciy-/*cī-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to die’ || *caH- ~ *ceH-
| to die || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/caH-|*caH- ~ *ceH-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to sleep’ || *kū-r-
| to sleep || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/kūr-|*kū-r-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to sleep’ || *tuñc-
| to sleep || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/tuñc-|*tuñc-]]
|-
|-
| ‘to count’ || *eṇ
| to count || [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Dravidian/eṇ|*eṇ]]
|}
|}
 
{{Notelist}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
 
==References==
 
*Krishnamurti, B., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC&pg=PA492&dq=Proto+south+dravidian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XFnFU-LaKdacugTosIGACQ&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Proto%20south%20dravidian&f=false The Dravidian Languages]'', Cambridge University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-521-77111-0}}
*Subrahmanyam, P.S.,  ''Dravidian Comparative Phonology'', Annamalai University, 1983.
*Zvelebil, Kamil., ''Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction", PILC (Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture), 1990
*Ansumali Mukhopadhyay, B. Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 8, 193 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w
* {{cite book |first=Jane R. |last=McIntosh |title=The Ancient Indus Valley : New Perspectives |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=9781576079072 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC }}
* {{cite book |first=Mikhail Sergeevich |last=Andronov |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhB60gYvnLgC&pg=PA299 |year=2003 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-04455-4 }}
*Fuller, D. Q (2007). Non-human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia. In M. Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.) ''The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia''. Springer, Netherlands. Pp. 393-443 <ref>{{Citation|last=Fuller|first=Dorian Q.|title=Non-human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia|date=2007|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_18|work=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|pages=393–443|editor-last=Petraglia|editor-first=Michael D.|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_18|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1|access-date=2021-08-23|editor2-last=Allchin|editor2-first=Bridget}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 403: Line 374:
*[[Dravidian languages]]
*[[Dravidian languages]]
*[[Sanskrit]]
*[[Sanskrit]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Andronov |first=Mikhail Sergeevich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhB60gYvnLgC&pg=PA299 |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-447-04455-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ansumali Mukhopadhyay |first=Bahata |date=December 2021 |title=Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |volume=8 |issue=1 |article-number=193 |doi=10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w |s2cid=236901972|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Baldi |first=Philip |title=Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1990 |isbn=3-11-011908-0 |page=342 |author-link=Philip Baldi}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fuller |first=Dorian Q. |title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4 |series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series |pages=393–443 |chapter=Non-human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia |doi=10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_18}}
* {{Cite book |last=Krishnamurti |first=Bhadriraju |title=The Dravidian Languages |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-43533-8 |author-link=Bhadriraju Krishnamurti}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McAlpin |first=David W. |year=2003 |title=Velars, Uvulars and the Northern Dravidian hypothesis |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=123 |issue=3 |pages=521–546 |doi=10.2307/3217749 |jstor=3217749}}
* {{Cite book |last=McIntosh |first=Jane |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-907-2}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Parpola |first1=Asko |first2=Simo |last2=Parpola |title=On the relationship of the Sumerian toponym Meluhha and Sanskrit mleccha |journal=Studia Orientalia |volume=46 |year=1975 |pages=205–238 |url=http://ojs.tsv.fi/index.php/StOrE/article/view/49874/14912}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Southworth |first=Franklin C. |year=2005 |title=Proto-Dravidian Agriculture |url=https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~fsouth/from_ccat/Proto-DravidianAgriculture.pdf |conference=7th ESCA Round Table Conference, Kyoto, June 2005 |author-link=Franklin Southworth}}
* {{Cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=P.S. |title=Dravidian Comparative Phonology |publisher=Annamalai University |year=1983}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |title=Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture |year=1990 |author-link=Kamil Zvelebil}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Andronov |first=M. |date=1964 |title=Lexicostatistic analysis of the chronology of disintegration of proto-Dravidian |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=170–186 |doi=10.1163/000000064791616433 |s2cid=161229771}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Blažek |first=Václav |year=2009 |title=Dravidian numeral |url=https://www.jolr.ru/files/%287%29jlr2009-1%2869-80%29.pdf |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |volume=1 |pages=69–80 |author-link1=Václav Blažek}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chandrasekaran |first=Periannan |date=7 January 2016 |title=Pleonastic Compounding: An Ancient Dravidian Word Structure |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–59 Seiten |doi=10.11588/ejvs.2011.1.319}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Emeneau |first=M. B. |date=April 1988 |title=Proto-Dravidian *c- and Its Developments |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=239–268 |doi=10.2307/603651 |jstor=603651}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |date=2021 |title=Viewing Proto-Dravidian from the Northeast |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=467–482 |doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.2.0467 |s2cid=226670756 |doi-access=free}}.
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kolipakam |first1=Vishnupriya |last2=Jordan |first2=Fiona M. |last3=Dunn |first3=Michael |last4=Greenhill |first4=Simon J. |last5=Bouckaert |first5=Remco |last6=Gray |first6=Russell D. |last7=Verkerk |first7=Annemarie |date=March 2018 |title=A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family |journal=Royal Society Open Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |article-number=171504 |bibcode=2018RSOS....571504K |doi=10.1098/rsos.171504  |doi-access=free|pmc=5882685 |pmid=29657761 |s2cid=4844024}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sankaran |first=C. R. |date=1939 |title=Reconstruction of the Proto-Dravidian Pronouns |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=96–105 |jstor=42929233}}
* {{cite journal |last=Smirnitskaya |first=Anna |title=Nominations for siblings: Proto-Dravidian reconstruction and borrowability |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |volume=21 |issue=3–4 |date=2024 |pages=201–223 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2024-213-406 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Southworth |first=Franklin |date=December 2011 |title=Rice in Dravidian |journal=Rice |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=142–148 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9076-9 |s2cid=12983737 |author-link=Franklin Southworth |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4..142S}}
* {{Cite book |last=Subramoniam |first=V. I. |title=Pratidanam: Indian, Iranian, and Indo-European studies presented to Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper on his sixtieth birthday |year=1968 |isbn=978-3-11-241530-6 |pages=344–358 |chapter=A Problem in the Reconstruction of the Proto Dravidian Nasal Phonemes |doi=10.1515/9783112415306-047}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Subrahmanyam |first=P.S. |date=2006 |title=Proto-Dravidian Short, High, and Mid Vowels: Mergers in South Dravidian and Telugu-Kuwi |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=66/67 |pages=291–303 |jstor=42931454}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wells |first1=Bryan K. |title=The Archaeology and Epigraphy of Indus Writing |last2=Fuls |first2=Andreas |date=2015 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978-1-78491-046-4 |pages=77–99 |chapter=Proto-Dravidian and the Indus Script |jstor=j.ctvr43jmf.14}}
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
*{{cite book |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/index.html |title=Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, 2nd Edition |access-date=2008-10-26 |author=T. Burrow |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-19-864326-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=T. Burrow |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/index.html |title=Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, 2nd Edition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-19-864326-5 |location=Oxford |access-date=2008-10-26}}


{{Dravidian languages}}
{{Dravidian languages}}
Line 412: Line 417:
[[Category:Dravidian languages|*]]
[[Category:Dravidian languages|*]]
[[Category:Proto-languages|Dravidian]]
[[Category:Proto-languages|Dravidian]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-European languages]]

Latest revision as of 23:22, 20 March 2026


Template:Infobox proto-language Template:Dravidian

Proto-Dravidian is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Dravidian languages native to the Indian subcontinent.[1] It is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, and Proto-South Dravidian, although the date of diversification is still debated.[2]

History[edit | edit source]

As a proto-language, Proto-Dravidian is not itself attested in historical records. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started evolving into various branches around 3rd-millennium BCE.[3][full citation needed]

The origin and territory of the Proto-Dravidian speakers is uncertain, but some suggestions have been made based on the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian vocabulary. The reconstruction has been done on the basis of cognate words present in the different branches (Northern, Central and Southern) of the Dravidian language family.[4]

According to Fuller (2007), the botanical vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian is characteristic of the dry deciduous forests of central and peninsular India. For the Southern Dravidians, this region extends from Saurashtra and Central India to South India. It thus represents the general area in which the Dravidians were living before the separation of branches.[4]

According to Franklin Southworth (2005),[5] the Proto-Dravidian vocabulary is characteristic of a rural economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. However, there are some indications of a society more complex than a rural one:[6]

  • Words for an upper storey (mel) and beam (paṭṭa)
  • Metallurgy
  • Trade
  • Payment of dues (possibly taxes or contributions to religious ceremonies)
  • Social stratification

This evidence is not sufficient to determine with certainty the territory of the Proto-Dravidians. These characteristics can be accommodated within multiple contemporary cultures, including:[6]

Phonology[edit | edit source]

Vowels[edit | edit source]

Proto-Dravidian contrasted between five short and long vowels: *a, *ā, *i, *ī, *u, *ū, *e, *ē, *o, *ō. The sequences *ai and *au are treated as *ay and *av (or *aw).[10]

Consonants[edit | edit source]

Proto-Dravidian has been reconstructed as having the following consonant phonemes:[11][12][13]

Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosives *p *t *ṯ *ʈ *c *k
Nasals *m *n (*ṉ)[lower-alpha 1] *ɳ *ɲ
Laterals *l *ɭ
Rhotics *r *ɻ[lower-alpha 2]
Semivowels *w *j *H
  1. ↑ reconstructed by P. S. Subrahmanyam
  2. ↑ may also be represented as ḻ or r̤

The singular alveolar plosive *ṯ developed into an alveolar trill /r/ in many of the South and South Central languages, it later merged with the tap in many of them; Tulu has /d͡ʒ, d̪, ɾ/ as reflexes, Manda-Kui made it /d͡ʒ/ and Hill-Maria Gondi made it /ʁ/. *ṯṯ and *nṯ became /r̥, nr/ in Konda and [tr, ndr] in many Tamil dialects. Apart from them, other languages did not rhotacize it, instead either preserving them or merging it with other sets of stops like dentals in Kannada, retroflexes in Telugu or palatals in Manda-Kui and some languages of Kerala.[14] Central made all alveolars dental which is one of the features distinguishing it from South Central branch and North made it /r, s/.[13][15] For example, Tamil āṟu, Tulu āji, Naiki sādi, Kui hāja; Tamil puṟṟu, Tulu puñca, Kannada huttu, Naiki puṭṭa, Konda puRi, Malto pute; Tamil onṟu, Tulu oñji, Pengo ronje, Brahui asi.

Velar nasal *ṅ occurred only before *k in Proto-Dravidian (as in many of its daughter languages). Therefore, it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam, Gondi, Konda and Pengo because the original sequence *ṅk was simplified to *ṅ or *ṅṅ.[16]

The glottal fricative *H has been proposed by Krishnamurti (2003) to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (Āytam) and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena.

P. S. Subrahmanyam reconstructs 6 nasals for PD compared to 4 by Krishnamurti, who also does not reconstruct a laryngeal.[17]

The Northern Dravidian languages Kurukh, Malto and Brahui cannot easily be derived from the traditional Proto-Dravidian phonological system. Bhadriraju and others traditionally proposes *c, *k retracting to *k, *q before vowels other than *i(:), and Brahui and Kurukh spirantized the *q, e.g. Tamil kaṇ, Malto qanu; Kananda kem-, Brahui xisun; but there are exceptions, Tamil cōr, Malto curg̣e; Koraga jōku, Brahui cōshing. McAlpin (2003) proposes that they branched off from an earlier stage of Proto-Dravidian than the conventional reconstruction, which would apply only to the other languages. He suggests reconstructing a richer system of dorsal stop consonants:

Early Proto-Dravidian Late Proto-Dravidian
(Proto-Non-North Dravidian)		 Proto-Kurukh-Malto Brahui
*c *c *c
*kʲ *c *k k
*k *k *k k
*q *k *q x
k / _i(ː)

Numerals[edit | edit source]

Main article: wikt:Appendix:Cognate sets for Dravidian languages § Numerals

Vocabulary[edit | edit source]

Crop plants[edit | edit source]

Below are some crop plants that have been found in the Southern Neolithic complex of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, along with their Proto-Dravidian or Proto-South Dravidian reconstructions by Southworth (2005). In some cases, the proto-form glosses differ from the species identified from archaeological sites. For example, the two Southern Neolithic staple grasses Brachiaria ramosa and Setaria verticillata respectively correspond to the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms for Sorghum vulgare and Setaria italica as early Dravidian speakers shifted to millet species that were later introduced to South India.[5]

Pulses
Common name Scientific name Reconstruction level Proto-form Gloss of proto-form
horsegram Macrotyloma uniflorum Late Proto-Dravidian *koḷ horsegram
green gram Vigna radiata Late Proto-Dravidian *pacVṯ-/*pacVl green gram
black gram Vigna cf. mungo; Vigna trilobata Late Proto-Dravidian *uẓ-untu, *min(t) black gram
hyacinth bean Lablab purpureus Proto-Tamil *ava-rai Dolichos lablab
pigeonpea Cajanus cajan Late Proto-Dravidian *tu-var pigeonpea
Millets and related grasses
Common name Scientific name Reconstruction level Proto-form Gloss of proto-form
browntop millet Brachiaria ramosa Late Proto-Dravidian *conna-l sorghum
bristly foxtail Setaria verticillata Late Proto-Dravidian *kot-V Setaria italica
sawa millet Echinochloa cf. colona
yellow foxtail Setaria pumila
little millet Panicum sumatrense
kodo millet Paspalum scrobiculatum Proto-South Dravidian *(v)ār/ar-Vk pearl millet
millet Pennisetum glaucum Proto-South Dravidian *kam-pu bulrush millet
finger millet Eleusine coracana Proto-South Dravidian *ira(k) ragi
Large cereals
Common name Scientific name Reconstruction level Proto-form Gloss of proto-form
barley Hordeum vulgare
wheat Triticum Late Proto-Dravidian? *kūli wheat
rice Oryza sp. Late Proto-Dravidian? *war-iñci rice
Other food/crop plants
Common name Scientific name Reconstruction level Proto-form Gloss of proto-form
jujube Zizyphus sp. Late Proto-Dravidian *irak- jujube
fig Ficus sp. Late Proto-Dravidian *cuv- fig
java plum cf. Syzygium cumini Late Proto-Dravidian *ñēr-al jambu
globe cucumber Cucumis cf. prophetarum
luffa cf. Luffa cylindrica Late Proto-Dravidian *pīr
flax Linum usitatissimum Proto-South Dravidian *ak-V-ce
cotton Gossypium sp. Proto-South Dravidian *par-utti
okra Abelmoschus sp.
parenchyma fragments Early Proto-Dravidian *kic-ampu
date palm Phoenix sp. Early Proto-Dravidian *cīntu
Not identified archaeologically in the Southern Neolithic
Common name Scientific name Reconstruction level Proto-form Gloss of proto-form
onion/garlic Allium sp. Early Proto-Dravidian *uḷḷi
eggplant Solanum sp. Early Proto-Dravidian *waẓ-VtV
sesame Sesamum indicum Late Proto-Dravidian *nū(v) sesame
sugarcane Saccharum sp. Early Proto-Dravidian *cet-Vkk
hemp Cannabis sp. Late Proto-Dravidian ? *boy-Vl
tamarind Tamarindus indica Early Proto-Dravidian *cintta
holy basil Ocimum tenuiflorum Proto-Peninsular *tuḷacV

Basic vocabulary[edit | edit source]

Basic vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian selected from Krishnamurti (2003):[18]

gloss Proto-Dravidian
one *on-ṯu
one (adj.) *ōr-/*or-V-
two *īr/*ir-V
three (adj.) *muH-/*mū-
four (adj.) *nāl/*nal-V-
five (adj.) *cay-m-
six (adj.) *caṯ-V
seven (adj.) *eẓ-V
eight (adj.) *eṇ
nine, 9/10 *toḷ-/*toṇ-
ten minus one *on-patV
ten (adj.) *paH-
head, hair, top *tal-ay
cheek *kap-Vḷ
eye *kaṇ
eyeball *kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V
ear *kew-i
nose, beak *mū-nk(k)u/-nc-
tooth *pal
mouth[lower-alpha 1] *wāy
hand, arm *kay
leg, foot *kāl
heart, kidney *kuṇṭV
liver *taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk
milk, breast *pāl
bone *el-V-mp/-nk
bone marrow *mūḷ-V-
excrement *piy/*pī
house *il
husband *maẓc-a-
man, husband *māy-tt-/*mā-cc-
woman *peṇ
name *pin-cc-Vr
sky *wān-am
sun *en-ṯ-
sun *pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu
moon, moonlight *nel-a-nc/-ncc
month *nel-V-
star *cukk-V
star *miHn
cloud *muy-il
water *nīr
river, stream *yĀṯu
lake *kuḷ-
sea, ocean *kaṭ-al
stone *kal
wind *waḷi
day *nāḷ
night *nāḷ/*naḷ-V-
year *yĀṇṭ-u
tree *mar-an
fruit, pod *kāy
forest *kā(-n), kā-ṭu
grass *pul
thatched grass *pīr
dog *naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi
animal, beast, deer *mā
deer *kur-V-c-
tiger *pul-i
rat *el-i
snake *pāmpu
meat *eṯ-ay-cci
meat *ū/*uy
oil, ghee *ney
fish *mīn
louse *pēn
mosquito *nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk-
wing *ceṯ-ank-/-ankk-
black *cir-
white *weḷ/*weṇ
red *kem
sweet (adj./n.) *in-
sour *puḷ
bitter; bitterness *kac-
to eat, drink *uHṇ-
to eat *tiHn-
to come *waH-/*waH-r
to walk *naṭ-a
to give *ciy-/*cī-
to die *caH- ~ *ceH-
to sleep *kū-r-
to sleep *tuñc-
to count *eṇ
  1. ↑ Also 'edge, beak, mouth of vessel, aperture, blade of sword'.

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Andronov 2003, p. 299.
  2. ↑ Krishnamurti 2003, p. 492.
  3. ↑ History and Archaeology. vol. 1, no. 1–2. Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad. 1980. p. 234. OCLC 11579254.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 McIntosh 2008, p. 353.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Southworth 2005.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 McIntosh 2008, p. 353–354.
  7. ↑ Parpola & Parpola 1975, p. 217–225.
  8. ↑ McIntosh 2008, p. 354.
  9. ↑ Ansumali Mukhopadhyay 2021.
  10. ↑ Baldi 1990, p. 342.
  11. ↑ Subrahmanyam 1983, p. 40.
  12. ↑ Zvelebil 1990.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Krishnamurti 2003.
  14. ↑ "Tribal Languages of Kerala" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-21.
  15. ↑ "Dravidian Comparative Phonology" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-06-01.
  16. ↑ Subrahmanyam 1983.
  17. ↑ Prema, S.; Sreekumar, P. (28 March 2016). "Professor P. S. Subrahmanyam, (1939-2016) the distinguished Dravidian linguist: A short profile and his publications".
  18. ↑ Krishnamurti 2003, p. [page needed].

Works cited[edit | edit source]

Further reading[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Dravidian_language&oldid=472692"
Discover more