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{{short description|One of the ancient Sanskrit scriptures of Hinduism}}
{{short description|One of the ancient Sanskrit scriptures of Hinduism}}
{{Infobox Upanishad
{{Infobox Upanishad
| image                    =Brihadaranyaka Upanishad verses 1.3.1 to 1.3.4, Shatapatha Brahmana, Shukla Yajurveda, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg
| image                    = Brihadaranyaka Upanishad verses 1.3.1 to 1.3.4, Shatapatha Brahmana, Shukla Yajurveda, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg
| caption                  =''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' manuscript page, verses 1.3.1 to 1.3.4
| caption                  = ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', verses 1.3.1 to 1.3.4 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)
| alt                      = for alternate text of the title image per [[WP:ALT]]
| alt                      = for alternate text of the title image per [[BP:ALT]]
| name                    = Brihadaranyaka
| name                    = Brihadaranyaka
| Devanagari              =  
| Devanagari              = बृहदारण्यक
| Sanskrit_transliteration = Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad
| Sanskrit_transliteration = Bṛhadāraṇyaka
| meaning                  =
| meaning                  =
| composition_date        = pre-Buddhist,<br>~9th to 6th century BCE<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonardon Ganeri|title=The Concealed Art of the Soul: Theories of Self and Practices of Truth in Indian Ethics and Epistemology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQruAAAAIAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-920241-6|pages=13–14}}</ref><ref>{{cite q|Q108771870|pages=xxxvi–xxxvii|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/wd/WJGL2tUm6P4C?gbpv=1&pg=PR26}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Eugene F. Gorski|title=Theology of Religions: A Sourcebook for Interreligious Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NE9wnQlcC7wC&pg=PA103| year=2008|publisher=Paulist |isbn= 978-0-8091-4533-1|pages=103 note 15}}, Quote: "It is therefore one of the oldest texts of the Upanishad corpus, possibly dating to as early as the ninth century BCE".</ref>
| composition_date        = 7th-6th century BCE{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=11-12}}
| authors                  = [[Yajnavalkya]]
| authors                  = [[Yajnavalkya]]
| type                    = [[Mukhya Upanishads]]
| type                    = [[Mukhya Upanishads]]
| Veda                    = [[Yajurveda#Shukla Yajurveda|Shukla Yajurveda]]
| Veda                    = [[Shukla Yajurveda]]
| Brahmana                = part of [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]
| Brahmana                = [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]
| Aranyaka                = Brihad Aranyaka
| Aranyaka                = Brihad Aranyaka
| chapters                = Six
| chapters                = 6
| verses                  = <!--Enter the number of verses in this Upanishad-->
| verses                  = <!--Enter the number of verses in this Upanishad-->
| philosophy              = [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]], [[Brahman]]
| philosophy              = [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]], [[Brahman]]
| commentary              = [[Adi Shankara]], [[Madhvacharya]]
| commentary              = [[Adi Shankara]], [[Madhvacharya]], [[Rangaramanuja]]
| verse                    = "[[Aham Brahmasmi]]"
| verse                    = "[[Aham Brahmasmi]]"
}}
}}
{{Upanishads}}
{{Upanishads}}
{{italic}}
{{italic}}
The '''''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''''' ({{lang-sa|बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्}}, {{IAST|Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad}}) is one of the [[Mukhya Upanishads|Principal Upanishads]] and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of [[Hinduism]].<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], [https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00deus#page/22/mode/2up The Philosophy of the Upanishads], Motilal Banarsidass (2011 Edition), {{ISBN|978-8120816206}}, page 23</ref> A key scripture to various schools of [[Hinduism]], the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanisad'' is tenth in the [[Muktikā]] or "canon of 108 Upanishads".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 556-557</ref>
The '''''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''''' ({{langx|sa|बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्}}, {{IAST3|Bṛhadāraṇyak Upaniṣad}}) is one of the [[Mukhya Upanishads|Principal Upanishads]] and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of [[Hinduism]].{{snf|Deussen|1980a|p=23}} A key scripture to various schools of [[Hinduism]], the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is tenth in the [[Muktikā]] or "canon of 108 Upanishads".{{sfn|Deussen|1980b|pp=556-557}}


The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is estimated to have been composed about 7th-6th century BCE, excluding some parts estimated to have been composed after the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]''.<ref>{{cite q|Q108771870|page=3–4|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/wd/WJGL2tUm6P4C?gbpv=1&pg=PA3}}</ref> The [[Sanskrit]] language text is contained within the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', which is itself a part of the [[Yajurveda#Shukla Yajurveda|Shukla Yajur Veda]].<ref name="EoH 93">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=93}}</ref>
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is estimated to have been composed about 7th–6th century BCE. The [[Sanskrit]] language text is contained within the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', which is itself a part of the [[Yajurveda#Shukla Yajurveda|Shukla Yajur Veda]].<ref name="EoH 93">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-0816073368|page=93}}</ref>
 
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is a treatise on [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Self), includes passages on [[metaphysics]], ethics, and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various [[Indian religions]], ancient and medieval scholars, and attracted secondary works such as those by [[Adi Shankara]] and [[Madhvacharya]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n0/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with Adi Shankara's commentary] – Swami Madhavananada (Translator)</ref><ref>''Brihadaranyaka Upanisad with the commentary of Madhvacharya,'' Translated by Rai Bahadur Sriśa Chandra Vasu (1933); {{oclc|222634127}}.</ref>
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is a treatise on [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Self), includes passages on [[metaphysics]], ethics and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various [[Indian religions]], ancient and medieval scholars, and attracted secondary works such as those by [[Adi Shankara]] and [[Madhvacharya]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n0/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with Adi Shankara's commentary] Swami Madhavananada (Translator)</ref><ref>Brihadaranyaka Upanisad with the commentary of Madhvacharya, Translated by Rai Bahadur Sriśa Chandra Vasu (1933), {{oclc|222634127}}</ref>


==Chronology==
==Chronology==
The chronology of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', like other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231144858}}, Chapter 1</ref> The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.<ref name=stephenphillips/> Patrick Olivelle states, "in spite of claims made by some, in reality, any dating of these documents (early Upanishads) that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards".<ref name=olivelle98/>
The chronology of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', like other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), ''Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy,'' Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231144858}}, Chapter 1</ref> The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style, and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about the likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.<ref name=stephenphillips/> Patrick Olivelle states, "in spite of claims made by some, in reality, any dating of these documents (early Upanishads) that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards".{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=11-12}}


The chronology and authorship of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', along with ''Chandogya'' and [[Kaushitaki Upanishad|''Kaushitaki Upanishads'']], is further complicated because they are compiled anthologies of literature that must have existed as independent texts before they became part of these Upanishads.<ref name=olivelle98>{{cite q|Q108772045|page=11-12|url=https://archive.org/details/TheEarlyUpanisads/page/n33/mode/2up}}</ref>
The chronology and authorship of the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', along with ''Chandogya'' and [[Kaushitaki Upanishad|''Kaushitaki Upanishads'']], is further complicated because they are compiled anthologies of literature that must have existed as independent texts before they became part of these Upanishads.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=11-12}}


The exact year, and even the century of the Upanishad composition is unknown. Scholars have offered different estimates ranging from 900 BCE to 600 BCE, all preceding Buddhism. ''Brihadaranyaka'' is one of the first Upanishads, along with that of [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|''Jaiminiya Upanishad'']] and ''Chandogya Upanishads''.<ref name=patricko>Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upaniṣads, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-282292-6}}, pages 10-17</ref><ref>Fujii, M. 1997, “On the Formation and Transmission of the Jaiminīya-Upaniṣad-Brāhmaṇa”, Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, ed. M. Witzel, [[Harvard Oriental Series]], Opera Minora, 2], Cambridge, 89–102</ref> The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' was in all likelihood composed in the earlier part of 1st millennium BCE, in the 7th-6th century BCE, give or take a century or so, according to Patrick Olivelle.<ref name=olivelle98 /> It is likely that the text was a living document and some verses were edited over a period of time before the 6th century BCE.<ref name=patricko/>
The exact year and even the century of the Upanishad's composition is unknown. Scholars have offered different estimates ranging from 900 BCE to 600 BCE, all preceding Buddhism. ''Brihadaranyaka'' is one of the first Upanishads, along with [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|''Jaiminiya Upanishad'']] and ''Chandogya Upanishads''.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=10-17}}<ref>Fujii, M. 1997, “On the Formation and Transmission of the Jaiminīya-Upaniṣad-Brāhmaṇa”, ''Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas,'' ed. M. Witzel, [[Harvard Oriental Series]], Opera Minora, 2], Cambridge, 89–102</ref> The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' was in all likelihood composed in the earlier part of 1st millennium BCE, in the 7th–6th century BCE, give or take a century or so, according to Patrick Olivelle.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=11-12}} The text was likely a living document and some verses were edited over some time before the 6th century BCE.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=11-12}}


==Etymology and structure==
==Etymology and structure==
[[File:Biogradska suma.jpg|left|thumb|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad literally means the "Upanishad of the great forests".]]
[[File:Biogradska suma.jpg|left|thumb|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad literally means the "Upanishad of the great forests".]]
''Brihadaranyaka'' literally means "great wilderness or forest". The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is credited to ancient sage [[Yajnavalkya]], but likely refined by a number of ancient Vedic scholars. The Upanishad forms the last part, that is the fourteenth ''kānda'' of ''Śatapatha Brāhmana'' of "Śhukla Yajurveda".<ref name=pauldeussen/> The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has six ''adhyayas'' (chapters) in total. There are two major [[recension|recensions]] for the text - the Madhyandina and the Kanva recensions. It includes three sections: ''Madhu kānda'' (the 4th and 5th chapter of the fourteenth ''kānda'' of Satapatha Brahmana), ''Muni kānda'' (or ''Yajnavalkya Kanda'', the 6th and 7th chapter of 14th ''kānda'' of Satapatha Brahmana) and ''Khila kānda'' (the 8th and 9th chapter of the fourteenth ''kānda'' of Satapatha Brahmana).<ref name=pauldeussen>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 389-397</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/80 80]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>
''Brihadaranyaka'' literally means "great wilderness or forest". The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is credited to ancient sage [[Yajnavalkya]], but was likely refined by a number of ancient Vedic scholars. The Upanishad forms the last part, that is the fourteenth ''kānda'' of ''Śatapatha Brāhmana'' of "Śhukla Yajurveda".{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}} The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has six ''adhyayas'' (chapters) in total. There are two major [[recension|recensions]] for the text – the Madhyandina and the Kanva recensions. It includes three sections: ''Madhu kānda'' (the 4th and 5th chapter of the fourteenth ''kānda'' of Satapatha Brahmana), ''Muni kānda'' (or ''Yajnavalkya Kanda'', the 6th and 7th chapter of 14th ''kānda'' of Satapatha Brahmana) and ''Khila kānda'' (the 8th and 9th chapter of the fourteenth ''kānda'' of Satapatha Brahmana).{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}}<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/80 80]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>


The first and second chapters of the Upanishad's ''Madhu kānda'' consists of six [[brahmana]]s each, with varying number of hymns per brahmana. The first chapter of the Upanishad's ''Yajnavalkya kānda'' consists of nine brahmanams, while the second has six brahmanas. The ''Khila kānda'' of the Upanishad has fifteen brahmanas in its first chapter, and five brahmanas in the second chapter.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 399-544</ref>
The first and second chapters of the Upanishad's ''Madhu kānda'' consists of six [[brahmana]]s each, with varying number of hymns per brahmana. The first chapter of the Upanishad's ''Yajnavalkya kānda'' consists of nine brahmanams, while the second has six brahmanas. The ''Khila kānda'' of the Upanishad has fifteen brahmanas in its first chapter, and five brahmanas in the second chapter.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=399-544}}


==Content==
==Content==
===First chapter===
===First chapter===
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' starts by stating one of many Vedic theories of creation of the universe. It asserts that there was nothing before the universe started, then [[Prajapati]] created from this nothing the universe as a sacrifice to himself, imbued it with ''Prana'' (life force) to preserve it in the form of cosmic inert matter and individual psychic energy.<ref name=pauldeussen/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 1], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 5-29</ref> The world is more than matter and energy, asserts Brihadaranyaka, it is constituted also of Atman or Brahman (Self, Consciousness, Invisible Principles and Reality) as well as Knowledge.<ref name=pauldeussen/>
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' starts by stating one of the many Vedic theories of creation of the universe. It asserts that there was nothing before the universe began. Then, [[Prajapati]] created the universe from this nothingness as a sacrifice to themself, imbuing it with ''Prana'' (life force) to preserve it in the form of cosmic inert matter and individual psychic energy.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}}<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 1], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 5–29</ref> The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' asserts that the world is more than just matter and energy; it is also constituted by Atman or Brahman (Self, Consciousness, Invisible Principles, and Reality) as well as Knowledge.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}}


The Brahmana 4 in the first chapter, announces the non-dual, [[monism|monistic]] metaphysical premise that Atman and Brahman are identical Oneness, with the assertion that because the universe came out of nothingness when the only principle existent was "I am he", the universe after it came into existence continues as ''Aham brahma asmi'' (I am Brahman).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 1], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 92-118</ref> In the last brahmana of the first chapter, the Upanishad explains that the Atman (Self) inspires by being self-evident (name identity), through empowering forms, and through action (work of a living being). The Self, states Brihadaranyaka, is the imperishable one that is invisible and concealed pervading all reality.<ref name=pauldeussen/>
The Brahmana 4 in the first chapter announces the non-dual [[monism|monistic]] metaphysical premise that Atman and Brahman are identical Oneness. It asserts that because the universe came out of nothingness when the only principle existent was "I am He", the universe, after coming into existence, continues as ''Aham brahma asmi'' (I am Brahman).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 1], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 92–118</ref> In the last brahmana of the first chapter, the Upanishad explains that the Atman (Self) inspires by being self-evident (name identity), through empowering forms, and through action (work of a living being). The Self, states Brihadaranyaka, is the imperishable one that is invisible and concealed pervading all of reality.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}}


===Second chapter===
===Second chapter===
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' starts the second chapter as a conversation between [[Ajatashatru]] and ''Balaki Gargya'' on theory of dreams, positing that human beings see dreams entirely unto themselves because mind draws, in itself, the powers of sensory organs, which it releases in the waking state.<ref name=pauldeussen/> It then asserts that this empirical fact about dreams suggests that human mind has the power to perceive the world as it is, as well as fabricate the world as it wants to perceive it. Mind is a means, prone to flaws. The struggle man faces, asserts Brihadaranyaka in brahmana 3, is in his attempt to realize the "true reality behind perceived reality". That is Atman-Brahman, inherently and blissfully existent, yet unknowable because it has no qualities, no characteristics, it is "neti, neti" (literally, "not this, not this").<ref name=pauldeussen/>
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' starts the second chapter as a conversation between [[Ajatashatru]] and ''Balaki Gargya'' on theory of dreams, positing that human beings see dreams entirely unto themselves because mind draws, in itself, the powers of sensory organs, which it releases in the waking state.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}} Brihadaranyaka in brahmana 3 asserts that the human mind can perceive and construct its own reality. Mind is a means, prone to flaws. It emphasizes the struggle to realize the true, unknowable nature of Atman-Brahman, described as "neti, neti" (not this, not this), beyond qualities or characteristics.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=389-397}}


In fourth brahmana, the Upanishad presents a dialogue between a husband and wife, as Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi, on nature of love and spirituality, whether and how is Atman related to deep connection and bonds between human beings. Yajnavalkya states that one doesn't connect with and love forms, nor does one connect or love mind, rather one connects with the Self, the Self of one's own and one's beloved. All love is for the sake of one's Self, and the Oneness one realizes in the Self of the beloved.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 2 Section IV], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 347-377</ref> He then asserts that this knowledge of the Self, the Self, the Brahman is what makes one immortal, the connection immortal. All longing is the longing for the Self, because Self is the true, the immortal, the real and the infinite bliss.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 425-445</ref>
In the fourth brahmana of the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', [[Yajnavalkya]] and his wife [[Maitreyi]] engage in a dialogue about love and spirituality. Yajnavalkya states that one doesn't connect with and love forms, nor does one connect or love mind, rather one connects with the Self, the Self of one's own and one's beloved. All love is for the sake of one's Self, and the Oneness one realizes in the Self of the beloved.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 2 Section IV], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 347–377</ref> He then asserts that this knowledge of the Self, the Self, and Brahman is what makes one immortal, and the connection is also immortal. All longing is the longing for the Self, as the Self represents the true, the immortal, the real, and infinite bliss.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=425-445}}


The fifth brahmana of the second chapter introduces the ''Madhu theory'', thus giving this section of the Upanishad the ancient name ''Madhu Khanda''.<ref name=pauldeussen2/> The ''Madhu theory'' is one of the foundational principles of [[Vedanta]] schools of Hinduism, as well as other [[Āstika and nāstika|āstika]] schools of Indian philosophies.<ref name=madhavanandamadhu/> ''Madhu'' literally means "honey", or the composite fruit of numerous actions on the field of flowers. In the ''Madhu theory'', notes [[Paul Deussen]],<ref name=pauldeussen2/> the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserts that "Atman exists" (Self exists), that all organic beings (plants, animals, human beings and gods) are wandering Selfs yet One with each other and the Brahman (Cosmic Self); it further asserts that inorganic nature (fire, air, earth, water, space) is the field where the beings act, and where their numerous actions create fruits that they separately and together experience. The Upanishad then states that everything is connected, beings affect each other, organic beings affect the inorganic nature, inorganic nature affects the organic beings, one is the "honey" (result, fruit, food) of the other, everyone and everything is mutually dependent, nourishing and nurturing each other, all because it came from one Brahman, because it is all one Brahman, because all existence is blissful oneness.<ref name=pauldeussen2>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 437-443</ref><ref name=madhavanandamadhu>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 2 Section IV], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 377-404</ref> This theory appears in various early and middle Upanishads, and parallels [[Immanuel Kant]]'s doctrine of "the affinity of phenomena" built on "the synthetic unity of [[apperception]]".<ref name=pauldeussen2/><ref>Alan Jacobs (1999), The Principal Upanishads: The Essential Philosophical Foundation of Hinduism, Watkins, {{ISBN|978-1905857081}}</ref>
The fifth brahmana introduces the ''Madhu theory'', giving this section the name ''Madhu Khanda.''{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=437-443}} The ''Madhu theory'' is one of the foundational principles of [[Vedanta]] schools of Hinduism, as well as other [[Āstika and nāstika|āstika]] schools of Indian philosophies.<ref name=madhavanandamadhu/> ''Madhu'' literally means "honey", or the composite fruit of numerous actions on the field of flowers. In this theory, notes [[Paul Deussen]],{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=437-443}} the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserts that "Atman exists" (Self exists), that all organic beings (plants, animals, human beings and gods) are all beings are interconnected with each other and Brahman (Cosmic Self); it further asserts that inorganic nature (fire, air, earth, water, space) is the field where the beings act, and where their numerous actions create fruits that they separately and together experience. The Upanishad then states that everything is connected, beings affect each other, organic beings affect the inorganic nature, inorganic nature affects the organic beings, one is the "honey" (result, fruit, food) of the other, everyone and everything is mutually dependent, nourishing and nurturing each other, all stemming from one Brahman, resulting in blissful oneness.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=437-443}}<ref name=madhavanandamadhu>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n41/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 2 Section IV], Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 377–404</ref> This theory appears in various early and middle Upanishads, and parallels [[Immanuel Kant]]'s doctrine of "the affinity of phenomena" built on "the synthetic unity of [[apperception]]".{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=437-443}}<ref>Alan Jacobs (1999), ''The Principal Upanishads: The Essential Philosophical Foundation of Hinduism,'' Watkins, {{ISBN|978-1905857081}}</ref>


The last brahmanam of the Upanishad's first section is a ''Vamsa'' (generational line of teachers) with the names of 57 Vedic scholars who are credited to have taught the ''Madhu Khanda'' from one generation to the next.<ref name=pauldeussen2/><ref>Max Müller, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe15/sbe15063.htm Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad] The [[Sacred Books of the East]], Volume 15, Oxford University Press</ref>
The last brahmanam of the Upanishad's first section is a ''Vamsa'' (generational line of teachers) with the names of 57 Vedic scholars who are credited to have taught the ''Madhu Khanda'' from one generation to the next.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=437-443}}{{Sfn|Muller|1884|p=118}}


===Third chapter===
===Third chapter===
The third chapter is a metaphysical dialogue between ten ancient sages, on the nature of Reality, Atman and [[Moksha|Mukti]]. Paul Deussen calls the presentation of ancient scholar Yajnavalkya in this chapter "not dissimilar to that of Socrates in the dialogues of Plato".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 443-445</ref> Among other things, the chapter presents the theory of perceived empirical knowledge using the concepts of ''graha and atigraha'' (sensory action and sense). It lists 8 combinations of graha and atigraha: breath and smell, speech and name (ideas), tongue and taste, eye and form, ear and sound, skin and touch, mind and desire, arms and work respectively.<ref name=maxmuller3/> The sages debate the nature of death, asserts the third chapter of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and whether any graha and atigraha prevails after one dies. They rule out six, then assert that one's ideas (name) and one's actions and work (karma) continues to affect the universe.<ref name=maxmuller3>Max Müller, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe15/sbe15065.htm Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad] The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 448-449</ref>
The third chapter is a metaphysical dialogue between ten ancient sages, on the nature of Reality (Brahman), Atman (individual self), and [[Moksha|Mukti]] (liberation). This metaphysical dialogue was held at the court of the [[Janaka|King Janaka]] in Mithila during the occasion of the [[Bahudakshina Yajna]] organised by the king at his court. The Bahudakshina Yajna was organised by the King Janaka to find out the greatest scholar of [[Vedas]] called as [[Brahmistha]] among the participating Brahmin scholars at the court.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Varghese |first=Alexander P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7GKwhuea9kC&q=Brahmistha |title=India: History, Religion, Vision and Contribution to the World |date=2008 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-269-0903-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2015-02-23 |title=Yajnavalkya and Asvala [Section I] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brihadaranyaka-upanishad/d/doc118302.html |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> Paul Deussen calls the presentation of ancient scholar Yajnavalkya in this chapter "not dissimilar to that of Socrates in the dialogues of Plato".{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=443-445}} Among other things, the chapter presents the theory of perceived empirical knowledge using the concepts of ''graha'' (sensory action) and ''atigraha'' (sense). It lists 8 combinations of graha and atigraha: breath and smell, speech and name (ideas), tongue and taste, eye and form, ear and sound, skin and touch, mind and desire, arms and work respectively.{{sfn|Muller|1884|p=125}} The sages debate the nature of death and whether any ''graha'' and ''atigraha'' prevails after one dies. After ruling out six of the sensory actions, they assert that one's ideas (name) and one's actions and work (karma) continue to have an impact on the universe even after one's physical death.{{sfn|Muller|1884|p=125}}{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=448-449}}


The fourth brahmana of the third chapter asserts, "it is your Self which is inside all", all Selfs are one, immanent and transcendent. The fifth brahmana states that profound knowledge requires that one give up showing off one's erudition, then adopt childlike curiosity and simplicity, followed by becoming silent, meditating and observant (''muni''), thus beginning the journey towards profound knowledge, understanding the Self of things where there is freedom from frustration and sorrow.<ref name=pauldeussen5/> In the sixth and eighth brahmana of the third chapter in Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad is the dialogue between [[Gargi Vachaknavi]] – the female Vedic sage, and Yajñavalka, on the nature of universe.<ref name=pauldeussen5>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 450-457</ref>
The fourth brahmana of the third chapter asserts, "it is your Self which is inside all", all Selfs are one, immanent and transcendent. The fifth brahmana states that profound knowledge requires one to give up showing off one's erudition, then to adopt childlike curiosity and simplicity, followed by becoming silent, meditating, and being observant (''muni''). This marks the beginning of the journey toward profound knowledge and understanding the Self of all things, where freedom from frustration and sorrow is found.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=450-464}}


The seventh brahmana discusses how and why the Self interconnects and has the oneness through all organic beings, all inorganic nature, all of the universe. It asserts that the Self is the inner controller of beings, conflated with the interaction of nature, psyche, and senses, often without the knowledge of beings. It is the Self, nevertheless, that is the true and essence, states the Upanishad.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 457-465</ref> The ninth brahmana, the longest of the third chapter, introduces the "neti, neti" principle that is discussed later, along with the analogical equivalence of physical features of a man and those of a tree, with the root of a man being his Self.<ref name=pauldeussen475>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 466-475</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n145/mode/2up Kausitaki Upanishad] Robert Hume (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 125-127</ref> The last hymns of chapter 3 in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also attest to the prevalent practice of the renouncing [[sannyasa|ascetic]] life by the time Brihadaranyaka Upanishad was composed in Vedic age of India, and it is these ascetic circles that are credited for major movements such as [[Yoga]] as well as the [[śramaṇa]] traditions later to be called [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and heterodox [[Hinduism]].<ref>Geoffrey Samuel (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521695343}}, page 8, Quote: such (yogic) practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth or fifth BCE.</ref>
In the sixth and eighth brahmana, focus is on the concept of the imperishable (''[[akshara]]''). In these brahmanas, [[Gargi Vachaknavi]] and [[Yajnavalkya|Yajñavalka]] engage in philosophical inquiries and debates, exploring the ultimate truth and the imperishable nature of reality. The discussions explore deep philosophical ideas, highlighting the importance of seeking spiritual wisdom and the quest to understand the timeless, unchanging reality that transcends the material world.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=450-464}}
 
The seventh brahmana explores the interconnectedness of the Self with all of existence, emphasizing its role as the inner controller, often without the knowledge of beings. It asserts that the Self is the true essence.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=457-465}} The ninth brahmana, the longest in the third chapter, introduces the "neti, neti" principle, which is later discussed along with the analogical equivalence between the physical features of a man and those of a tree. It highlights that the root of a man is his Self.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=466-475}}<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n145/mode/2up Kausitaki Upanishad] Robert Hume (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 125–127</ref> The last hymns of chapter 3 in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also attest to the prevalent practice of the renouncing [[sannyasa|ascetic]] life by the time Brihadaranyaka Upanishad was composed in Vedic age of India, and it is these ascetic circles that are credited for major movements such as [[Yoga]] as well as the [[śramaṇa]] traditions later to be called [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and heterodox [[Hinduism]].<ref>Geoffrey Samuel (2008), ''The Origins of Yoga and Tantra,'' Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521695343}}, page 8, Quote: such (yogic) practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth or fifth BCE.</ref>


{{quote|
{{quote|
Line 73: Line 74:
Brahman<ref>Self of an individual human being that is One with every human being, everything in Universe, the cosmic Self</ref> is bliss, Brahman is knowledge,
Brahman<ref>Self of an individual human being that is One with every human being, everything in Universe, the cosmic Self</ref> is bliss, Brahman is knowledge,
It is the highest good of one who gives [[dāna|charity]],
It is the highest good of one who gives [[dāna|charity]],
and also of one who stands away (renounces) and knows it.</poem>|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 3:9<ref name=pauldeussen475/><ref>The poem is long, relevant extract in Sanskrit: अन्यतस् अञ्जसा प्रेत्य सम्भवस् | यद् समूलम् उद्वृहेयुर् अवृहेयुर् | वृक्षम्न पुनराभवेत्। मर्त्यस् स्विन् मृत्युना वृक्णस्कस्मान्मूलात्प्ररोहति ॥ ६ ॥ जात एव न जायते | को न्वेनं जनयेत्पुनः | विज्ञानमानन्दं ब्रह्म रातिर्दातुः परायणम्ति ष्ठमानस्य तद्विद इति ॥ ७ ॥; Source: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/brinew-proofed.html?lang=sa Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] Sanskrit Documents, For second archive, see Wikisource</ref>}}
and also of one who stands away (renounces) and knows it.</poem>|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 3:9{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=466-475}}<ref>The poem is long, relevant extract in Sanskrit: अन्यतस् अञ्जसा प्रेत्य सम्भवस् | यद् समूलम् उद्वृहेयुर् अवृहेयुर् | वृक्षम्न पुनराभवेत्। मर्त्यस् स्विन् मृत्युना वृक्णस्कस्मान्मूलात्प्ररोहति ॥ ६ ॥ जात एव न जायते | को न्वेनं जनयेत्पुनः | विज्ञानमानन्दं ब्रह्म रातिर्दातुः परायणम्ति ष्ठमानस्य तद्विद इति ॥ ७ ॥; Source: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/brinew-proofed.html?lang=sa Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] Sanskrit Documents, For second archive, see Wikisource</ref>}}


===Fourth chapter===
===Fourth chapter===
The fourth chapter of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' starts as a dialogue between King Janaka and Yajnavalka. It explores various aspects of the "Self exists" theory, its phenomenal manifestations, and its philosophical implications on [[soteriology]]. The Upanishad, in the first brahmanam of fourth chapter, states that the Self manifests in human life in six forms: ''Prajna'' (consciousness), ''Priyam'' (love and the will to live), ''Satyam'' (reverence for truth, reality), ''Ananta'' (endlessness, curiosity for the eternal), ''Ananda'' (bliss, contentness), and ''Sthiti'' (the state of enduring steadfastness, calm perseverance).<ref name=pauldeussenc4b2>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 475-507</ref>
The fourth chapter of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' begins with a dialogue between King Janaka and Yajnavalka. It explores various aspects of the "Self exists" theory, its phenomenal manifestations, and its philosophical implications on [[soteriology]]. In the first brahmanam of the fourth chapter, the Upanishad states that the Self manifests in human life in six forms: ''Prajna'' (consciousness), ''Priyam'' (love and the will to live), ''Satyam'' (reverence for truth, reality), ''Ananta'' (endlessness, curiosity for the eternal), ''Ananda'' (bliss, contentness), and ''Sthiti'' (the state of enduring steadfastness, calm perseverance).{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=475-507}}


In the second brahmanam, the Upanishad explores the question, "what happens to Self after one dies?", and provides the root of two themes that play central role in later schools of Hinduism: one, of the concept of Self as individual Selfs (dualism), and second of the concept of Self being One and Eternal neither comes nor goes anywhere, because it is everywhere and everyone in Oneness (non-dualism). This chapter discusses the widely cited "neti, neti" (नेति नेति, "not this, not this") principle towards one's journey to understanding Self. The second brahmanam concludes that Self exists is self-evident, Self is blissfully free, Self is eternally invulnerable, and Self is indescribable knowledge.<ref name=pauldeussenc4b2/>
In the second brahmanam, the Upanishad explores the question, "what happens to Self after one dies?", and provides the root of two themes that play a central role in later schools of Hinduism: first, the concept of Self as individual Selves (dualism), and second, the concept of Self being One and Eternal, neither coming nor going anywhere, because it is everywhere and in everyone in Oneness (non-dualism). This chapter discusses the widely cited "neti, neti" (नेति नेति, "not this, not this") principle on one's journey to understanding Self. The second brahmanam concludes that Self exists is self-evident, Self is blissfully free, Self is eternally invulnerable, and Self is indescribable knowledge.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=475-507}}


The hymn 4.2.4 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is one of many instances in the ancient Sanskrit text where the characters involved in philosophical debate greet each other with [[Namaste]] (नमस्ते), a practice in the [[culture of India]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n617/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka 4.2.4] S Madhavananda (Translator), pages 590-592</ref>
The hymn 4.2.4 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is one of many instances in the ancient Sanskrit text where the characters involved in philosophical debate greet each other with [[Namaste]] (नमस्ते), a practice in the [[culture of India]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n617/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka 4.2.4] S Madhavananda (Translator), pages 590–592</ref>


The third brahmanam of the fourth chapter discusses the premises of [[moksha]] (liberation, freedom, emancipation, self-realization), and provides some of the most studied hymns of Brihadaranyaka. Paul Deussen calls it, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 482</ref> [[Max Müller]] translates it as follows,
The third brahmanam of the fourth chapter discusses the premises of [[moksha]] (liberation, freedom, emancipation, self-realization), and provides some of the most studied hymns of Brihadaranyaka. Paul Deussen calls it, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|p=482}} It translates as follows,


{{quote|
{{quote|
<poem>
<poem>
But when he [Self] fancies that he is, as it were, a god,
But when he appearing to be a god or a king, thinks 'I alone am this world! I am all!' — that is his highest world.
or that he is, as it were, a king,
Now, this is the aspect of his that is beyond what appears to be good, freed from what is bad, and without fear.  
or "I am this altogether," that is his highest world,
This indeed is his (true) form, free from desires, free from evil, free from fear.


Now as a man, when embraced by a beloved wife,
"It is like this. As a man embraced by a woman he loves is oblivious to everything within or without, so this person embraced by the ''prajna'' (conscious, aware, self) consisting of knowledge is oblivious to everything within or without. Clearly, this is the aspect of his where all desires are fulfilled, where the self is the only desire, and which is free from desires and far from sorrows.
knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within,
thus this person, when embraced by the ''Prajna'' (conscious, aware) Self,
knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within.
This indeed is his (true) form, in which his wishes are fulfilled,
in which the Self only is his wish, in which no other wish is left,
he is free from any sorrow.


Then a father is not a father, a mother not a mother,
Here a father is not a father, a mother is not a mother, worlds are not worlds, gods are not gods, and Vedas are not Vedas.  
the worlds not worlds, the gods not gods, the Vedas not Vedas.
Here a thief is not a thief, a murderer is not a murderer, an outsider is not an outsider, a pariah is not a pariah, a recluse is not a recluse, and an ascetic is not an ascetic.  
Then a thief is not a thief, a murderer not a murderer,
Neither the good nor the bad follows him, for he has now passed beyond all sorrows of the heart.
a Sramana not a Sramana, a Tâpasa not a Tâpasa.
He is not affected by good, not affected by evil,
for he has then overcome all sorrows, all sufferings.
(...)
(...)
Thus did Yâgñavalkya teach him.
So did Yajnavalkya instruct him.  
This is his highest Goal,
"This is his highest goal!
this is his highest Success,
This is his highest attainment!
this is his highest World,
This is his highest world!
this is his highest Bliss.
This is his highest bliss!
On just a fraction of this bliss do other creatures live.
</poem>
</poem>
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 4, Brahmanam 3, Hymns 20-32, Translated by Max Müller<ref name=maxmullerc4b3>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe15/sbe15075.htm Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] Max Müller, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press</ref>}}
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 4, Brahmanam 3, Hymns 20–32, Translated by Patrick Olivelle{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=115}}}}


The fourth brahmanam continues to build the thematic description of Atman-Brahman (Self) and the state of self-realization as achieved. Yajnavalkya declares that Knowledge is Self, Knowledge is freedom, Knowledge powers inner peace. In hymn 4.4.22, the Upanishad states, "He is that great unborn Self, who consists of Knowledge, is surrounded by the Prânas (life-force), the ether within the heart. In it [Self] there reposes the ruler of all, the lord of all, the king of all. He does not become greater by good works, nor smaller by evil works. He is the lord of all, the king of all things, the protector of all things. He is a bank and a boundary, so that these worlds may not be confounded. He who knows him [Self], becomes a Muni. Wishing for that world, mendicants leave their homes."<ref name=maxmullerc4b3/>
The fourth brahmanam continues to build the thematic description of Atman-Brahman (Self) and the state of self-realization as achieved. Yajnavalkya declares that knowledge is Self, knowledge is freedom, knowledge powers inner peace. In hymn 4.4.22, the Upanishad states:{{sfn|Muller|1884|p=161}}


Max Müller and Paul Deussen, in their respective translations, describe the Upanishad's view of "Self" and "free, liberated state of existence" as, "[Self] is imperishable, for he cannot perish; he is unattached, for he does not attach himself; unfettered, he does not suffer, he does not fail. He is beyond good and evil, and neither what he has done, nor what he has omitted to do, affects him. (...) He therefore who knows it [reached self-realization], becomes quiet, subdued, satisfied, patient, and collected. He sees self in Self, sees all as Self. Evil does not overcome him, he overcomes all evil. Evil does not burn him, he burns all evil. Free from evil, free from spots, free from doubt, he became Atman-Brâhmana; this is the Brahma-world, O King, thus spoke Yagnavalkya."<ref name=pauldeussenc4b2/><ref name=maxmullerc4b3/>
{{Translated blockquote
| show-language = no
| language = sa|स वा एष महानज आत्मा योऽयं विज्ञानमयः प्राणेषु य एषोऽन्तर्हृदय आकाशस्तस्मिञ्छेते सर्वस्य वशी सर्वस्येशानः सर्वस्याधिपतिः स न साधुना कर्मणा भूयान्नो एवासाधुना कनीयानेष सर्वेश्वर एष भूताधिपतिरेष भूतपाल एष सेतुर्विधरण एषां लोकानामसंभेदाय तमेतं वेदानुवचनेन ब्राह्मणा विविदिषन्ति यज्ञेन दानेन तपसाऽनाशकेनैतमेव विदित्वा मुनिर्भवति। एतमेव प्रव्राजिनो लोकमिच्छन्तः प्रव्रजन्ति।{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=124}}
| brackets = no
| translation = He is that great unborn Self, who consists of Knowledge, is surrounded by the Prânas (life-force), the ether within the heart. In it [Self] there reposes the ruler of all, the lord of all, the king of all. He does not become greater by good works, nor smaller by evil works. He is the lord of all, the king of all things, the protector of all things. He is a bank and a boundary, so that these worlds may not be confounded. He who knows him [Self], becomes a Muni. Wishing for that world, mendicants leave their homes.
| author = Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 4, Brahmanam 4, Hymn 22, {{sfn|Muller|1884|p=179}}
}}


The last brahmanam of the Upanishad's second section is another ''Vamsa'' (generational line of teachers) with the names of 59 Vedic scholars who are credited to have taught the hymns of ''Muni Khanda'' from one generation to the next, before it became part of Brihadaranyaka.<ref name=pauldeussenc4b2/><ref>Max Müller, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe15/sbe15078.htm Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad] The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press</ref>
Max Müller and Paul Deussen, in their respective translations, describe the Upanishad's view of "Self" and "free, liberated state of existence" as, "[Self] is imperishable, for he cannot perish; he is unattached, for he does not attach himself; unfettered, he does not suffer, he does not fail. He is beyond good and evil, and neither what he has done, nor what he has omitted to do, affects him. (...) He therefore who knows it [reached self-realization], becomes quiet, subdued, satisfied, patient, and collected. He sees self in Self, sees all as Self. Evil does not overcome him, he overcomes all evil. Evil does not burn him, he burns all evil. Free from evil, free from spots, free from doubt, he became Atman-Brâhmana; this is the Brahma-world, O King, thus spoke Yagnavalkya."{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=475-507}}{{sfn|Muller|1884|p=161}}


The last brahmanam of the Upanishad's second section is another ''Vamsa'' (generational line of teachers) with the names of 59 Vedic scholars who are credited to have taught the hymns of ''Muni Khanda'' from one generation to the next, before it became part of Brihadaranyaka.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=475-507}}{{sfn|Muller|1884|pp=185-186}}
===Fifth and sixth chapters===
===Fifth and sixth chapters===
The fifth and sixth chapters of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' are known as ''Khila Khanda'', which literally means "supplementary section, or appendix".<ref>Max Müller, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe15/sbe15079.htm Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad] The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press</ref> Each brahmanam in the supplement is small except the fourteenth. This section, suggests Paul Deussen, was likely written later to clarify and add ideas considered important in that later age.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 507</ref>
The fifth and sixth chapters of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' are known as ''Khila Khanda'', which literally means "supplementary section, or appendix".{{sfn|Muller|1884|p=189-190}} Each brahmanam in the supplement is small except the fourteenth. This section, suggests Paul Deussen, was likely written later to clarify and add ideas considered important in that later age.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|p=507}}


Some brahmanams in the last section of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', such as the second and third brahmanam in fifth chapter, append ethical theories, while fourth brahmanam in the fifth chapter asserts that "empirical reality and truth is Brahman".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 509-510</ref> In the fourth brahmanam of sixth chapter, sexual rituals between a husband and wife are described to conceive and celebrate the birth of a child.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 534-544</ref>
Some brahmanams in the last section of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', such as the second and third brahmanam in fifth chapter, append ethical theories, while fourth brahmanam in the fifth chapter asserts that "empirical reality and truth is Brahman".{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=509-510}} In the fourth brahmanam of sixth chapter, sexual rituals between a husband and wife are described to conceive and celebrate the birth of a child.{{sfn|Deussen|1980a|pp=534-544}}


==Discussion==
==Teachings==
{{Hindu scriptures |expanded=Upanishads}}
{{Hindu scriptures |expanded=Upanishads}}
The Brihadaranyaka text has been an important Upanishad to the Vedanta scholars, and discusses many early concepts and theories foundational to Hinduism such as Karma, Atman and others.<ref name=tull28/><ref>{{cite book|author=Hans Torwesten|title=Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWptZtEa0hcC&pg=PA55|year=1994|publisher=Grove |isbn=978-0-8021-3262-8|pages=55–57}}</ref>
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' has been an important work in [[Vedanta]] and it discusses many early concepts and theories foundational to [[Hinduism]] such as [[Karma in Hinduism|karma]], [[Brahman|Atman-Brahman]], the afterlife, etc.<ref name=tull28/><ref>{{cite book|author=Hans Torwesten|title=Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWptZtEa0hcC&pg=PA55|year=1994|publisher=Grove |isbn=978-0-8021-3262-8|pages=55–57}}</ref>
 
=== Creation ===
The ''Brihadaranyaka'' contains various passages which discuss the beginning of the universe and its creation. A key figure in this process is the deity [[Prajapati]], who creates the world through liturgical recitation, [[Yajna|priestly sacrifice]], dividing up his own body, copulation, giving birth to various [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] and demons.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=37-39}}
 
The verse 1.4.1 on the creation states: "in the beginning this world was just a single body (atman) shaped like a man. He looked around and saw nothing but himself."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=45-47}} The ''Brihadaranyaka'' goes on to state that this single body became afraid and wanted to have a companion, so he split his body into two, made a wife and copulated with her to create all living beings.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=45-47}}
 
=== Atman ===
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' teaches the theory of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] (the Self), which is the eternal inner reality in a person. It is described by the ''Brihadaranyaka'' as follows:<blockquote>
This innermost thing, this self (atman)—it is dearer than a son, it is dearer than wealth, it is dearer than everything else...a man should regard only his self as dear to him. When a man regards only his self as dear to him, what he holds dear will never perish.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=49}}</blockquote>This self is also the source of all vital functions:<blockquote>As a spider sends forth its thread, and as tiny sparks spring forth from a fire, so indeed do all the vital functions (prana), all the worlds, all the gods, and all beings spring from this self (atman). Its hidden name (Upanishad) is 'The real behind the real,' for the real consists of the vital functions, and the self is the real behind the vital functions.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=63-65}}</blockquote>According to the ''Brihadaranyaka,'' this self travels through various worlds and takes up a body:<blockquote>It is this person—the one that consists of perception among the vital functions ([[prana]]), the one that is the inner light within the heart. He travels across both worlds, being common to both. Sometimes he reflects, sometimes he flutters, for when he falls asleep he transcends this world, these visible forms of death. When at birth this person takes on a body, he becomes united with bad things, and when at death he leaves it behind, he gets rid of those bad things.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=111-113}}</blockquote>However, this self is not just something individual, since the ''Brihadaranyaka'' states:<blockquote>When a chunk of salt is thrown in water, it dissolves into that very water, and it cannot be picked up in any way. Yet, from whichever place one may take a sip, the salt is there! In the same way this Immense Being has no limit or boundary and is a single mass of perception.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=69}}</blockquote>Furthermore, this self which is an imperishable reality and the "radiant and immortal person" in all things, cannot be grasped:<blockquote>About this self (atman), one can only say 'not—, not—' ([[neti neti]]). He is ungraspable, for he cannot be grasped. He is undecaying, for he is not subject to decay. He has nothing sticking to him, for he does not stick to anything. He is not bound; yet he neither trembles in fear nor suffers injury.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=111}} </blockquote>And yet, it is only by reflecting on one's atman that one can gain knowledge:<blockquote>You see, [[Maitreyi]]—it is one's self (atman) which one should see and hear, and on which one should reflect and concentrate. For by seeing and hearing one's self, and by reflecting and concentrating on one's self, one gains the knowledge of this whole world.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=69}}</blockquote>
 
=== Brahman and Atman ===
Another term found in the ''Brihadaranyaka'' is [[Brahman]], and this is closely associated with the term atman. According to the ''Brihadaranyaka'', "in the beginning this world was only brahman, only one."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=49-51}} Then Brahman, which was "not fully developed", created the "ruling power" among the gods and then it also created all the [[Castes in India|castes]] (brahmin, ksatriya, vaisya and shudra) as well [[Dharma]].{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=49-51}}
 
According to the ''Brihadaranyaka'' there are "two visible appearances (rupa) of brahman":<{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=65-67}}
 
* One form has a fixed shape, is mortal, stationary, this refers to the body as well as things in the external world
* the form other is without a fixed shape, is immortal and in motion. It also refers to "the person within the sun's orb" as well as to "breath and the space within the body". Furthermore, "the visible appearance of this person is like a golden cloth, or white wool, or a red bug, or a flame, or a white lotus, or a sudden flash of lightning."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=65-67}}
The ''Brihadaranyaka'' also equates the world and Brahman with fullness and space ([[akasha]]):{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=133}}<blockquote>The world there is full; the world here is full; fullness from fullness proceeds. After taking full from the full, it still remains completely full. Brahman is space. The primeval one is space. Space is windy.</blockquote>
According to the ''Brihadaranyaka'', the atman is none other than Brahman itself, the ultimate truth and creative principle of the universe:<blockquote>This self (atman) is the honey of all beings, and all beings are the honey of this self. The radiant and immortal person in the self and the radiant and immortal person connected with the body (atman)—they are both one's self. It is the immortal; it is brahman; it is the Whole. This very self (atman) is the lord and king of all beings. As all the spokes are fastened to the hub and the rim of a wheel, so to one's self (atman) are fastened all beings, all the gods, all the worlds, all the breaths, and all these bodies (atman).{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=73}}</blockquote>[[Yajnavalkya|Yajñavalkya]] also explains the Brahman with the phrase "the self within all is this self of yours," and this is said to be "the one who is beyond hunger and thirst, sorrow and delusion, old age and death."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=83}} He also calls the Brahman-Atman the "inner controller, the immortal" which is present in earth, water (and other elements) but is different from them and controls them from within. This self "sees, but he can't be seen; he hears, but he can't be heard; he thinks, but he can't be thought of; he perceives, but he can't be perceived."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=87-89}}
 
''The Brihadaranyaka'' also describes ''"''the highest Brahman" as "the heart," which is "the abode of all beings" and "the foundation of all beings." This brahman in the space of the heart is said to be "the controller of all, the lord of all, the ruler of all," and is not affected or changed by karma (action).{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=109-125}}
 
This brahman in the heart, also called [[Prajapati]], is also described in the ''Brihadaranyaka'' as follows:<blockquote>This person here is made of mind and consists of light. Lodged here deep within the heart, he is like a grain of rice or barley; he is the lord of all, the ruler of all! Over this whole world, over all there is, he rules.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=135}}</blockquote>
 
Those who know the truth of brahman-atman become "calm, composed, cool, patient, and collected" and are not affected by evil or doubt. The text also states that those who are without desire will go to Brahman after death:<blockquote>Now, a man who does not desire—who is without desires, who is freed from desires, whose desires are fulfilled, whose only desire is his self—-his vital functions (prana) do not depart. Brahman he is, and to brahman he goes.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=121-127}}</blockquote>


===Karma theory===
===Karma===
One of the earliest formulation of the [[Karma]] doctrine occurs in the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''.<ref name=tull28>Tull, Herman W. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. P. 28</ref> For example:
One of the earliest formulation of the [[Karma]] doctrine occurs in the ''Brihadaranyaka'' which states:<ref name=tull28>Tull, Herman W. ''The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual.'' SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. P. 28</ref>


{{Quote|
{{Quote|
<poem>
<poem>
''Now as a man is like this or like that,
'He's made of this. He's made of that.' What a man turns out to be depends on how he acts and on how he conducts himself. If his actions are good, he will turn into something good. If his actions are bad, he will turn into something bad. A man turns into something good by good action and into something bad by bad action. And so people say: 'A person here consists simply of desire.' A man resolves in accordance with his desire, acts in accordance with his resolve, and turns out to be in accordance with his action.
''according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be;
</poem>
''a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad;
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Hymns 4.4.5–4.4.6{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=121}}}}
''he became pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds;
 
=== Afterlife ===
The text also contains some speculations about the afterlife. In one passage, Yajñavalkya is asked what happens to a man who has died and he states that after death "a man turns into something good by good action (karma) and into something bad by bad action."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=81}}


''And here they say that a person consists of desires,
The ''Brihadaranyaka'' also describes how the atman leaves the body at death and takes up a new life.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=119}} The text describes the process as follows:<blockquote>As a caterpillar, when it comes to the tip of a blade of grass, reaches out to a new foothold and draws itself onto it, so the self (atman), after it has knocked down this body and rendered it unconscious, reaches out to a new foothold and draws itself onto it.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=1121}}</blockquote>
''and as is his desire, so is his will;
''and as is his will, so is his deed;
''and whatever deed he does, that he will reap.
</poem>
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Hymns 4.4.5-4.4.6<ref>[https://www.webcitation.org/6MPYs0AkA?url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/quotes/brihadaranyaka-upanishad-4-4-5-6 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5-6] Berkley Center for Religion Peace & World Affairs, Georgetown University (2012)</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20140107061016/https://mywebspace.wisc.edu/jrblack/web/SKT/DL/upanishads.html Brihadaranyaka] James Black, Original Sanskrit & Muller Oxford English Translations, University of Wisconsin, United States (2011)</ref>}}


===Ethics===
===Ethics===
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' includes hymns on virtues and ethics.<ref>S Wesley Ariarajah (1986), Hindu Spirituality, The Ecumenical Review, 38(1), pages 75-81</ref><ref>Harold Coward (2003), Ethics and Nature in the World’s Religions, in Environment across Cultures, Wissenschaftsethik und Technikfolgenbeurteilung, Volume 19, {{ISBN|978-3642073243}}, pp 91-109</ref> In verse 5.2.3, for example, it recommends three virtues: self-restraint (दमः, [[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism|Damah]]), charity (दानं, [[Dāna|Daanam]]), and compassion for all life (दया, [[Compassion#Hinduism|Daya]]).<ref name=kane>PV Kane, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofdharmas029210mbp#page/n61/mode/2up Samanya Dharma], History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chatterjea|first1=Tara|title=Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Oxford|page=148}}</ref>
The ''Brihadaranyaka'' includes hymns on virtues and ethics.<ref>S Wesley Ariarajah (1986), "Hindu Spirituality," ''The Ecumenical Review,'' 38(1), pages 75–81</ref><ref>Harold Coward (2003), "Ethics and Nature in the World’s Religions," in ''Environment across Cultures,'' Wissenschaftsethik und Technikfolgenbeurteilung, Volume 19, {{ISBN|978-3642073243}}, pp 91–109</ref> In verse 5.2.3 it recommends three virtues: self-restraint (दमः, [[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism|damah]]), charity (दानं, [[Dāna|daanam]]), and compassion for all life (दया, [[Compassion#Hinduism|daya]]).<ref name=kane>PV Kane, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofdharmas029210mbp#page/n61/mode/2up Samanya Dharma], History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chatterjea|first1=Tara|title=Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Oxford|page=148}}</ref>


{{quote|
{{quote|
तदेतत्त्रयँ शिक्षेद् दमं दानं दयामिति<ref>[http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_sa/brinew-proofed_sa.html Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]</ref><br>
तदेतत्त्रयँ शिक्षेद् दमं दानं दयामिति<ref>[http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_sa/brinew-proofed_sa.html Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]</ref><br>
Learn three cardinal virtues &ndash; temperance, charity and compassion for all life.
Learn three cardinal virtues – temperance, charity and compassion for all life.
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, V.ii.3|<ref name=kane/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n843/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad], Translator: S Madhavananda, page 816, For discussion: pages 814-821</ref>}}
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, V.ii.3|<ref name=kane/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n843/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad], Translator: S Madhavananda, page 816, For discussion: pages 814–821</ref>}}


The first ethical precept of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' became the foundation of [[Yamas]] in various schools of Hinduism. In Yoga school, for example, the yamas as listed by [[Patañjali]] in [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yogasūtra]] 2.30 are:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Āgāśe|first1=K. S.|title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi|date=1904|publisher=Ānandāśrama|location=Puṇe|page=102|url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n111/mode/2up}}</ref>
These basic Vedic ethical principles found in the ''Brihadaranyaka'' later developed into the more complex [[yamas]] (ethical rules) found in various schools of [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Āgāśe|first1=K. S.|title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi|date=1904|publisher=Ānandāśrama|location=Puṇe|page=102|url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n111/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="jl">James Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|9780823931798}}, page 777</ref><ref>Kaneda, T. (2008). "Shanti, peacefulness of mind." C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), ''Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights,'' {{ISBN|978-0805856736}}, Taylor & Francis, pages 171–192</ref>
 
# [[Ahiṃsā]] (अहिंसा): restraint from initiating violence, harm, injury to other living beings by actions, words or in one's thoughts<ref name=jl>James Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|9780823931798}}, page 777</ref><ref>Kaneda, T. (2008). Shanti, peacefulness of mind. C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights, {{ISBN|978-0805856736}}, Taylor & Francis, pages 171-192</ref>
# [[Satya]] (सत्य): restraint from falsehood<ref name=jl/><ref name=ad/>
# [[Asteya]] (अस्तेय): restraint from stealing<ref name=jl/>
# [[Brahmacarya]] (ब्रह्मचर्य): restraint from sex if without a partner, and from cheating on one's partner<ref name=ad/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-10.html Brahmacharyam Pativratyam cha - Celibacy and Fidelity] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630071725/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-10.html |date=June 30, 2013 }} Himalayan Academy, Gutenberg Archives (2006)</ref>
# [[Aparigraha]] (अपरिग्रहः): restraint from avarice and possessiveness,<ref name=jl/><ref name=ad>Arti Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347-372</ref>


===Psychology===
===Psychology===
The verses in the Upanishad contain theories pertaining to [[psychology]] and human motivations.<ref>Aron & Aron (1996), Love and expansion of the self: The state of the model, Personal Relationships, 3(1), pages 45-58</ref><ref>Masek and Lewandowski (2013), The self expansion model of motivation and cognition, in The Oxford Handbook of Close Relationships (Editors: Simpson and Campbell), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195398694}}, page 111</ref> Verse 1.4.17 describes the desire for progeny as the desire to be born again. The Upanishad states a behavioral theory, linking action to nature, suggesting that behavioral habits makes a man,
The verses in the ''Brihadaranyaka'' contain theories pertaining to [[psychology]] and human motivations.<ref>Aron & Aron (1996), Love and expansion of the self: The state of the model, Personal Relationships, 3(1), pages 45–58</ref><ref>Masek and Lewandowski (2013), "The self expansion model of motivation and cognition," in ''The Oxford Handbook of Close Relationships'' (Editors: Simpson and Campbell), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195398694}}, page 111</ref> Verse 1.4.17 describes the desire for progeny as the desire to be born again. The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' states a behavioral theory that links action to one's nature, suggesting that behavioral habits shape a person:


<blockquote><poem>
<blockquote><poem>
Line 172: Line 186:
</poem></blockquote>
</poem></blockquote>


Ancient and medieval Indian scholars have referred to ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' as a foundation to discuss psychological theories, the nature of psyche, and how body, mind and Self interact. For example, Adi Shankara in his commentary on the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' explains the relation between consciousness, the mind and the body.<ref>KR Rao (2005), Perception, cognition and consciousness in classical Hindu psychology. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12(3), pages 3-30</ref><ref>RH Trowbridge (2011), Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of conceptualizing wisdom in empirical psychology. Research in Human Development, 8(2), pages 149-164</ref>
Ancient and medieval Indian scholars have referred to the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' as a foundation for discussing psychological theories, the nature of psyche, and the interactions between body, mind, and Self. For example, Adi Shankara in his commentary on the ''Brihadaranyaka'' explains the relation between consciousness, the mind and the body.<ref>KR Rao (2005), Perception, cognition and consciousness in classical Hindu psychology. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12(3), pages 3–30</ref><ref>RH Trowbridge (2011), Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of conceptualizing wisdom in empirical psychology. Research in Human Development, 8(2), pages 149–164</ref>


Mind creates desire, asserts ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', with its basis in pleasure.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Eye is the cause of material wealth, because it is through sight that wealth is created states the Upanishad, while ears are spiritual wealth, because it is through listening that knowledge is shared.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad with commentary of Sankaracarya|last=Swami Madhavananda|url=https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n219/mode/2up}}</ref> The Upanishad suggests in the dialogue between Yajnavalkya and [[Maitreyi]], husband and wife, that one does not love an object for the sake of the object but for the sake of the subject, the Self (the Self of the other person).
''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' asserts that the mind creates desire, with its basis rooted in pleasure.<ref>{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |url= |title=The Principal Upanishads |publisher=George Allen & Unwin |year=1953 |isbn= |page=169 |access-date=}}</ref> It states that the eye is the cause of material wealth, as wealth is created through sight, whereas the ears represent spiritual wealth, as knowledge is shared through listening.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad with commentary of Sankaracarya|last=Swami Madhavananda|year=1950 |url=https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n219/mode/2up}}</ref> In the dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi, husband and wife, the Upanishad suggests that one does not love an object for the sake of the object but for the sake of the subject, which is the Self (the Self of the other person).


===Metaphysics===
===Metaphysics===
====Advaita====
Verse 1.3.28 acknowledges that metaphysical statements in the Upanishads are meant to guide the reader from unreality to reality. The metaphysics of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' often presents a kind of [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualism]] or [[monism]]. For instance, in verse 2.4.13 [[Yajnavalkya|Yajñavalkya]] asserts that everything in the universe is the Self. Some passages state that Brahman is the whole:<blockquote>Clearly, this self is brahman—this self that is made of perception, made of mind, made of sight, made of breath, made of hearing, made of earth, made of water, made of wind, made of space, made of light and the lightless, made of desire and the desireless, made of anger and the angerless, made of the righteous and the unrighteous; this self that is made of everything.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=121}}</blockquote>Upanishadic metaphysics is further elucidated in the [[Madhu-vidya]] (honey doctrine), where the essence of every object is described to be same to the essence of every other object. The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' looks at reality as being indescribable and its nature to be infinite and consciousness-bliss. The cosmic energy is thought to integrate in the microcosm and in the macrocosm as well as the individual and the universe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Madhu Vidya |url=https://www.hoopladigital.com/title/16739974 |access-date=26 February 2026 |website=hoopla digital}}</ref>
Verse 1.3.28 acknowledges that metaphysical statements in Upanishads are meant to guide the reader from unreality to reality. The metaphysics of ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' is non-dualism ([[Advaita]]). For instance, in verse 2.4.13 Yajnavalkya asserts that everything in the universe is the Self. The nature of reality or Self is described as consciousness-bliss in verse 3.9.28. Neti-neti or (not this—not this) is a method of emphasizing the discovery of the right, by excluding the wrong. The verse 5.1.1 states that the Universe, Reality and Consciousness is infinite.


:पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पूर्णमुदच्यते ।
===Different interpretations===
:पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ॥
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' has attracted secondary literature and commentaries (''[[bhasya]]'') from many scholars. In these secondary texts, the same passages have been interpreted in differently by various sub-schools of [[Vedanta]], including [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] (monism), [[Dvaita]], and [[Vishistadvaita]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6hwNAQAAIAAJ |year=1988| publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-1866-4|pages=39–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Madhva|title=The Principal Upaniṣads: Chandogya-Brihadaranyaka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DVUpAAAAYAAJ|year =1999|publisher= Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Foundation|pages=i–iv}}</ref>


:''pūrṇam adaḥ, pūrṇam idaṃ, pūrṇāt pūrṇam udacyate''
The phrase "neti, neti" (not this, not this) is a profound concept found in the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', and it has been interpreted differently by [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] and [[Ramanuja]]. Shankara interprets it as a negation of all empirical attributes and forms. According to Shankara, Brahman (ultimate reality) is beyond all distinctions and is the only true reality, and everything else is an illusion (''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]''). Ramanuja interprets "neti, neti" not as a complete negation but as an acknowledgment of limitations of human language and conceptualization when describing Brahman. This perspective emphasizes the infinite and glorious nature of the Divine, suggesting that the negation is more about the limitation of our understanding than about Brahman itself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raghavachar S S |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.170086 |title=Ramanuja On The Upanishads |date=1972 |pages=71–73}}</ref>
:''pūrṇasya pūrṇam ādāya pūrṇam evāvaśiṣyate''.
 
:"That (Brahman) is infinite, and this (universe) is infinite. the infinite proceeds from the infinite.
: (Then) taking the infinitude of the infinite (universe), it remains as the infinite (Brahman) alone."
:::::::::::::::::Translation by [[Swami Madhavananda]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad with commentary of Sankaracarya|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|quote=The Peace Chant|url=https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda}}</ref>
 
"From infinite or fullness, we can get only fullness or infinite". The above verse describes the nature of the Absolute or [[Brahman]] which is infinite or full, i.e., it contains everything. Upanishadic metaphysics is further elucidated in the [[Madhu-vidya]] (honey doctrine), where the essence of every object is described to be same to the essence of every other object. The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' looks at reality as being indescribable and its nature to be infinite and consciousness-bliss. The cosmic energy is thought to integrate in the microcosm and in the macrocosm integrate the individual to the universe.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
 
===Different interpretations===
{{expand section|date=April 2017}}
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has attracted secondary literature and commentaries (''[[bhasya]]'') from many scholars. In these secondary texts, the same passages have been interpreted in different ways by the various sub-schools of Vedanta such as nondualistic [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] (monism), dualistic [[Dvaita]] (theism) and qualified nondualistic [[Vishistadvaita]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6hwNAQAAIAAJ |year=1988| publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-1866-4|pages=39–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Madhva|title=The Principal Upaniṣads: Chandogya-Brihadaranyaka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DVUpAAAAYAAJ|year =1999|publisher= Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Foundation|pages=i–iv}}</ref>


==Popular mantras==
==Popular mantras==
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मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय । mr̥tyōrmā amr̥taṁ gamaya
मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय । mr̥tyōrmā amr̥taṁ gamaya
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥ [[Om]] śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥ [[Om]] śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ
- ''Br̥hadāraṇyakopaniṣat'' 1.3.28</poem>
– ''Br̥hadāraṇyakopaniṣat'' 1.3.28</poem>
}}
}}


Translation:
Translation:
{{quote|<poem>From untruth lead us to Truth.
{{quote|<poem>From untruth lead me to Truth.
From darkness lead us to Light.
From darkness lead me to Light.
From death lead us to Immortality.
From death lead me to Immortality.
Om Peace, Peace, Peace.<ref>[http://www.worldprayers.org/archive/prayers/invocations/from_untruth_lead_us_to.html Ancient vedic prayer] World Prayers Society (2012)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Derrett  |first1=J. Duncan M. |year=2009 |title=An Indian metaphor in St John's Gospel |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=271–86 |jstor=25183679 |doi=10.1017/S1356186300011056}}</ref></poem>
Om Peace, Peace, Peace.<ref>[http://www.worldprayers.org/archive/prayers/invocations/from_untruth_lead_us_to.html Ancient vedic prayer] World Prayers Society (2012)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Derrett  |first1=J. Duncan M. |year=2009 |title=An Indian metaphor in St John's Gospel |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=271–86 |jstor=25183679 |doi=10.1017/S1356186300011056|s2cid=163900856 }}</ref></poem>
}}
}}


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==Translations==
==Translations==
*Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n93/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad], Oxford University Press
*Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n93/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad], Oxford University Press
*Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/72/mode/2up The Upanishads - includes Brihadaranyaka], The Sacred Books of the East - Volume 15, Oxford University Press
*Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/72/mode/2up The Upanishads – includes Brihadaranyaka], The Sacred Books of the East – Volume 15, Oxford University Press
* {{cite book|first=Sarvepalli|last=Radhakrishnan |year=1994|title=[[The Principal Upanishads]]|location=New Delhi|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India|isbn=81-7223-124-5|orig-year= 1953}}
* {{cite book|first=Sarvepalli|last=Radhakrishnan |author-link = Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1994|title=[[The Principal Upanishads]]|location=New Delhi|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India|isbn=81-7223-124-5|orig-year= 1953}}
* [[Swami Madhavananda]], [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n0/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]
* [[Swami Madhavananda]], [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n0/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]
*[http://www.universaltheosophy.com/legacy/movements/ancient-east/vedic-india/brihadaranyaka-upanishad/ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad], Translations by Johnston, Nikhilānanda, Madhavananda
*[http://www.universaltheosophy.com/legacy/movements/ancient-east/vedic-india/brihadaranyaka-upanishad/ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad], Translations by Johnston, Nikhilānanda, Madhavananda
*[https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brihadaranyaka-upanishad/index.html The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (with the Commentary of Śaṅkarācārya)] original Sanskrit and English translation
*[https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brihadaranyaka-upanishad/index.html The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (with the Commentary of Śaṅkarācārya)] original Sanskrit and English translation


==In literature==
==In literature==
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==References==
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|30em}}
== Sources ==
*{{Cite book |last=Deussen |first=Paul |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.191073 |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |date=1980a |volume=1|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House |isbn=978-81-208-1468-4 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Deussen |first=Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/sixty-upanishads-of-the-veda-vol-2-paul-deussen |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |date=1980b |volume=2|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House |isbn=978-81-208-1469-1 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Muller |first=F. Max |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.22552/page/n3/mode/1up|title=The Sacred Books of the East: The Upanishads  Part. 2 |date=1884|volume=XV|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
*{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEarlyUpanisads|title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-512435-4 |language=en}}
== Further reading ==
*{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GL0M7vT7SkC&source=gbs_book_other_versions |title=Upanisads |date=2008 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-954025-9 |language=en}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{wikisourcelang|sa|बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Sanskrit)}}
{{wikisourcelang|sa|बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Sanskrit)}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150511165242/http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gret_utf.htm#BrhUp GRETIL etext]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150511165242/http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gret_utf.htm#BrhUp GRETIL etext]
*[http://www.arshabodha.org/BrihadaranyakaUpanishad.html Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad] mp3 recordings of classes by Swami Tadatmananda, Arsha Bodha Center
*[http://www.arshabodha.org/BrihadaranyakaUpanishad.html Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] mp3 recordings of classes by Swami Tadatmananda, Arsha Bodha Center
*[http://vedantahub.org/brihadaranyaka-upanishad/ Video/Audio classes, Reference texts, Discussions and other Study material on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad at Vedanta Hub]
*[http://vedantahub.org/brihadaranyaka-upanishad/ Video/Audio classes, Reference texts, Discussions and other Study material on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad at Vedanta Hub]
*{{Librivox book |title=Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |author=Unknown}}
*{{Librivox book |title=Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |author=Unknown}}
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{{Mukhya Upanishads}}
{{Mukhya Upanishads}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Upanishads]]
[[Category:Upanishads]]
[[Category:Indian religious texts]]

Latest revision as of 23:15, 21 March 2026


Brihadaranyaka
for alternate text of the title image per BP:ALT
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, verses 1.3.1 to 1.3.4 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)
Devanagariबृहदारण्यक
IASTBṛhadāraṇyaka
Date7th-6th century BCE[1]
Author(s)Yajnavalkya
TypeMukhya Upanishads
Linked VedaShukla Yajurveda
Linked BrahmanaShatapatha Brahmana
Linked AranyakaBrihad Aranyaka
Chapters6
PhilosophyĀtman, Brahman
Commented byAdi Shankara, Madhvacharya, Rangaramanuja
Popular verse"Aham Brahmasmi"

Template:Upanishads

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., IAST: Bṛhadāraṇyak Upaniṣad) is one of the Principal Upanishads and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism.[2] A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is tenth in the Muktikā or "canon of 108 Upanishads".[3]

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is estimated to have been composed about 7th–6th century BCE. The Sanskrit language text is contained within the Shatapatha Brahmana, which is itself a part of the Shukla Yajur Veda.[4] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is a treatise on Ātman (Self), includes passages on metaphysics, ethics, and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various Indian religions, ancient and medieval scholars, and attracted secondary works such as those by Adi Shankara and Madhvacharya.[5][6]

Chronology[edit | edit source]

The chronology of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, like other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested.[7] The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style, and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about the likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.[7] Patrick Olivelle states, "in spite of claims made by some, in reality, any dating of these documents (early Upanishads) that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards".[1]

The chronology and authorship of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, along with Chandogya and Kaushitaki Upanishads, is further complicated because they are compiled anthologies of literature that must have existed as independent texts before they became part of these Upanishads.[1]

The exact year and even the century of the Upanishad's composition is unknown. Scholars have offered different estimates ranging from 900 BCE to 600 BCE, all preceding Buddhism. Brihadaranyaka is one of the first Upanishads, along with Jaiminiya Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishads.[8][9] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad was in all likelihood composed in the earlier part of 1st millennium BCE, in the 7th–6th century BCE, give or take a century or so, according to Patrick Olivelle.[1] The text was likely a living document and some verses were edited over some time before the 6th century BCE.[1]

Etymology and structure[edit | edit source]

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad literally means the "Upanishad of the great forests".

Brihadaranyaka literally means "great wilderness or forest". The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is credited to ancient sage Yajnavalkya, but was likely refined by a number of ancient Vedic scholars. The Upanishad forms the last part, that is the fourteenth kānda of Śatapatha Brāhmana of "Śhukla Yajurveda".[10] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has six adhyayas (chapters) in total. There are two major recensions for the text – the Madhyandina and the Kanva recensions. It includes three sections: Madhu kānda (the 4th and 5th chapter of the fourteenth kānda of Satapatha Brahmana), Muni kānda (or Yajnavalkya Kanda, the 6th and 7th chapter of 14th kānda of Satapatha Brahmana) and Khila kānda (the 8th and 9th chapter of the fourteenth kānda of Satapatha Brahmana).[10][11]

The first and second chapters of the Upanishad's Madhu kānda consists of six brahmanas each, with varying number of hymns per brahmana. The first chapter of the Upanishad's Yajnavalkya kānda consists of nine brahmanams, while the second has six brahmanas. The Khila kānda of the Upanishad has fifteen brahmanas in its first chapter, and five brahmanas in the second chapter.[12]

Content[edit | edit source]

First chapter[edit | edit source]

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad starts by stating one of the many Vedic theories of creation of the universe. It asserts that there was nothing before the universe began. Then, Prajapati created the universe from this nothingness as a sacrifice to themself, imbuing it with Prana (life force) to preserve it in the form of cosmic inert matter and individual psychic energy.[10][13] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserts that the world is more than just matter and energy; it is also constituted by Atman or Brahman (Self, Consciousness, Invisible Principles, and Reality) as well as Knowledge.[10]

The Brahmana 4 in the first chapter announces the non-dual monistic metaphysical premise that Atman and Brahman are identical Oneness. It asserts that because the universe came out of nothingness when the only principle existent was "I am He", the universe, after coming into existence, continues as Aham brahma asmi (I am Brahman).[14] In the last brahmana of the first chapter, the Upanishad explains that the Atman (Self) inspires by being self-evident (name identity), through empowering forms, and through action (work of a living being). The Self, states Brihadaranyaka, is the imperishable one that is invisible and concealed pervading all of reality.[10]

Second chapter[edit | edit source]

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad starts the second chapter as a conversation between Ajatashatru and Balaki Gargya on theory of dreams, positing that human beings see dreams entirely unto themselves because mind draws, in itself, the powers of sensory organs, which it releases in the waking state.[10] Brihadaranyaka in brahmana 3 asserts that the human mind can perceive and construct its own reality. Mind is a means, prone to flaws. It emphasizes the struggle to realize the true, unknowable nature of Atman-Brahman, described as "neti, neti" (not this, not this), beyond qualities or characteristics.[10]

In the fourth brahmana of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Yajnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi engage in a dialogue about love and spirituality. Yajnavalkya states that one doesn't connect with and love forms, nor does one connect or love mind, rather one connects with the Self, the Self of one's own and one's beloved. All love is for the sake of one's Self, and the Oneness one realizes in the Self of the beloved.[15] He then asserts that this knowledge of the Self, the Self, and Brahman is what makes one immortal, and the connection is also immortal. All longing is the longing for the Self, as the Self represents the true, the immortal, the real, and infinite bliss.[16]

The fifth brahmana introduces the Madhu theory, giving this section the name Madhu Khanda.[17] The Madhu theory is one of the foundational principles of Vedanta schools of Hinduism, as well as other āstika schools of Indian philosophies.[18] Madhu literally means "honey", or the composite fruit of numerous actions on the field of flowers. In this theory, notes Paul Deussen,[17] the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserts that "Atman exists" (Self exists), that all organic beings (plants, animals, human beings and gods) are all beings are interconnected with each other and Brahman (Cosmic Self); it further asserts that inorganic nature (fire, air, earth, water, space) is the field where the beings act, and where their numerous actions create fruits that they separately and together experience. The Upanishad then states that everything is connected, beings affect each other, organic beings affect the inorganic nature, inorganic nature affects the organic beings, one is the "honey" (result, fruit, food) of the other, everyone and everything is mutually dependent, nourishing and nurturing each other, all stemming from one Brahman, resulting in blissful oneness.[17][18] This theory appears in various early and middle Upanishads, and parallels Immanuel Kant's doctrine of "the affinity of phenomena" built on "the synthetic unity of apperception".[17][19]

The last brahmanam of the Upanishad's first section is a Vamsa (generational line of teachers) with the names of 57 Vedic scholars who are credited to have taught the Madhu Khanda from one generation to the next.[17][20]

Third chapter[edit | edit source]

The third chapter is a metaphysical dialogue between ten ancient sages, on the nature of Reality (Brahman), Atman (individual self), and Mukti (liberation). This metaphysical dialogue was held at the court of the King Janaka in Mithila during the occasion of the Bahudakshina Yajna organised by the king at his court. The Bahudakshina Yajna was organised by the King Janaka to find out the greatest scholar of Vedas called as Brahmistha among the participating Brahmin scholars at the court.[21][22] Paul Deussen calls the presentation of ancient scholar Yajnavalkya in this chapter "not dissimilar to that of Socrates in the dialogues of Plato".[23] Among other things, the chapter presents the theory of perceived empirical knowledge using the concepts of graha (sensory action) and atigraha (sense). It lists 8 combinations of graha and atigraha: breath and smell, speech and name (ideas), tongue and taste, eye and form, ear and sound, skin and touch, mind and desire, arms and work respectively.[24] The sages debate the nature of death and whether any graha and atigraha prevails after one dies. After ruling out six of the sensory actions, they assert that one's ideas (name) and one's actions and work (karma) continue to have an impact on the universe even after one's physical death.[24][25]

The fourth brahmana of the third chapter asserts, "it is your Self which is inside all", all Selfs are one, immanent and transcendent. The fifth brahmana states that profound knowledge requires one to give up showing off one's erudition, then to adopt childlike curiosity and simplicity, followed by becoming silent, meditating, and being observant (muni). This marks the beginning of the journey toward profound knowledge and understanding the Self of all things, where freedom from frustration and sorrow is found.[26]

In the sixth and eighth brahmana, focus is on the concept of the imperishable (akshara). In these brahmanas, Gargi Vachaknavi and Yajñavalka engage in philosophical inquiries and debates, exploring the ultimate truth and the imperishable nature of reality. The discussions explore deep philosophical ideas, highlighting the importance of seeking spiritual wisdom and the quest to understand the timeless, unchanging reality that transcends the material world.[26]

The seventh brahmana explores the interconnectedness of the Self with all of existence, emphasizing its role as the inner controller, often without the knowledge of beings. It asserts that the Self is the true essence.[27] The ninth brahmana, the longest in the third chapter, introduces the "neti, neti" principle, which is later discussed along with the analogical equivalence between the physical features of a man and those of a tree. It highlights that the root of a man is his Self.[28][29] The last hymns of chapter 3 in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also attest to the prevalent practice of the renouncing ascetic life by the time Brihadaranyaka Upanishad was composed in Vedic age of India, and it is these ascetic circles that are credited for major movements such as Yoga as well as the śramaṇa traditions later to be called Buddhism, Jainism and heterodox Hinduism.[30]

When one tears out the tree from its roots,
the tree can grow no more,
out of which root[31] the man grows forth,
when he is struck down by death?
He, who is born, is not born,
Who is supposed to beget him anew? (...)
Brahman[32] is bliss, Brahman is knowledge,
It is the highest good of one who gives charity,
and also of one who stands away (renounces) and knows it.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 3:9[28][33]

Fourth chapter[edit | edit source]

The fourth chapter of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad begins with a dialogue between King Janaka and Yajnavalka. It explores various aspects of the "Self exists" theory, its phenomenal manifestations, and its philosophical implications on soteriology. In the first brahmanam of the fourth chapter, the Upanishad states that the Self manifests in human life in six forms: Prajna (consciousness), Priyam (love and the will to live), Satyam (reverence for truth, reality), Ananta (endlessness, curiosity for the eternal), Ananda (bliss, contentness), and Sthiti (the state of enduring steadfastness, calm perseverance).[34]

In the second brahmanam, the Upanishad explores the question, "what happens to Self after one dies?", and provides the root of two themes that play a central role in later schools of Hinduism: first, the concept of Self as individual Selves (dualism), and second, the concept of Self being One and Eternal, neither coming nor going anywhere, because it is everywhere and in everyone in Oneness (non-dualism). This chapter discusses the widely cited "neti, neti" (नेति नेति, "not this, not this") principle on one's journey to understanding Self. The second brahmanam concludes that Self exists is self-evident, Self is blissfully free, Self is eternally invulnerable, and Self is indescribable knowledge.[34]

The hymn 4.2.4 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is one of many instances in the ancient Sanskrit text where the characters involved in philosophical debate greet each other with Namaste (नमस्ते), a practice in the culture of India.[35]

The third brahmanam of the fourth chapter discusses the premises of moksha (liberation, freedom, emancipation, self-realization), and provides some of the most studied hymns of Brihadaranyaka. Paul Deussen calls it, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times.[36] It translates as follows,

But when he appearing to be a god or a king, thinks 'I alone am this world! I am all!' — that is his highest world.
Now, this is the aspect of his that is beyond what appears to be good, freed from what is bad, and without fear.

"It is like this. As a man embraced by a woman he loves is oblivious to everything within or without, so this person embraced by the prajna (conscious, aware, self) consisting of knowledge is oblivious to everything within or without. Clearly, this is the aspect of his where all desires are fulfilled, where the self is the only desire, and which is free from desires and far from sorrows.

Here a father is not a father, a mother is not a mother, worlds are not worlds, gods are not gods, and Vedas are not Vedas.
Here a thief is not a thief, a murderer is not a murderer, an outsider is not an outsider, a pariah is not a pariah, a recluse is not a recluse, and an ascetic is not an ascetic.
Neither the good nor the bad follows him, for he has now passed beyond all sorrows of the heart.
(...)
So did Yajnavalkya instruct him.
"This is his highest goal!
This is his highest attainment!
This is his highest world!
This is his highest bliss!
On just a fraction of this bliss do other creatures live.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 4, Brahmanam 3, Hymns 20–32, Translated by Patrick Olivelle[37]

The fourth brahmanam continues to build the thematic description of Atman-Brahman (Self) and the state of self-realization as achieved. Yajnavalkya declares that knowledge is Self, knowledge is freedom, knowledge powers inner peace. In hymn 4.4.22, the Upanishad states:[38]

Template:Translated blockquote

Max Müller and Paul Deussen, in their respective translations, describe the Upanishad's view of "Self" and "free, liberated state of existence" as, "[Self] is imperishable, for he cannot perish; he is unattached, for he does not attach himself; unfettered, he does not suffer, he does not fail. He is beyond good and evil, and neither what he has done, nor what he has omitted to do, affects him. (...) He therefore who knows it [reached self-realization], becomes quiet, subdued, satisfied, patient, and collected. He sees self in Self, sees all as Self. Evil does not overcome him, he overcomes all evil. Evil does not burn him, he burns all evil. Free from evil, free from spots, free from doubt, he became Atman-Brâhmana; this is the Brahma-world, O King, thus spoke Yagnavalkya."[34][38]

The last brahmanam of the Upanishad's second section is another Vamsa (generational line of teachers) with the names of 59 Vedic scholars who are credited to have taught the hymns of Muni Khanda from one generation to the next, before it became part of Brihadaranyaka.[34][39]

Fifth and sixth chapters[edit | edit source]

The fifth and sixth chapters of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad are known as Khila Khanda, which literally means "supplementary section, or appendix".[40] Each brahmanam in the supplement is small except the fourteenth. This section, suggests Paul Deussen, was likely written later to clarify and add ideas considered important in that later age.[41]

Some brahmanams in the last section of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, such as the second and third brahmanam in fifth chapter, append ethical theories, while fourth brahmanam in the fifth chapter asserts that "empirical reality and truth is Brahman".[42] In the fourth brahmanam of sixth chapter, sexual rituals between a husband and wife are described to conceive and celebrate the birth of a child.[43]

Teachings[edit | edit source]

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The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has been an important work in Vedanta and it discusses many early concepts and theories foundational to Hinduism such as karma, Atman-Brahman, the afterlife, etc.[44][45]

Creation[edit | edit source]

The Brihadaranyaka contains various passages which discuss the beginning of the universe and its creation. A key figure in this process is the deity Prajapati, who creates the world through liturgical recitation, priestly sacrifice, dividing up his own body, copulation, giving birth to various devas and demons.[46]

The verse 1.4.1 on the creation states: "in the beginning this world was just a single body (atman) shaped like a man. He looked around and saw nothing but himself."[47] The Brihadaranyaka goes on to state that this single body became afraid and wanted to have a companion, so he split his body into two, made a wife and copulated with her to create all living beings.[47]

Atman[edit | edit source]

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad teaches the theory of atman (the Self), which is the eternal inner reality in a person. It is described by the Brihadaranyaka as follows:

This innermost thing, this self (atman)—it is dearer than a son, it is dearer than wealth, it is dearer than everything else...a man should regard only his self as dear to him. When a man regards only his self as dear to him, what he holds dear will never perish.[48]

This self is also the source of all vital functions:

As a spider sends forth its thread, and as tiny sparks spring forth from a fire, so indeed do all the vital functions (prana), all the worlds, all the gods, and all beings spring from this self (atman). Its hidden name (Upanishad) is 'The real behind the real,' for the real consists of the vital functions, and the self is the real behind the vital functions.[49]

According to the Brihadaranyaka, this self travels through various worlds and takes up a body:

It is this person—the one that consists of perception among the vital functions (prana), the one that is the inner light within the heart. He travels across both worlds, being common to both. Sometimes he reflects, sometimes he flutters, for when he falls asleep he transcends this world, these visible forms of death. When at birth this person takes on a body, he becomes united with bad things, and when at death he leaves it behind, he gets rid of those bad things.[50]

However, this self is not just something individual, since the Brihadaranyaka states:

When a chunk of salt is thrown in water, it dissolves into that very water, and it cannot be picked up in any way. Yet, from whichever place one may take a sip, the salt is there! In the same way this Immense Being has no limit or boundary and is a single mass of perception.[51]

Furthermore, this self which is an imperishable reality and the "radiant and immortal person" in all things, cannot be grasped:

About this self (atman), one can only say 'not—, not—' (neti neti). He is ungraspable, for he cannot be grasped. He is undecaying, for he is not subject to decay. He has nothing sticking to him, for he does not stick to anything. He is not bound; yet he neither trembles in fear nor suffers injury.[52]

And yet, it is only by reflecting on one's atman that one can gain knowledge:

You see, Maitreyi—it is one's self (atman) which one should see and hear, and on which one should reflect and concentrate. For by seeing and hearing one's self, and by reflecting and concentrating on one's self, one gains the knowledge of this whole world.[51]

Brahman and Atman[edit | edit source]

Another term found in the Brihadaranyaka is Brahman, and this is closely associated with the term atman. According to the Brihadaranyaka, "in the beginning this world was only brahman, only one."[53] Then Brahman, which was "not fully developed", created the "ruling power" among the gods and then it also created all the castes (brahmin, ksatriya, vaisya and shudra) as well Dharma.[53]

According to the Brihadaranyaka there are "two visible appearances (rupa) of brahman":<[54]

  • One form has a fixed shape, is mortal, stationary, this refers to the body as well as things in the external world
  • the form other is without a fixed shape, is immortal and in motion. It also refers to "the person within the sun's orb" as well as to "breath and the space within the body". Furthermore, "the visible appearance of this person is like a golden cloth, or white wool, or a red bug, or a flame, or a white lotus, or a sudden flash of lightning."[54]

The Brihadaranyaka also equates the world and Brahman with fullness and space (akasha):[55]

The world there is full; the world here is full; fullness from fullness proceeds. After taking full from the full, it still remains completely full. Brahman is space. The primeval one is space. Space is windy.

According to the Brihadaranyaka, the atman is none other than Brahman itself, the ultimate truth and creative principle of the universe:

This self (atman) is the honey of all beings, and all beings are the honey of this self. The radiant and immortal person in the self and the radiant and immortal person connected with the body (atman)—they are both one's self. It is the immortal; it is brahman; it is the Whole. This very self (atman) is the lord and king of all beings. As all the spokes are fastened to the hub and the rim of a wheel, so to one's self (atman) are fastened all beings, all the gods, all the worlds, all the breaths, and all these bodies (atman).[56]

Yajñavalkya also explains the Brahman with the phrase "the self within all is this self of yours," and this is said to be "the one who is beyond hunger and thirst, sorrow and delusion, old age and death."[57] He also calls the Brahman-Atman the "inner controller, the immortal" which is present in earth, water (and other elements) but is different from them and controls them from within. This self "sees, but he can't be seen; he hears, but he can't be heard; he thinks, but he can't be thought of; he perceives, but he can't be perceived."[58]

The Brihadaranyaka also describes "the highest Brahman" as "the heart," which is "the abode of all beings" and "the foundation of all beings." This brahman in the space of the heart is said to be "the controller of all, the lord of all, the ruler of all," and is not affected or changed by karma (action).[59]

This brahman in the heart, also called Prajapati, is also described in the Brihadaranyaka as follows:

This person here is made of mind and consists of light. Lodged here deep within the heart, he is like a grain of rice or barley; he is the lord of all, the ruler of all! Over this whole world, over all there is, he rules.[60]

Those who know the truth of brahman-atman become "calm, composed, cool, patient, and collected" and are not affected by evil or doubt. The text also states that those who are without desire will go to Brahman after death:

Now, a man who does not desire—who is without desires, who is freed from desires, whose desires are fulfilled, whose only desire is his self—-his vital functions (prana) do not depart. Brahman he is, and to brahman he goes.[61]

Karma[edit | edit source]

One of the earliest formulation of the Karma doctrine occurs in the Brihadaranyaka which states:[44]

'He's made of this. He's made of that.' What a man turns out to be depends on how he acts and on how he conducts himself. If his actions are good, he will turn into something good. If his actions are bad, he will turn into something bad. A man turns into something good by good action and into something bad by bad action. And so people say: 'A person here consists simply of desire.' A man resolves in accordance with his desire, acts in accordance with his resolve, and turns out to be in accordance with his action.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Hymns 4.4.5–4.4.6[62]

Afterlife[edit | edit source]

The text also contains some speculations about the afterlife. In one passage, Yajñavalkya is asked what happens to a man who has died and he states that after death "a man turns into something good by good action (karma) and into something bad by bad action."[63]

The Brihadaranyaka also describes how the atman leaves the body at death and takes up a new life.[64] The text describes the process as follows:

As a caterpillar, when it comes to the tip of a blade of grass, reaches out to a new foothold and draws itself onto it, so the self (atman), after it has knocked down this body and rendered it unconscious, reaches out to a new foothold and draws itself onto it.[65]

Ethics[edit | edit source]

The Brihadaranyaka includes hymns on virtues and ethics.[66][67] In verse 5.2.3 it recommends three virtues: self-restraint (दमः, damah), charity (दानं, daanam), and compassion for all life (दया, daya).[68][69]

तदेतत्त्रयँ शिक्षेद् दमं दानं दयामिति[70]
Learn three cardinal virtues – temperance, charity and compassion for all life.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, V.ii.3, [68][71]

These basic Vedic ethical principles found in the Brihadaranyaka later developed into the more complex yamas (ethical rules) found in various schools of Hinduism.[72][73][74]

Psychology[edit | edit source]

The verses in the Brihadaranyaka contain theories pertaining to psychology and human motivations.[75][76] Verse 1.4.17 describes the desire for progeny as the desire to be born again. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states a behavioral theory that links action to one's nature, suggesting that behavioral habits shape a person:

According as one acts, so does he become.
One becomes virtuous by virtuous action,
bad by bad action.
— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5[77]

Ancient and medieval Indian scholars have referred to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as a foundation for discussing psychological theories, the nature of psyche, and the interactions between body, mind, and Self. For example, Adi Shankara in his commentary on the Brihadaranyaka explains the relation between consciousness, the mind and the body.[78][79]

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserts that the mind creates desire, with its basis rooted in pleasure.[80] It states that the eye is the cause of material wealth, as wealth is created through sight, whereas the ears represent spiritual wealth, as knowledge is shared through listening.[81] In the dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi, husband and wife, the Upanishad suggests that one does not love an object for the sake of the object but for the sake of the subject, which is the Self (the Self of the other person).

Metaphysics[edit | edit source]

Verse 1.3.28 acknowledges that metaphysical statements in the Upanishads are meant to guide the reader from unreality to reality. The metaphysics of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad often presents a kind of non-dualism or monism. For instance, in verse 2.4.13 Yajñavalkya asserts that everything in the universe is the Self. Some passages state that Brahman is the whole:

Clearly, this self is brahman—this self that is made of perception, made of mind, made of sight, made of breath, made of hearing, made of earth, made of water, made of wind, made of space, made of light and the lightless, made of desire and the desireless, made of anger and the angerless, made of the righteous and the unrighteous; this self that is made of everything.[62]

Upanishadic metaphysics is further elucidated in the Madhu-vidya (honey doctrine), where the essence of every object is described to be same to the essence of every other object. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad looks at reality as being indescribable and its nature to be infinite and consciousness-bliss. The cosmic energy is thought to integrate in the microcosm and in the macrocosm as well as the individual and the universe.[82]

Different interpretations[edit | edit source]

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has attracted secondary literature and commentaries (bhasya) from many scholars. In these secondary texts, the same passages have been interpreted in differently by various sub-schools of Vedanta, including Advaita (monism), Dvaita, and Vishistadvaita.[83][84]

The phrase "neti, neti" (not this, not this) is a profound concept found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and it has been interpreted differently by Shankara and Ramanuja. Shankara interprets it as a negation of all empirical attributes and forms. According to Shankara, Brahman (ultimate reality) is beyond all distinctions and is the only true reality, and everything else is an illusion (maya). Ramanuja interprets "neti, neti" not as a complete negation but as an acknowledgment of limitations of human language and conceptualization when describing Brahman. This perspective emphasizes the infinite and glorious nature of the Divine, suggesting that the negation is more about the limitation of our understanding than about Brahman itself.[85]

Popular mantras[edit | edit source]

Pavamāna Mantra[edit | edit source]

Main article: Pavamana Mantra

This is from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.3.28)

असतो मा सद्गमय । Asatō mā sadgamaya
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । tamasō mā jyōtirgamaya
मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय । mr̥tyōrmā amr̥taṁ gamaya
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥ Om śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ
– Br̥hadāraṇyakopaniṣat 1.3.28

Translation:

From untruth lead me to Truth.
From darkness lead me to Light.
From death lead me to Immortality.
Om Peace, Peace, Peace.[86][87]

Editions[edit | edit source]

  • Albrecht Weber, The Çatapatha-Brāhmaṇa in the Mādhyandina-Çākhā, with extracts from the commentaries of Sāyaṇa, Harisvāmin and Dvivedānga, Berlin 1849, reprint Chowkhamba Sanskrit Ser., 96, Varanasi 1964.
  • Willem Caland, The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa in the Kāṇvīya Recension, rev. ed. by Raghu Vira, Lahore 1926, repr. Delhi (1983)
  • Émile Senart, Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad, Belles Lettres (1967) ISBN 2-251-35301-1
  • TITUS online edition (based on both Weber and Caland)
  • Sivananda Saraswati, The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: Sanskrit text, English translation, and commentary. Published by Divine Life Society, 1985.

Translations[edit | edit source]

In literature[edit | edit source]

Poet T. S. Eliot makes use of the story "The Voice of the Thunder" and for the source of "datta, dayadhvam, and damyataTemplate:-" found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Sections of the story appear in his poem The Waste Land under part V "What the Thunder Said".[88]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Olivelle 1998, pp. 11-12.
  2. ↑ Deussen 1980a, p. 23.
  3. ↑ Deussen 1980b, pp. 556-557.
  4. ↑ Jones, Constance (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-0816073368.
  5. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with Adi Shankara's commentary – Swami Madhavananada (Translator)
  6. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanisad with the commentary of Madhvacharya, Translated by Rai Bahadur Sriśa Chandra Vasu (1933); OCLC 222634127.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1
  8. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 10-17.
  9. ↑ Fujii, M. 1997, “On the Formation and Transmission of the Jaiminīya-Upaniṣad-Brāhmaṇa”, Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, ed. M. Witzel, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora, 2], Cambridge, 89–102
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Deussen 1980a, pp. 389-397.
  11. ↑ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 80.
  12. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 399-544.
  13. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 1, Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 5–29
  14. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 1, Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 92–118
  15. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 2 Section IV, Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 347–377
  16. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 425-445.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Deussen 1980a, pp. 437-443.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 2 Section IV, Translator: S Madhavananda, pages 377–404
  19. ↑ Alan Jacobs (1999), The Principal Upanishads: The Essential Philosophical Foundation of Hinduism, Watkins, ISBN 978-1905857081
  20. ↑ Muller 1884, p. 118.
  21. ↑ Varghese, Alexander P. (2008). India: History, Religion, Vision and Contribution to the World. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0903-2.
  22. ↑ www.wisdomlib.org (2015-02-23). "Yajnavalkya and Asvala [Section I]". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 2024-11-17.
  23. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 443-445.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Muller 1884, p. 125.
  25. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 448-449.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Deussen 1980a, pp. 450-464.
  27. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 457-465.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Deussen 1980a, pp. 466-475.
  29. ↑ Kausitaki Upanishad Robert Hume (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 125–127
  30. ↑ Geoffrey Samuel (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521695343, page 8, Quote: such (yogic) practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth or fifth BCE.
  31. ↑ the entire poem equates root to be the atman, Self of a human being
  32. ↑ Self of an individual human being that is One with every human being, everything in Universe, the cosmic Self
  33. ↑ The poem is long, relevant extract in Sanskrit: अन्यतस् अञ्जसा प्रेत्य सम्भवस् | यद् समूलम् उद्वृहेयुर् अवृहेयुर् | वृक्षम्न पुनराभवेत्। मर्त्यस् स्विन् मृत्युना वृक्णस्कस्मान्मूलात्प्ररोहति ॥ ६ ॥ जात एव न जायते | को न्वेनं जनयेत्पुनः | विज्ञानमानन्दं ब्रह्म रातिर्दातुः परायणम्ति ष्ठमानस्य तद्विद इति ॥ ७ ॥; Source: Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Sanskrit Documents, For second archive, see Wikisource
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Deussen 1980a, pp. 475-507.
  35. ↑ Brihadaranyaka 4.2.4 S Madhavananda (Translator), pages 590–592
  36. ↑ Deussen 1980a, p. 482.
  37. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 115.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Muller 1884, p. 161.
  39. ↑ Muller 1884, pp. 185-186.
  40. ↑ Muller 1884, p. 189-190.
  41. ↑ Deussen 1980a, p. 507.
  42. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 509-510.
  43. ↑ Deussen 1980a, pp. 534-544.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Tull, Herman W. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. P. 28
  45. ↑ Hans Torwesten (1994). Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism. Grove. pp. 55–57. ISBN 978-0-8021-3262-8.
  46. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 37-39.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Olivelle 1998, pp. 45-47.
  48. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 49.
  49. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 63-65.
  50. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 111-113.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Olivelle 1998, p. 69.
  52. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 111.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Olivelle 1998, pp. 49-51.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Olivelle 1998, pp. 65-67.
  55. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 133.
  56. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 73.
  57. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 83.
  58. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 87-89.
  59. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 109-125.
  60. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 135.
  61. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 121-127.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Olivelle 1998, p. 121.
  63. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 81.
  64. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 119.
  65. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. 1121.
  66. ↑ S Wesley Ariarajah (1986), "Hindu Spirituality," The Ecumenical Review, 38(1), pages 75–81
  67. ↑ Harold Coward (2003), "Ethics and Nature in the World’s Religions," in Environment across Cultures, Wissenschaftsethik und Technikfolgenbeurteilung, Volume 19, ISBN 978-3642073243, pp 91–109
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5
  69. ↑ Chatterjea, Tara. Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy. Oxford: Lexington Books. p. 148.
  70. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
  71. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Translator: S Madhavananda, page 816, For discussion: pages 814–821
  72. ↑ Āgāśe, K. S. (1904). Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p. 102.
  73. ↑ James Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 9780823931798, page 777
  74. ↑ Kaneda, T. (2008). "Shanti, peacefulness of mind." C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights, ISBN 978-0805856736, Taylor & Francis, pages 171–192
  75. ↑ Aron & Aron (1996), Love and expansion of the self: The state of the model, Personal Relationships, 3(1), pages 45–58
  76. ↑ Masek and Lewandowski (2013), "The self expansion model of motivation and cognition," in The Oxford Handbook of Close Relationships (Editors: Simpson and Campbell), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195398694, page 111
  77. ↑ Four facts of Hinduism
  78. ↑ KR Rao (2005), Perception, cognition and consciousness in classical Hindu psychology. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12(3), pages 3–30
  79. ↑ RH Trowbridge (2011), Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of conceptualizing wisdom in empirical psychology. Research in Human Development, 8(2), pages 149–164
  80. ↑ Radhakrishnan, S. (1953). The Principal Upanishads. George Allen & Unwin. p. 169.
  81. ↑ Swami Madhavananda (1950). The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad with commentary of Sankaracarya.
  82. ↑ "Madhu Vidya". hoopla digital. Retrieved 26 February 2026.
  83. ↑ Wendy Doniger (1988). Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism. Manchester University Press. pp. 39–44. ISBN 978-0-7190-1866-4.
  84. ↑ Madhva (1999). The Principal Upaniṣads: Chandogya-Brihadaranyaka. Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Foundation. pp. i–iv.
  85. ↑ Raghavachar S S (1972). Ramanuja On The Upanishads. pp. 71–73.
  86. ↑ Ancient vedic prayer World Prayers Society (2012)
  87. ↑ Derrett, J. Duncan M. (2009). "An Indian metaphor in St John's Gospel". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 9 (2): 271–86. doi:10.1017/S1356186300011056. JSTOR 25183679. S2CID 163900856.
  88. ↑ Bloom, Harold (2006). T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 58.

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