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{{Short description|Indo-Aryan language of most Indo-Fijians}} | {{Short description|Indo-Aryan language of most Indo-Fijians}} | ||
{{ | {{more citations needed|date=April 2013}} | ||
{{Use British English|date=May 2014}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}} | ||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
| name = Fiji Hindi | | name = Fiji Hindi | ||
| nativename = {{lang|hif|फ़िजी हिंदी | | nativename = {{lang|hif|फ़िजी हिंदी}} | ||
| altname = Fiji Baat | | altname = Fiji Baat | ||
| states = [[Fiji]] | | states = [[Fiji]] | ||
| ethnicity = [[Indo-Fijians]] and the [[Fijian Indian diaspora|Indo-Fijian diaspora]] | | ethnicity = [[Indo-Fijians]] and the [[Fijian Indian diaspora|Indo-Fijian diaspora]] | ||
| speakers = | | speakers = 380,000 | ||
| date = 1991 | | date = 1991 | ||
| ref = e18 | | ref = e18 | ||
| Line 17: | Line 17: | ||
| fam4 = [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Central]] and [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]] | | fam4 = [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Central]] and [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]] | ||
| fam5 = [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Eastern Hindi]] and [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] | | fam5 = [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Eastern Hindi]] and [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] | ||
| fam6 = [[Awadhi]] and [[ | | fam6 = [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Maithili language|Maithili]] | ||
| script = {{unbulleted list | | script = {{unbulleted list | ||
|[[Devanagari]]{{ | |[[Devanagari]] (co-official)<ref name=scriptsource> {{cite web| URL = https://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=language_detail&key=hif |title = Fiji Hindi Language }} </ref> | ||
|[[Latin script|Latin]] | |[[Latin script|Latin]] (co-official)<ref name=scriptsource /> | ||
}} | }} | ||
| | | ancestor = [[Vedic Sanskrit]] | ||
| ancestor2 = [[Sanskrit#Classical Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]] | |||
| ancestor3 = [[Ardhamagadhi Prakrit|Ardhamagadhi]] and [[Magadhi Prakrit]]{{efn|Bhojpuri is descended from Magadhi Prakrit and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Prakrit}} | |||
| ancestor4 = Ardhamagadhi and Magadhan [[Apabhraṃśa]]{{efn|Bhojpuri is descended from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa}} | |||
| | | ancestor5 = [[Abahattha]]{{efn|Only Bhojpuri is descended from Abahattha, not Awadhi. Awadhi comes straight from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa}} | ||
| | | ancestor6 = [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] and [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| dia1 = [[#Status|Pidgin Hindustani]] | | dia1 = [[#Status|Pidgin Hindustani]] | ||
| nation | |nation= | ||
| iso3 = hif | | iso3 = hif | ||
| notice = Indo-Aryan | | notice = Indo-Aryan | ||
| Line 40: | Line 35: | ||
| glotto = fiji1242 | | glotto = fiji1242 | ||
| glottorefname = Fiji Hindi | | glottorefname = Fiji Hindi | ||
| image = | | image = Fiji Hindi.svg | ||
| imagecaption = Fiji Hindi written in the | | imagecaption = Fiji Hindi written in the [[Devanagari]] script | ||
| image_class = skin-invert-image | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Fiji Hindi''' ([[Devanagari]]: | '''Fiji Hindi''' ([[Devanagari]]: फ़िजी हिंदी) is a vernacular [[Eastern Hindi language]] spoken by [[Indo-Fijians]].<ref name="e18" /> It is the mother tongue and indigenous language of Indo-Fijians. It is also looked at as a [[creole language|creole]] or [[koine language|koine]] language {{cn span|based on [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] that has also been subject to considerable influence by other Eastern Hindi languages such as [[Bagheli language|Bagheli]] and [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], by [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]] such as [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Maithili language|Maithili]], and has also been partially influenced by many other languages such as [[English language|English]], [[Fijian language|iTaukei]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Standard Hindi]], [[Standard Urdu]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and [[Malayalam]].|date=March 2026}} Many words unique to Fiji Hindi have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Fijians now live in.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-2018-hindi-travelled-to-these-five-countries-from-india/|title=Hindi Diwas 2018: Hindi travelled to these five countries from India|date=14 September 2020|access-date=14 September 2018|archive-date=29 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229020952/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-2018-hindi-travelled-to-these-five-countries-from-india/|url-status=live}}</ref> First-generation Indo-Fijians in [[Fiji]], who used the language as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in Fiji, referred to it as ''Fiji Baat'', "Fiji talk". | ||
While Fiji Hindi is mutually intelligible with various Eastern Hindi languages, it is also closely related to other variants of Hindustani spoken in the Caribbean (such as [[Sarnámi Hindustáni|Sarnami]]) and Africa (especially in the countries of [[Mauritius]] and [[South Africa]]). | |||
== History == | == History == | ||
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! Language/Dialect !! Number !! Percentage | ! Language/Dialect !! Number !! Percentage | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Bihari languages | |''Bihari languages (Mainly [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Maithili language|Maithili]] as well as [[Magahi]])'' ||17,868 ||39.3% | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Eastern | |''Eastern Indian languages (Mainly [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] as well as [[Bagheli language|Bagheli]] and [[Chhattisgarhi]])'' ||16,871 ||37.1% | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Western | |''Western Indian languages ([[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Bundeli]], [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Haryanvi]], etc.)'' ||6,903 ||15.2% | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Rajasthani | |''Rajasthani languages ([[Marwari language|Marwari]])'' ||1,111 ||2.4% | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Dravidian languages ([[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], etc.)'' ||2,186 ||4.8% | |''Dravidian languages ([[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], etc.)'' ||2,186 ||4.8% | ||
|} | |} | ||
Initially, the majority of [[Girmityas|indentured labourer]]s came to Fiji from [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] and districts of central and eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]], while a small percentage hailed from [[North-West Frontier (military history)|North-West Frontier]] and [[Madras Presidency]] places that are now [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]], [[Odisha]] and [[Telangana]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. | |||
Over time, a distinct [[Indo-Aryan language]] with an [[Eastern Hindi]] [[Substratum (linguistics)|substratum]] developed in [[Fiji]], combining elements of the | Over time, a distinct [[Indo-Aryan language]] with an [[Eastern Hindi]] [[Substratum (linguistics)|substratum]] developed in [[Fiji]], combining elements of the South Asian Languages spoken in these areas with some native Fijian and [[English language|English]]. The development of Fiji Hindi was accelerated by the need for labourers speaking different languages to work together and by the practice of leaving young children in early versions of day-care centers during working hours. Percy Wright, who lived in Fiji during the indenture period, wrote: | ||
{{ | {{Blockquote|Indian children born in Fiji will have a mixed language; there are many different dialects amongst the Indian population, and of course much intercourse with the Fijians. The children pick up a little of each language, and do not know which is the one originally spoken by their parents.<ref>{{cite book |title = Seventy-two years in Australia and the South Pacific|last = Wright|first = Percey|year = 1910|publisher = Mitchell Library|location = Sydney}}</ref>}} | ||
Other writers, including Burton<ref>{{cite book |title= The Fiji of Today|last= Burton|first= John W.|year= 1910|publisher= Charles H. Kelly|location=London }}</ref> (1914) and Lenwood<ref>{{cite book |title=Pastels from the Pacific |url=https://archive.org/details/pastelsfrompaci00lenwgoog |last= Lenwood|first= F.|year= 1917|publisher= Oxford University Press|location=London }}</ref> (1917), made similar observations. By the late 1920s all Fiji Indian children born in Fiji learned Fiji Hindi, which became the common language in Fiji of North and South Indians alike.<ref> | Other writers, including Burton<ref>{{cite book |title= The Fiji of Today|last= Burton|first= John W.|year= 1910|publisher= Charles H. Kelly|location=London }}</ref> (1914) and Lenwood<ref>{{cite book |title=Pastels from the Pacific |url=https://archive.org/details/pastelsfrompaci00lenwgoog |last= Lenwood|first= F.|year= 1917|publisher= Oxford University Press|location=London }}</ref> (1917), made similar observations. By the late 1920s all Fiji Indian children born in Fiji learned Fiji Hindi, which became the common language in Fiji of North and South Indians alike.<ref> | ||
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}} | }} | ||
Later, approximately 15,000 Indian indentured labourers, who were mainly speakers of [[Dravidian languages]] ([[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Kannada]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Gondi language|Gondi]], and [[Kodava people|Kodava]]), were brought from [[South India]]. By this time Fiji Hindi was well established as the lingua franca of Indo-Fijians and the Southern Indian labourers had to learn it to communicate with the more numerous Northern Indians and their European overseers. After the end of the indenture system, Indians who spoke [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] arrived in Fiji as free immigrants. A few Indo-Fijians speak Tamil, Telugu, and Gujarati at home, but all are fluently conversant and able to communicate using Fiji Hindi.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} The census reports of 1956 and 1966 shows the extent to which Fiji Hindi (referred to as 'Hindustani' in the census) was being spoken in Indo-Fijian households. | Later, approximately 15,000 Indian indentured labourers, who were mainly speakers of [[Dravidian languages]] ([[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Kannada]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Gondi language|Gondi]], and [[Kodava people|Kodava]]), were brought from [[South India]]. | ||
By this time Fiji Hindi was well established as the lingua franca of Indo-Fijians and the Southern Indian labourers had to learn it to communicate with the more numerous Northern Indians and their European overseers. | |||
After the end of the indenture system, Indians who spoke [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] arrived in Fiji as free immigrants. A few Indo-Fijians speak Tamil, Telugu, and Gujarati at home, but all are fluently conversant and able to communicate using Fiji Hindi.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} | |||
The census reports of 1956 and 1966 shows the extent to which Fiji Hindi (referred to as 'Hindustani' in the census) was being spoken in Indo-Fijian households. Conversational Fiji Hindi alongside Itaukei are compulsory subjects in all Fijian schools <ref> {{cite web|URL = https://www.fiji.gov.fj/Media-Centre/News/COMPULSORY-TEACHING-OF-VERNACULARS-IN-SCHOOLS-BEGI |title = Compulsory teaching of vernacular begins }} </ref> In addition, students in the Indo-Fijian community also learn Standard Hindi , Urdu and Other Indian languages like Tamil <ref> {{cite web|url = https://www.fijitimes.com.fj/feature-cultural-revival-reviving-tamil-renewing-sangams-spirit/ |title = Tamil language to begin being taught in Fiji }} </ref> | |||
Although in 2020, then Prime Minister of Fiji Frank Bainimarama stated that his government would not force any Hindu organisation to teach Fiji Hindi. This came after some Hindu organisations resisted the governments education policy and continued to teach their students only formal standard Hindi as they viewed Fiji Hindi as a broken language. Prime Minister Bainimarama also stated that he agreed schools should teach formal Hindi even if the students were capable of speaking in Fiji Hindi <ref> {{cite web|url = https://fijivillage.com/news/Govt-will-not-force-any-hindu-organisation-run-school-to-teach-Fiji-Hindi-to-their-students---PM-2rk95s/ |title = Government will not force any Hindu organisation to teach Fiji Hindi to their students}} </ref> | |||
<div align = "center"> | <div align = "center"> | ||
{| class="wikitable" border = 1 width = "60%" | {| class="wikitable" border = 1 width = "60%" | ||
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Following the recent [[Politics of Fiji#Political conditions|political upheaval in Fiji]], many Indo-Fijians have emigrated to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, where they have largely maintained their traditional Indo-Fijian culture, language, and religion.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} | Following the recent [[Politics of Fiji#Political conditions|political upheaval in Fiji]], many Indo-Fijians have emigrated to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, where they have largely maintained their traditional Indo-Fijian culture, language, and religion.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} | ||
Some writers have begun to use Fiji Hindi, until very recently a spoken language only, as a literary language. The Bible has now been translated into Fiji Hindi, and the [[University of the South Pacific]] has recently begun offering courses in the language. It is usually written in the [[Latin script]] though [[Devanāgarī]] has also | Some writers have begun to use Fiji Hindi, until very recently a spoken language only, as a literary language. The Bible has now been translated into Fiji Hindi, and the [[University of the South Pacific]] has recently begun offering courses in the language. It is usually written in the [[Latin script]] though [[Devanāgarī]] has | ||
is also used particularly in signage and education.<ref>{{cite news|title=Academic backs Indo-Fijian 'mother tongue' over formal Hindi|date=5 March 2020|publisher=[[Radio New Zealand|RNZ]]|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/410984/academic-backs-indo-fijian-mother-tongue-over-formal-hindi|access-date=7 May 2021|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505201356/https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/410984/academic-backs-indo-fijian-mother-tongue-over-formal-hindi|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The Hindi variant of Fiji's constitution is written in the [[Devanagari]] script <ref> {{cite web|url = https://www.laws.gov.fj/Home/information/constitutionoftherepublicoffiji |title = Constitution of the Republic of Fiji }} </ref> | |||
A Fiji Hindi movie has also been produced depicting Indo-Fijian life and is based on a play by local playwright, [[Raymond Pillai]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Fiji Hindi film set to be released soon |url=http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/02/09/09Fijilive09.html |publisher=[[Fijilive]] |date=9 February 2007 |access-date=10 July 2007 |archive-date=4 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404020605/http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/02/09/09Fijilive09.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | A Fiji Hindi movie has also been produced depicting Indo-Fijian life and is based on a play by local playwright, [[Raymond Pillai]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Fiji Hindi film set to be released soon |url=http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/02/09/09Fijilive09.html |publisher=[[Fijilive]] |date=9 February 2007 |access-date=10 July 2007 |archive-date=4 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404020605/http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/02/09/09Fijilive09.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
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== Phonology == | == Phonology == | ||
{{See also|Hindi–Urdu phonology}} | {{See also|Hindi–Urdu phonology}} | ||
The [[phoneme]]s of Fiji | The [[phoneme]]s of Fiji Baat are very similar to standardised [[Hindi]] but there are some important distinctions as observed in Eastern Hindi dialects. For example in the [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] spoken in rural [[India]], mainly [[Bihar]] and Eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]] — the [[consonant]] {{IPAslink|ʃ}} is replaced with {{IPAslink|s}} (for example, ''saadi'' instead of ''shaadi'') and {{IPAslink|ʋ}} replaced with {{IPAslink|b}} (for example, ''bid-es'' instead of ''videsh''). There is also a tendency to ignore the differences between the consonants {{IPAslink|pʰ}} and {{IPAslink|f}} (In Fiji Hindi a fruit is ''fal'' instead of ''phal'') and between {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} and {{IPAslink|z}} (in Fiji Hindi land is ''jameen'' instead of ''zameen''). The consonant {{IPAslink|n}} is used in Fiji Hindi for the nasal sounds {{IPAslink|ɳ}} in Standard Hindi/Urdu. These features are common in the [[Eastern Hindi]] dialects.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language transplanted: the development of overseas Hindi |last=Barz |first= Richard K.|author2=Jeff Siegel |year= 1988|publisher= OttoHarrassowitz|location= Wiesbaden|isbn=3-447-02872-6 |page = 127}}</ref> | ||
Some other characteristics of Fiji Hindi which is similar to [[Bhojpuri]] and [[Awadhi]] are: | Some other characteristics of Fiji Hindi which is similar to [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] are: | ||
* Pronunciation of the vowels ''ai'' and ''au'' as diphthongs {{IPA|/ɐɪ ɐʊ/}}, rather than monophthongs {{IPA|/ɛː ɔː/}} (as in standard Hindi). For example, ''bhauji'' (sister-in-law) and ''gaiya'' (cow). | * Pronunciation of the vowels ''ai'' and ''au'' as diphthongs {{IPA|/ɐɪ ɐʊ/}}, rather than monophthongs {{IPA|/ɛː ɔː/}} (as in standard Hindi). For example, ''bhauji'' (sister-in-law) and ''gaiya'' (cow). | ||
* Coda clusters are removed with the use of [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowels. For example, ''dharm'' (religion) is pronounced as ''dharam''. | * Coda clusters are removed with the use of [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowels. For example, ''dharm'' (religion) is pronounced as ''dharam''. | ||
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!Pronoun | !Pronoun | ||
!Fiji Hindi | !Fiji Hindi | ||
!Standard Hindi | !Standard Hindi | ||
|- | |- | ||
| I | | I | ||
| Hum | | Hum | ||
| | | मैं/हम (Mai/Hum) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| You (Informal) | | You (Informal) | ||
| Tum | | Tum | ||
| | | तुम (Tum) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| You (Formal) | | You (Formal) | ||
| Aap | | Aap | ||
| Aap | | आप (Aap) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| We | | We | ||
| Hum log | | Hum log | ||
| Hum | | हम (लोग) (Hum Log) | ||
|} | |} | ||
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====Etymology==== | ====Etymology==== | ||
In Fiji Hindi [[verb]] forms have been influenced by a number of | In Fiji Hindi [[verb]] forms have been influenced by a number of languages in India. First and [[Grammatical person|second person]] forms of verbs in Fiji Hindi are the same. There is no [[Grammatical gender|gender]] distinction and [[Grammatical number|number]] distinction is only in the [[grammatical person|third person]] past tense. Although, gender is used in third person past tense by the usage of "raha" for a male versus "rahi" for a female. | ||
The use of the first and second person [[imperfective]] suffixes ''-taa'', ''-at'' are of [[Awadhi]] origin. | The use of the first and second person [[imperfective]] suffixes ''-taa'', ''-at'' are of [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] origin. | ||
Example: तुम मन्दिर जाता हैं / तुम मन्दिर जात हैं। "tum Mandir jaata hai/tum Mandir jaat hai." (You are going to the Temple). | Example: तुम मन्दिर जाता हैं / तुम मन्दिर जात हैं। "tum Mandir jaata hai/tum Mandir jaat hai." (You are going to the Temple). | ||
While the third person imperfective suffix ''-e'' is of [[Bhojpuri]] origin. | While the third person imperfective suffix ''-e'' is of [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] origin. | ||
Example: ई बिल्ली मच्छरी खावे हैं। "Ee billi macchari KHAWE hai." (This cat is eating a fish). | Example: ई बिल्ली मच्छरी खावे हैं। "Ee billi macchari KHAWE hai." (This cat is eating a fish). | ||
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The origin of the imperative suffix ''-o'' can be traced to the [[Magahi]] dialect. | The origin of the imperative suffix ''-o'' can be traced to the [[Magahi]] dialect. | ||
Example: तुम अपन मुह खोलो। "Tum apan muh | Example: तुम अपन मुह खोलो। "Tum apan muh kholo." (You open your mouth). Spoken in the [[Gaya district|Gaya]] and [[Patna]] districts, which provided a sizeable proportion of the first [[indenture]]d labourers from Northern India to Fiji. | ||
Fiji Hindi has developed its own polite imperative suffix ''-naa''. | Fiji Hindi has developed its own polite imperative suffix ''-naa''. | ||
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==== Tenses ==== | ==== Tenses ==== | ||
Fiji Hindi tenses are relatively similar to tenses in [[Standard Hindi]]. Bhojpuri and Awadhi influence the Fiji Hindi tenses. | Fiji Hindi tenses are relatively similar to tenses in [[Standard Hindi]] & [[Standard Urdu]]. Bhojpuri and Awadhi influence the Fiji Hindi tenses. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!Sentence | !Sentence | ||
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* There is no definite article ("the") in Fiji Hindi, but definite nouns can be made by adding the suffix ''wa''; for example, ''larrka'' (a boy) and ''larrkwa'' (the boy). Definite nouns are also created using the suffix "kana"; for example, ''chhota'' (small) and ''chhotkana'' (the small one). Another way of indicating a definite article is by the use of pronouns: ''ii'' (this), ''uu'' (that) and ''wahii'' (the same one).{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} | * There is no definite article ("the") in Fiji Hindi, but definite nouns can be made by adding the suffix ''wa''; for example, ''larrka'' (a boy) and ''larrkwa'' (the boy). Definite nouns are also created using the suffix "kana"; for example, ''chhota'' (small) and ''chhotkana'' (the small one). Another way of indicating a definite article is by the use of pronouns: ''ii'' (this), ''uu'' (that) and ''wahii'' (the same one).{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} | ||
== Fijian | == Fijian words used == | ||
Indo-Fijians now use | Indo-Fijians now use Fijian words for those things that were not found in their ancestral India but which existed in Fiji. These include most fish names and root crops. For example, ''kanade'' for [[mullet (fish)]] and ''kumaala'' for [[sweet potato]] or yam. Other examples are: | ||
{| class="wikitable" align="center" border="2" | {| class="wikitable" align="center" border="2" | ||
! colspan="2" |Fiji Hindi | ! colspan="2" |Fiji Hindi | ||
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| marama ||{{Lang|hif|मरामा}}|| marama || wife | | marama ||{{Lang|hif|मरामा}}|| marama || wife | ||
|} | |} | ||
== Words derived from English == | == Words derived from English == | ||
Many English words have also been | Many English words have also been implemented into Fiji Hindi with sound changes to fit the Indo-Fijian pronunciation. For example, ''[[Wiktionary:hutel|hutel]]'' in Fiji Hindi is borrowed from hotel in English. Some words borrowed from English have a specialised meaning, for example, ''[[Wiktionary:garaund|garaund]]'' in Fiji Hindi means a playing field, ''[[Wiktionary:geng|geng]]'' in Fiji Hindi means a "work gang", particularly a cane-cutting gang in the sugar cane growing districts and ''[[Wiktionary:tichaa|tichaa]]'' in Fiji Hindi specifically means a female teacher. There are also unique Fijian Hindi words created from English words, for example, ''[[Wiktionary:kantaap|kantaap]]'' taken from cane-top means slap or associated with beating. | ||
== Semantic shifts == | == Semantic shifts == | ||
=== Indian languages === | === Indian languages === | ||
Many words of Hindustani origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi. These are due to either innovations in Fiji or continued use of the old meaning in Fiji Hindi when the word is either not used in Standard Hindi anymore or has evolved a different meaning altogether.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barz |first=Richard |author2=Jeff Siegel |title=Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi |year=1988 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=3-447-02872-6 }}</ref> Some examples are: | Many words of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi. These are due to either innovations in Fiji or continued use of the old meaning in Fiji Hindi when the word is either not used in Standard Hindi/Urdu anymore or has evolved a different meaning altogether.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barz |first=Richard |author2=Jeff Siegel |title=Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi |year=1988 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=3-447-02872-6 }}</ref> Some examples are: | ||
{|class="wikitable" | {|class="wikitable" | ||
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Though broadly based on standard Hindi, counting in Fiji Hindi reflects a number of cross-language and dialectal influences acquired in the past 125 years. | Though broadly based on standard Hindi, counting in Fiji Hindi reflects a number of cross-language and dialectal influences acquired in the past 125 years. | ||
The pronunciation for numbers between one and ten show slight inflections, seemingly inspired by Eastern Hindi | The pronunciation for numbers between one and ten show slight inflections, seemingly inspired by Eastern Hindi languages such as Awadhi. The number two, consequently, is {{Lang|hi|दो}} ({{IAST|do}}) in standard Hindi/Urdu, while in Fiji Hindi it is ''dui'' ({{Lang|hif|दुइ}}), just as it is in Awadhi, Bhojpuri & Nepali. | ||
Words for numbers between 10 and 99 present a significant difference between standard and Fiji Hindi. While, as in other | Words for numbers between 10 and 99 present a significant difference between standard and Fiji Hindi. While, as in other Indo-Aryan languages, words for [[b:Hindi/Numbers|numbers in standard Hindustani]] are formed by mentioning units first and then multiples of ten, Fiji Hindi reverses the order and mentions the tens multiple first and the units next, as is the practice in many European and South-Indian languages. That is to say, while "twenty-one" in Standard Hindi/Urdu is ({{IAST|ikkīs}}), an internal [[sandhi]] of ''ek aur biis'', or "one-and-twenty", in Fiji Hindi the order would be reversed, and simply be ''biis aur ek'', without any additional morpho-phonological alteration. Similarly, while the number thirty-seven in standard Hindi/Urdu is ({{IAST|saintīs}}), for ''saat aur tiis'' or "seven-and-thirty", the number would be ''tiis aur saat'', or 'thirty-and-seven' in Fiji Hindi. | ||
Additionally, powers of ten beyond ten thousand, such as ''[[lakh]]'' (100,000) and ''[[crore]]'' (10 million), are not used in Fiji Hindi.{{ | Additionally, powers of ten beyond ten thousand, such as ''[[lakh]]'' (100,000) and ''[[crore]]'' (10 million), are not used in Fiji Hindi.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!Numeral | !Numeral | ||
! English!!Hindi!!Fiji Hindi | ! English!!Hindi/Urdu!!Fiji Hindi | ||
|- | |- | ||
|21 | |21 | ||
|twenty-one|| | |twenty-one|| ({{IAST|ikkīs}})||bis aur ek | ||
|- | |- | ||
|22 | |22 | ||
|twenty-two|| | |twenty-two|| ({{IAST|bāīs}})||bis aur dui | ||
|- | |- | ||
|23 | |23 | ||
|twenty-three|| | |twenty-three|| ({{IAST|teīs}})||bis aur teen | ||
|- | |- | ||
|31 | |31 | ||
|thirty-one|| | |thirty-one|| ({{IAST|ikattīs}})||tiis aur ek | ||
|- | |- | ||
|32 | |32 | ||
|thirty-two|| | |thirty-two|| ({{IAST|battīs}})||tiis aur dui | ||
|- | |- | ||
|33 | |33 | ||
|thirty-three|| | |thirty-three|| ({{IAST|taintīs}})||tiis aur teen | ||
|- | |- | ||
|41 | |41 | ||
|forty-one|| | |forty-one||({{IAST|iktālīs}})||chaalis aur ek | ||
|- | |- | ||
|42 | |42 | ||
|forty-two|| | |forty-two||({{IAST|bayālīs}})||chaalis aur dui | ||
|- | |- | ||
|43 | |43 | ||
|forty-three|| | |forty-three||({{IAST|taintālīs}})||chaalis aur teen | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 414: | Line 426: | ||
* '''[[Jeff Siegel]]''', in his thesis on ''Plantation languages in Fiji'' (1985), has written a detailed account of the development of Fiji Hindi and its different forms as used by Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians. Earlier, Siegel had written a quick reference guide called ''Say it in Fiji Hindi'' (1976). | * '''[[Jeff Siegel]]''', in his thesis on ''Plantation languages in Fiji'' (1985), has written a detailed account of the development of Fiji Hindi and its different forms as used by Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians. Earlier, Siegel had written a quick reference guide called ''Say it in Fiji Hindi'' (1976). | ||
* '''Raman Subramani''', professor in literature at the [[University of the South Pacific]], who wrote the first Fiji Hindi novel, ''Duaka Puraan'' ([[Devanagari]]: डउका पुरान, 2001), which is the story of Fiji Lal (an old villager) as told by him to a visiting scholar to his village. The book is written in the style of the ''[[Puranas|Puraans]]'' (sacred texts) but in a humorous way. He received a Government of India award for his contribution to Hindi language and literature for this novel. In June 2003, in Suriname at the Seventh World Hindi Conference, Professor Subramani was presented with a special award for this novel. | * '''Raman Subramani''', professor in literature at the [[University of the South Pacific]], who wrote the first Fiji Hindi novel, ''Duaka Puraan'' ([[Devanagari]]: डउका पुरान, 2001), which is the story of Fiji Lal (an old villager) as told by him to a visiting scholar to his village. The book is written in the style of the ''[[Puranas|Puraans]]'' (sacred texts) but in a humorous way. He received a Government of India award for his contribution to Hindi language and literature for this novel. In June 2003, in Suriname at the Seventh World Hindi Conference, Professor Subramani was presented with a special award for this novel. | ||
* | * [[Vimal Reddy]] wrote the story for the first Fiji Hindi movie, ''Adhura Sapna'' (Devanagari: अधूरा सपना, "Incomplete Dream"), produced in 2007. | ||
* '''[[Urmila Prasad]]''', who helped translate the Biblical Gospels of Mark, Luke, Matthew and John into Fiji Hindi, written using Roman script, known as ''Susamaachaar Aur Romiyo'' (2002)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/51759/bible-using-fiji-hindi-sparks-debate|title=Bible using 'Fiji Hindi' sparks debate|date=9 August 2002|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|access-date=7 May 2021|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507053210/https://www.dawn.com/news/51759/bible-using-fiji-hindi-sparks-debate|url-status=live}}</ref> | * '''[[Urmila Prasad]]''', who helped translate the Biblical Gospels of Mark, Luke, Matthew and John into Fiji Hindi, written using Roman script, known as ''Susamaachaar Aur Romiyo'' (2002)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/51759/bible-using-fiji-hindi-sparks-debate|title=Bible using 'Fiji Hindi' sparks debate|date=9 August 2002|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|access-date=7 May 2021|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507053210/https://www.dawn.com/news/51759/bible-using-fiji-hindi-sparks-debate|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| Line 421: | Line 433: | ||
* [[Hindustani language]] | * [[Hindustani language]] | ||
* [[Caribbean Hindustani]], a similar language developed under similar conditions in the Caribbean | * [[Caribbean Hindustani]], a similar language developed under similar conditions in the Caribbean | ||
* [[ | * [[Surinamese Hindustani]], spoken by people of Indian origin in [[Suriname]]. | ||
* [[Mauritian Bhojpuri]], spoken by descendants of Girmityas in Mauritius. This is more like [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] because Mauritius' Indian population contains a larger number of those whose | * [[Mauritian Bhojpuri]], spoken by descendants of Girmityas in Mauritius. This is more like [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] because Mauritius' Indian population contains a larger number of those whose forefathers came from the Bhojpuri speaking districts of [[India]]. | ||
* [[Fiji Hindi films]], a few Fiji Hindi films became popular in the last decade, including Adhura Sapna, Ghar Pardes, [[Langha Phobia]]. | |||
== Footnotes == | == Footnotes == | ||
{{notelist}} | {{notelist}} | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| Line 440: | Line 452: | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
{{InterWiki|code=hif}} | {{InterWiki|code=hif}} | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080308065956/http://www.geocities.com/fijihindi/FijiHindiEnglishDict.htm Fiji Hindi Dictionary] | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080308065956/http://www.geocities.com/fijihindi/FijiHindiEnglishDict.htm Fiji Hindi Dictionary] (archived) | ||
* [http://www.sidsnet.org/pacific/usp/journ/docs/news/wansolnews/wansol0711011.html The first novel written in Fiji Hindi] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20070927015408/http://www.sidsnet.org/pacific/usp/journ/docs/news/wansolnews/wansol0711011.html | * [http://www.sidsnet.org/pacific/usp/journ/docs/news/wansolnews/wansol0711011.html The first novel written in Fiji Hindi] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20070927015408/http://www.sidsnet.org/pacific/usp/journ/docs/news/wansolnews/wansol0711011.html archived]) | ||
* [http://www.biblesociety.org/wr_370/370_04.htm Fiji Hindi version of the Gospels and Romans] | * [http://www.biblesociety.org/wr_370/370_04.htm Fiji Hindi version of the Gospels and Romans] | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080218032929/http://www.adhurasapna.com/ Adhura Sapna | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080218032929/http://www.adhurasapna.com/ Adhura Sapna – Movie in Fiji Hindi] (archived) | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090704134049/http://www.gharpardes.com/ Ghar Pardes | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090704134049/http://www.gharpardes.com/ Ghar Pardes – Another movie in Fiji Hindi, 2009] (archived) | ||
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WA2qgwUK5VY&NR=1 Trailer of Ghar Pardes] | * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WA2qgwUK5VY&NR=1 Trailer of Ghar Pardes] | ||
* [http://hi.wiktionary.org/wiki/Fiji_Hindi_to_Hindi_Dictionary Fiji Hindi-to-Hindi Dictionary] | * [http://hi.wiktionary.org/wiki/Fiji_Hindi_to_Hindi_Dictionary Fiji Hindi-to-Hindi Dictionary] | ||
* [https://archive.today/20121208214721/http://myfijiguide.com/about-fiji/local-languages/popular-hindi-phrases.aspx MyFijiGuide.com] | * [https://archive.today/20121208214721/http://myfijiguide.com/about-fiji/local-languages/popular-hindi-phrases.aspx MyFijiGuide.com] (archived) | ||
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Index:Fiji_Hindi Fiji Hindi words on Wiktionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223220835/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Index:Fiji_Hindi |date=23 December 2020 }} | * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Index:Fiji_Hindi Fiji Hindi words on Wiktionary]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223220835/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Index:Fiji_Hindi |date=23 December 2020 }}. | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029135122/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?ref=archive&id=168939 Texan talks the talk (archived) | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029135122/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?ref=archive&id=168939 Texan talks the talk] (archived) | ||
*[[iarchive:fiji-hindi-a-basic-course-and-reference-grammar-by-rodney-f.-moag-z-lib.org|Fiji Hindi: A basic course and reference grammar.]] | *[[iarchive:fiji-hindi-a-basic-course-and-reference-grammar-by-rodney-f.-moag-z-lib.org|Fiji Hindi: A basic course and reference grammar.]] | ||
| Line 461: | Line 473: | ||
[[Category:Languages of the Indian diaspora]] | [[Category:Languages of the Indian diaspora]] | ||
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Fiji]] | [[Category:Indian diaspora in Fiji]] | ||
[[Category:Fusional languages]] | |||
[[Category:Awadhi language]] | [[Category:Awadhi language]] | ||
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]] | [[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]] | ||
Latest revision as of 20:54, 29 March 2026
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2013) |
| Fiji Hindi | |
|---|---|
| Fiji Baat | |
| फ़िजी हिंदी | |
 Fiji Hindi written in the Devanagari script | |
| Native to | Fiji |
| Ethnicity | Indo-Fijians and the Indo-Fijian diaspora |
Native speakers | (380,000 cited 1991)[1] |
Early forms | Vedic Sanskrit
|
| Dialects | |
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | hif |
| Glottolog | fiji1242 |
| Linguasphere | 59-AAF-raf |
Fiji Hindi (Devanagari: फ़िजी हिंदी) is a vernacular Eastern Hindi language spoken by Indo-Fijians.[1] It is the mother tongue and indigenous language of Indo-Fijians. It is also looked at as a creole or koine language Template:Cn span Many words unique to Fiji Hindi have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Fijians now live in.[3] First-generation Indo-Fijians in Fiji, who used the language as a lingua franca in Fiji, referred to it as Fiji Baat, "Fiji talk".
While Fiji Hindi is mutually intelligible with various Eastern Hindi languages, it is also closely related to other variants of Hindustani spoken in the Caribbean (such as Sarnami) and Africa (especially in the countries of Mauritius and South Africa).
History[edit | edit source]
These are the percentages of each language and dialect spoken by indentured labourers who came to Fiji.
| Language/Dialect | Number | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Bihari languages (Mainly Bhojpuri and Maithili as well as Magahi) | 17,868 | 39.3% |
| Eastern Indian languages (Mainly Awadhi as well as Bagheli and Chhattisgarhi) | 16,871 | 37.1% |
| Western Indian languages (Hindustani, Bundeli, Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, etc.) | 6,903 | 15.2% |
| Rajasthani languages (Marwari) | 1,111 | 2.4% |
| Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, etc.) | 2,186 | 4.8% |
Initially, the majority of indentured labourers came to Fiji from Bengal and districts of central and eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, while a small percentage hailed from North-West Frontier and Madras Presidency places that are now Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Odisha and Telangana in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Over time, a distinct Indo-Aryan language with an Eastern Hindi substratum developed in Fiji, combining elements of the South Asian Languages spoken in these areas with some native Fijian and English. The development of Fiji Hindi was accelerated by the need for labourers speaking different languages to work together and by the practice of leaving young children in early versions of day-care centers during working hours. Percy Wright, who lived in Fiji during the indenture period, wrote:
Indian children born in Fiji will have a mixed language; there are many different dialects amongst the Indian population, and of course much intercourse with the Fijians. The children pick up a little of each language, and do not know which is the one originally spoken by their parents.[4]
Other writers, including Burton[5] (1914) and Lenwood[6] (1917), made similar observations. By the late 1920s all Fiji Indian children born in Fiji learned Fiji Hindi, which became the common language in Fiji of North and South Indians alike.[7]
Status[edit | edit source]
| Pidgin Hindustani | |
|---|---|
Fiji Hindi-based pidgin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | None (mis) |
| Glottolog | pidg1251 |
Later, approximately 15,000 Indian indentured labourers, who were mainly speakers of Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Tulu, Gondi, and Kodava), were brought from South India.
By this time Fiji Hindi was well established as the lingua franca of Indo-Fijians and the Southern Indian labourers had to learn it to communicate with the more numerous Northern Indians and their European overseers.
After the end of the indenture system, Indians who spoke Gujarati and Punjabi arrived in Fiji as free immigrants. A few Indo-Fijians speak Tamil, Telugu, and Gujarati at home, but all are fluently conversant and able to communicate using Fiji Hindi.[citation needed]
The census reports of 1956 and 1966 shows the extent to which Fiji Hindi (referred to as 'Hindustani' in the census) was being spoken in Indo-Fijian households. Conversational Fiji Hindi alongside Itaukei are compulsory subjects in all Fijian schools [8] In addition, students in the Indo-Fijian community also learn Standard Hindi , Urdu and Other Indian languages like Tamil [9]
Although in 2020, then Prime Minister of Fiji Frank Bainimarama stated that his government would not force any Hindu organisation to teach Fiji Hindi. This came after some Hindu organisations resisted the governments education policy and continued to teach their students only formal standard Hindi as they viewed Fiji Hindi as a broken language. Prime Minister Bainimarama also stated that he agreed schools should teach formal Hindi even if the students were capable of speaking in Fiji Hindi [10]
| Language | Number of households in 1956 | Number of households in 1966 |
|---|---|---|
| Fijian Hindustani | 17,164 | 30,726 |
| Hindi | 3,644 | 783 |
| Tamil | 1,498 | 999 |
| Urdu | 1,233 | 534 |
| Gujarati | 830 | 930 |
| Telugu | 797 | 301 |
| Punjabi | 468 | 175 |
| Malayalam | 134 | 47 |
| Other | 90 | 359 |
Fiji Hindi is also understood and even spoken by Indigenous Fijians in areas of Fiji where there are large Indo-Fijian communities. A pidgin form of the language is used by rural ethnic Fijians, as well as Chinese on the islands, while Pidgin Fijian is spoken by Indo-Fijians.
Following the recent political upheaval in Fiji, many Indo-Fijians have emigrated to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, where they have largely maintained their traditional Indo-Fijian culture, language, and religion.[citation needed]
Some writers have begun to use Fiji Hindi, until very recently a spoken language only, as a literary language. The Bible has now been translated into Fiji Hindi, and the University of the South Pacific has recently begun offering courses in the language. It is usually written in the Latin script though Devanāgarī has is also used particularly in signage and education.[11]
The Hindi variant of Fiji's constitution is written in the Devanagari script [12]
A Fiji Hindi movie has also been produced depicting Indo-Fijian life and is based on a play by local playwright, Raymond Pillai.[13]
Phonology[edit | edit source]
The phonemes of Fiji Baat are very similar to standardised Hindi but there are some important distinctions as observed in Eastern Hindi dialects. For example in the Bhojpuri and Awadhi spoken in rural India, mainly Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh — the consonant /ʃ/ is replaced with /s/ (for example, saadi instead of shaadi) and /ʋ/ replaced with /b/ (for example, bid-es instead of videsh). There is also a tendency to ignore the differences between the consonants /pʰ/ and /f/ (In Fiji Hindi a fruit is fal instead of phal) and between /d͡ʒ/ and /z/ (in Fiji Hindi land is jameen instead of zameen). The consonant /n/ is used in Fiji Hindi for the nasal sounds /ɳ/ in Standard Hindi/Urdu. These features are common in the Eastern Hindi dialects.[14] Some other characteristics of Fiji Hindi which is similar to Bhojpuri and Awadhi are:
- Pronunciation of the vowels ai and au as diphthongs /ɐɪ ɐʊ/, rather than monophthongs /ɛː ɔː/ (as in standard Hindi). For example, bhauji (sister-in-law) and gaiya (cow).
- Coda clusters are removed with the use of epenthetic vowels. For example, dharm (religion) is pronounced as dharam.
- Shortening of long vowels before a stressed syllable. For example, Raajen (a common name) is pronounced as Rajen.[15]
Pronouns[edit | edit source]
| Pronoun | Fiji Hindi | Standard Hindi |
|---|---|---|
| I | Hum | मैं/हम (Mai/Hum) |
| You (Informal) | Tum | तुम (Tum) |
| You (Formal) | Aap | आप (Aap) |
| We | Hum log | हम (लोग) (Hum Log) |
Morphology[edit | edit source]
Verb[edit | edit source]
Etymology[edit | edit source]
In Fiji Hindi verb forms have been influenced by a number of languages in India. First and second person forms of verbs in Fiji Hindi are the same. There is no gender distinction and number distinction is only in the third person past tense. Although, gender is used in third person past tense by the usage of "raha" for a male versus "rahi" for a female.
The use of the first and second person imperfective suffixes -taa, -at are of Awadhi origin. Example: तुम मन्दिर जाता हैं / तुम मन्दिर जात हैं। "tum Mandir jaata hai/tum Mandir jaat hai." (You are going to the Temple).
While the third person imperfective suffix -e is of Bhojpuri origin. Example: ई बिल्ली मच्छरी खावे हैं। "Ee billi macchari KHAWE hai." (This cat is eating a fish).
The third person perfective suffixes (for transitive verbs) -is and -in are also derived from Awadhi. Example: किसान गन्ना काटीस रहा। "Kisaan ganna katees raha." (The farmer cut the sugarcane). पण्डित लोगन रामायण पढ़ीन रहा/पण्डित लोगन रामायण पढ़े रहीन। "Pandit logan Ramayan padheen raha/padhe raheen." (The priests read the Ramayana).
The third person definite future suffix -ii is found in both Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Example: प्रधानमंत्री हमलोग के पैसा दई। "Pradhanamantri humlog ke paisa daii" (The prime minister will give us money).
The influence of Hindustani is evident in the first and second person perfective suffix -aa and the first and second person future suffix -ega. Example: हम करा। तुम करेगा। "Hum karaa, tum karega." (I did, you will do).
The origin of the imperative suffix -o can be traced to the Magahi dialect. Example: तुम अपन मुह खोलो। "Tum apan muh kholo." (You open your mouth). Spoken in the Gaya and Patna districts, which provided a sizeable proportion of the first indentured labourers from Northern India to Fiji.
Fiji Hindi has developed its own polite imperative suffix -naa. Example: आप घर के सफा कर लेना। "Aap ghar ke sapha kar Lena." (You clean the house (polite)).
The suffix -be, from Bhojpuri, is used in Fiji Hindi in emphatic sentences.
Another suffix originating from Awadhi is -it. Example: ई लोगन पानी काहे नहीं पीत हैं। "Ee logan paani kahey nahi peet hai." (Why aren't these people drinking water?), but is at present going out of use.[citation needed]
Tenses[edit | edit source]
Fiji Hindi tenses are relatively similar to tenses in Standard Hindi & Standard Urdu. Bhojpuri and Awadhi influence the Fiji Hindi tenses.
| Sentence | Fiji Hindi | Standard Hindi |
|---|---|---|
| To come | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| Come! | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (I) am coming | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (I) came | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (I) will come | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (I) was coming | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (I) used to play | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (He/she/they) is/are coming | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (He/she) came | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
| (They) came | Template:Fs interlinear | Template:Fs interlinear |
Grammatical features[edit | edit source]
- Fiji Hindi does not have plurals. For example, one house is ek gharr and two houses is dui gharr. In this example, the number is used to denote plurality. Plurals can also be stated with the use of log. For example, ee means "this person" (singular) and ee log means "these people" (plural). Sabb (all) and dHerr (many) are also used to denote plural. There are some exceptions, however. For example, a boy is larrka (single) but boys are larrkan (plural). Older generations still use a similar form of plural, for example, admian, for more than one man (singular: admi).[citation needed]
- There is no definite article ("the") in Fiji Hindi, but definite nouns can be made by adding the suffix wa; for example, larrka (a boy) and larrkwa (the boy). Definite nouns are also created using the suffix "kana"; for example, chhota (small) and chhotkana (the small one). Another way of indicating a definite article is by the use of pronouns: ii (this), uu (that) and wahii (the same one).[citation needed]
Fijian words used[edit | edit source]
Indo-Fijians now use Fijian words for those things that were not found in their ancestral India but which existed in Fiji. These include most fish names and root crops. For example, kanade for mullet (fish) and kumaala for sweet potato or yam. Other examples are:
| Fiji Hindi | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Latin Script | Devanāgarī Script | Fijian origin | Meaning |
| nangona | नंगोना | yaqona | kava |
| tabale | तबाले | tavale | wife's brother |
| bilo | बिलो | bilo | cup made of coconut, used to drink kava |
| marama | मरामा | marama | wife |
Words derived from English[edit | edit source]
Many English words have also been implemented into Fiji Hindi with sound changes to fit the Indo-Fijian pronunciation. For example, hutel in Fiji Hindi is borrowed from hotel in English. Some words borrowed from English have a specialised meaning, for example, garaund in Fiji Hindi means a playing field, geng in Fiji Hindi means a "work gang", particularly a cane-cutting gang in the sugar cane growing districts and tichaa in Fiji Hindi specifically means a female teacher. There are also unique Fijian Hindi words created from English words, for example, kantaap taken from cane-top means slap or associated with beating.
Semantic shifts[edit | edit source]
Indian languages[edit | edit source]
Many words of Hindustani origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi. These are due to either innovations in Fiji or continued use of the old meaning in Fiji Hindi when the word is either not used in Standard Hindi/Urdu anymore or has evolved a different meaning altogether.[16] Some examples are:
| Fiji Hindi word | Fiji Hindi meaning | Original Hindustani meaning |
|---|---|---|
| baade | flood | flooding |
| bekaar | bad, not good, useless | unemployed, nothing to do, or useless |
| bhagao | elope | abduct |
| bigha | acre | 1 bigha = 1600 square yards or 0.1338 hectare or 0.3306-acre (1,338 m2) |
| bihaan | tomorrow | tomorrow morning (Bhojpuri) |
| Bombaiyaa | Marathi/Gujaratis (Indians) | from what is today the former Bombay Presidency |
| fokatiyaa | useless | bankrupt |
| gap | lie | gossip, idle talk, chit chat |
| jaati | race | caste (more often misused/misunderstood as a term to reference a native Fijian) |
| jhaap | shed | temporarily built shed |
| jor | fast, quick | force, strength, exertion |
| juluum | beautiful | tyranny, difficulty, amazing (Hindustani zalim, meaning "cruel", is metaphorically used for a beautiful object of affection) |
| kal | yesterday | yesterday or tomorrow |
| kamaanii | small spear (for prawns) | wire, spring |
| khassi | male goat | castrated animal |
| konchij | what | from kaun chij (Awadhi), literally meaning what thing or what stuff |
| maalik | god | employer/owner or god |
| Mandaraaji | South Indian | original word, Madraasi, meant "from Madras (or Tamil Nadu)" |
| palla | door | shutter |
| Punjabi | Sikh | native of Punjab, regardless of religion |
English[edit | edit source]
Many words of English origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi.
| English word | Fiji Hindi meaning |
|---|---|
| purse | wallet |
| theatre | cinema |
| teacher | female teacher |
| engine | locomotive (in addition to usual vehicle/boat engines) |
| pipe | tap (faucet) (in addition to artificially made tubes) |
| cabbage | Chinese cabbage or bok choy |
| set | everything is ok (used as a statement or question) |
| right | ok (used as a statement) |
Counting[edit | edit source]
Though broadly based on standard Hindi, counting in Fiji Hindi reflects a number of cross-language and dialectal influences acquired in the past 125 years.
The pronunciation for numbers between one and ten show slight inflections, seemingly inspired by Eastern Hindi languages such as Awadhi. The number two, consequently, is दो (do) in standard Hindi/Urdu, while in Fiji Hindi it is dui (दुइ), just as it is in Awadhi, Bhojpuri & Nepali.
Words for numbers between 10 and 99 present a significant difference between standard and Fiji Hindi. While, as in other Indo-Aryan languages, words for numbers in standard Hindustani are formed by mentioning units first and then multiples of ten, Fiji Hindi reverses the order and mentions the tens multiple first and the units next, as is the practice in many European and South-Indian languages. That is to say, while "twenty-one" in Standard Hindi/Urdu is (ikkīs), an internal sandhi of ek aur biis, or "one-and-twenty", in Fiji Hindi the order would be reversed, and simply be biis aur ek, without any additional morpho-phonological alteration. Similarly, while the number thirty-seven in standard Hindi/Urdu is (saintīs), for saat aur tiis or "seven-and-thirty", the number would be tiis aur saat, or 'thirty-and-seven' in Fiji Hindi.
Additionally, powers of ten beyond ten thousand, such as lakh (100,000) and crore (10 million), are not used in Fiji Hindi.[citation needed]
| Numeral | English | Hindi/Urdu | Fiji Hindi |
|---|---|---|---|
| 21 | twenty-one | (ikkīs) | bis aur ek |
| 22 | twenty-two | (bāīs) | bis aur dui |
| 23 | twenty-three | (teīs) | bis aur teen |
| 31 | thirty-one | (ikattīs) | tiis aur ek |
| 32 | thirty-two | (battīs) | tiis aur dui |
| 33 | thirty-three | (taintīs) | tiis aur teen |
| 41 | forty-one | (iktālīs) | chaalis aur ek |
| 42 | forty-two | (bayālīs) | chaalis aur dui |
| 43 | forty-three | (taintālīs) | chaalis aur teen |
Spread overseas[edit | edit source]
With political upheavals in Fiji, beginning with the first military coup in 1987, large numbers of Indo-Fijians have since migrated overseas and at present there are significant communities of Indo-Fijian expatriates in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States. Smaller communities also reside on other Pacific Islands and Britain. The last census in each of the countries where Fiji Hindi is spoken (counting Indo-Fijians who were born in Fiji) provides the following figures:
| Country | Number of Fiji-born Indo-Fijians |
|---|---|
| Fiji | 313,798[17] |
| New Zealand | 27,882[18] |
| Australia | 27,542[19] |
| United States | 24,345[20] |
| Canada | 22,770[21] |
| Tonga | 310[22] |
Writers[edit | edit source]
- Rodney F. Moag, who had lived in India before joining the University of the South Pacific as a lecturer. He analysed Fiji Hindi and concluded that it was a unique language with its own distinct grammar, rather than "broken Hindi", as it had been previously referred to. Moag documented his findings and wrote lessons using the Fijian Hindi dialect in the book, Fiji Hindi: a basic course and reference grammar (1977).
- Jeff Siegel, in his thesis on Plantation languages in Fiji (1985), has written a detailed account of the development of Fiji Hindi and its different forms as used by Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians. Earlier, Siegel had written a quick reference guide called Say it in Fiji Hindi (1976).
- Raman Subramani, professor in literature at the University of the South Pacific, who wrote the first Fiji Hindi novel, Duaka Puraan (Devanagari: डउका पुरान, 2001), which is the story of Fiji Lal (an old villager) as told by him to a visiting scholar to his village. The book is written in the style of the Puraans (sacred texts) but in a humorous way. He received a Government of India award for his contribution to Hindi language and literature for this novel. In June 2003, in Suriname at the Seventh World Hindi Conference, Professor Subramani was presented with a special award for this novel.
- Vimal Reddy wrote the story for the first Fiji Hindi movie, Adhura Sapna (Devanagari: अधूरा सपना, "Incomplete Dream"), produced in 2007.
- Urmila Prasad, who helped translate the Biblical Gospels of Mark, Luke, Matthew and John into Fiji Hindi, written using Roman script, known as Susamaachaar Aur Romiyo (2002)[23]
See also[edit | edit source]
- Girmityas, the descendants of late 18th and early 19th century labourers who were brought or emigrated to Fiji from India
- Hindustani language
- Caribbean Hindustani, a similar language developed under similar conditions in the Caribbean
- Surinamese Hindustani, spoken by people of Indian origin in Suriname.
- Mauritian Bhojpuri, spoken by descendants of Girmityas in Mauritius. This is more like Bhojpuri because Mauritius' Indian population contains a larger number of those whose forefathers came from the Bhojpuri speaking districts of India.
- Fiji Hindi films, a few Fiji Hindi films became popular in the last decade, including Adhura Sapna, Ghar Pardes, Langha Phobia.
Footnotes[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Bhojpuri is descended from Magadhi Prakrit and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
- ↑ Bhojpuri is descended from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa and Awadhi is descended from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa
- ↑ Only Bhojpuri is descended from Abahattha, not Awadhi. Awadhi comes straight from Ardhamagadhi Apabhraṃśa
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Fiji Hindi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Fiji Hindi Language".
- ↑ "Hindi Diwas 2018: Hindi travelled to these five countries from India". 14 September 2020. Archived from the original on 29 December 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
- ↑ Wright, Percey (1910). Seventy-two years in Australia and the South Pacific. Sydney: Mitchell Library.
- ↑ Burton, John W. (1910). The Fiji of Today. London: Charles H. Kelly.
- ↑ Lenwood, F. (1917). Pastels from the Pacific. London: Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Hands, W. J. (1929). Polynesia. Westminster: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
- ↑ "Compulsory teaching of vernacular begins".
- ↑ "Tamil language to begin being taught in Fiji".
- ↑ "Government will not force any Hindu organisation to teach Fiji Hindi to their students".
- ↑ "Academic backs Indo-Fijian 'mother tongue' over formal Hindi". RNZ. 5 March 2020. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
- ↑ "Constitution of the Republic of Fiji".
- ↑ "Fiji Hindi film set to be released soon". Fijilive. 9 February 2007. Archived from the original on 4 April 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
- ↑ Barz, Richard K.; Jeff Siegel (1988). Language transplanted: the development of overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: OttoHarrassowitz. p. 127. ISBN 3-447-02872-6.
- ↑ South Asian bilingualism: Hindi and Bhojpuri
- ↑ Barz, Richard; Jeff Siegel (1988). Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-02872-6.
- ↑ Fiji - 2007 census Archived 9 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ "New Zealand - 2006 census". Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
- ↑ "Australian Government - 2006 census" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
- ↑ "United States - 2000 census" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ↑ "Migration Facts Stats and Maps". Archived from the original on 23 August 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
- ↑ "Tonga census 2006". Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
- ↑ "Bible using 'Fiji Hindi' sparks debate". Agence France-Presse. 9 August 2002. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
Bibliography[edit | edit source]
- Siegel Jeff, Plantation Languages in Fiji, Australian National University, 1985 (Published as Language Contact in a Plantation Environment: A Sociolinguistic History of Fiji, Cambridge University Press, 1987, recently reprinted in paperback).
- Siegel, Jeff (1977). Say it in Fiji Hindi. Sydney: Pacific Publications (Aust) Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-85807-026-X.
- Moag, Rodney F. (1977). Fiji Hindi: A basic course and reference grammar. Canberra: Australian National University. ISBN 0-7081-1574-8.
- Barz, Richard K.; Jeff Siegel (1988). Language transplanted: the development of overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: OttoHarrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-02872-6.
External links[edit | edit source]
- Fiji Hindi Dictionary (archived)
- The first novel written in Fiji Hindi (archived)
- Fiji Hindi version of the Gospels and Romans
- Adhura Sapna – Movie in Fiji Hindi (archived)
- Ghar Pardes – Another movie in Fiji Hindi, 2009 (archived)
- Trailer of Ghar Pardes
- Fiji Hindi-to-Hindi Dictionary
- MyFijiGuide.com (archived)
- Fiji Hindi words on Wiktionary. Archived 23 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
- Texan talks the talk (archived)
- Fiji Hindi: A basic course and reference grammar.