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{{ | {{Short description|Indian religion}} | ||
{{Infobox religious group | {{Infobox religious group | ||
| group = Sarnaism | | group = Sarnaism | ||
| flag = Sarnaism flag.svg | | flag = Sarnaism flag.svg | ||
| flag_size = 150px | | flag_size = 150px | ||
| flag_alt = | | flag_alt = | ||
| flag_caption = Flag of Sarnaism | | flag_caption = Flag of Sarnaism | ||
| image = File:Sarna sb.png | |||
| image = File:Sarna | |||
| image_size = 150px | | image_size = 150px | ||
| image_alt = | | image_alt = | ||
| image_caption = The Sarnaism | | image_caption = The Sarnaism symbol used by [[Santals]] | ||
| population = {{circa|5 million}}<ref name=pew>{{cite report |title=Religious Composition of India |first=Stephanie |last=Kramer | |||
| population = {{circa|7, | |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] | ||
|date=September 21, 2021 | |||
|page=21 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2021/09/PF_09.21.21_Religious-Composition-of-India-FULL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402102744/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2021/09/PF_09.21.21_Religious-Composition-of-India-FULL.pdf |archive-date=April 2, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| founder = | | founder = | ||
| regions = {{flag|India}} {{flag|Bangladesh}} {{ | | regions = {{flag|India}}{{*}}{{flag|Bangladesh}}{{*}}{{flag|Nepal}} | ||
| tablehdr = | | tablehdr = | ||
| region1 = [[Jharkhand]] | | region1 = [[Jharkhand]] | ||
| pop1 = 4, | | pop1 = 4,131,282 | ||
| ref1 = | | ref1 =<ref name=Relegion2011>{{cite web|title=C-01 Appendix: Details of religious community shown under 'Other religions and persuasions' in main table C01 - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11398/download/14511/DDW00C-01%20Appendix%20MDDS.xlsx |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India }}</ref> | ||
| region2 = [[Odisha]] | |||
| pop2 = 403,350 | |||
| ref2 = <ref name=Relegion2011/> | |||
| region3 = [[West Bengal]] | |||
| pop3 = 403,250 | |||
| ref3 = <ref name=Relegion2011/> | |||
| region4 = [[Bihar]] | |||
| pop4 = 10,407 | |||
| ref4 = <ref name=Relegion2011/> | |||
| region5 = [[Chhattisgarh]] | |||
| pop5 = 8,057 | |||
| ref5 = <ref name=Relegion2011/> | |||
| region6 = {{flag|Bangladesh}} | |||
| pop6 = Unknown | |||
| ref6 = | |||
| region7 = {{flag|Nepal}} | |||
| pop7 = Unknown | |||
| ref7 = | |||
}} | |||
| | '''Sarnaism''' is a [[Indian religions|religious faith]] of the Indian subcontinent, predominantly followed by [[Adivasi|indigenous communities]] of the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] region across states such as [[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], and [[Chhattisgarh]].<ref name="outlook india">{{Cite news|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/explained-what-is-the-sarna-religious-code-and-what-are-its-followers-demanding--news-230860|title=Explained: What Is The Sarna Religious Code And What Are Its Followers Demanding?|publisher=outlook india|date=18 October 2022|access-date=3 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Religious Complexity in Northeastern South Asia|url=https://www.geocurrents.info/cultural-geography/religion/religious-complexity-in-northeastern-south-asia|access-date=2021-10-21|website=GeoCurrents|date=29 October 2015 }}</ref> | ||
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| | The essence of the Sarna faith revolves around [[nature worship]]. Its core principles emphasize ''jal'' (water), ''jaṅgal'' (forest) and ''jamīn'' (land), with adherents offering prayers to trees and hills while believing in the protection of forests.<ref name="outlook india"/> This belief centers around the reverence of [[Sarna (place)|Sarna]], the [[Sacred groves of India|sacred groves]] of village communities, where the village deity, known as [[Grāmadevatā|Gram Deota]], resides, and where [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificial offerings]] are made twice a year. It is also referred to as "'''Sarna Dharma'''" or the "'''Religion of the Holy Woods'''",<ref>{{harvnb|Minahan|2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=In India, Believers in an Ancient Indigenous Faith Seek Formal Recognition |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2022-11-24/clinging-to-ancient-faith-india-tribes-seek-religion-status}}</ref> and it holds the distinction of being India's largest tribal religion.<ref name=pew/> | ||
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| | == Etymology == | ||
| | The term "[[Sarna (place)|Sarna]]", derived from the [[Mundari language]], means "[[sacred grove]]" and refers to sites where tribal religious practices take place. However, the term for a sacred grove varies among tribes; for instance, the Santals and Bhumijs call it ''[[Jaherthan]]'', the Oraons call it ''Kurukh Kuti'', and the Hos call it ''Desauli''. <ref name=Hembram>{{harvp|Hembram|1982}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Sharma|2022|page=38}}</ref> Additionally, Sarna is etymologically related to the name of the [[Shorea robusta|Sal tree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gp1IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41 |title=Hinduism and Nature |date=2017-12-26 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-87326-54-5 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
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| | == History == | ||
| | [[File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|thumb|[[Religion in India|Prevailing religion]] of [[British India]], [[Census in British India|1901 Census]].|left]] | ||
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| | The socio-political movements that emerged among the tribal communities of the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau|Chota Nagpur region]] in the late nineteenth century, such as the [[Birsa Munda|Birsa Munda movement]], the [[Tana Bhagat Movement|Tana Bhagat movement]], and the Dupub movement, shaped a collective tribal consciousness. Though their primary focus was on autonomy in response to colonial expansion, these movements also addressed the preservation of ancestral practices and belief systems by resisting external religious influences. This period laid the foundation for ethno religious identity among tribals, with emerging expressions such as Marangburu practices and Kherwarism among the Santal, Dupub faith among the Ho, early articulation of Sarna and Birsaite path among the Mundas.<ref>{{multiref2|{{Cite journal |last=Chaudhuri |first=Binay Bhushan |date=2009-12-01 |title=Revaluation of Tradition in the Ideology of the Radical Adivasi Resistance in Colonial Eastern India, 1855–1932—Part I |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/037698360903600205 |journal=Indian Historical Review |language=EN |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1177/037698360903600205 |issn=0376-9836|url-access=subscription }}|{{Cite journal |last=Chaudhuri |first=Binay Bhushan |date=2010-06-01 |title=Revaluation of Tradition in the Ideology of the Radical Adivasi Resistance in Colonial Eastern India, 1855–1932—Part II |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/037698361003700103 |journal=Indian Historical Review |language=EN |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=39–62 |doi=10.1177/037698361003700103 |issn=0376-9836|url-access=subscription }}}}</ref> | ||
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}} | {{multiple image | ||
| align = left | |||
| total_width =260 | |||
| direction= vertical | |||
| image1 = Ethnic religious affiliation in Jharkhand, 1901–2011.svg | |||
|caption1 = Ethnic religious affiliation in [[Jharkhand]], 1901–2011. | |||
| image2 = Sarnaism in 1961.svg | |||
| caption2 = Distribution of Sarnaism in India, [[1961 Census of India|1961 Census]].}} | |||
Sarnaism, as a religious identity, emerged in the 1930s, following the assertion of a collective indigenous identity as [[Adivasi]] by tribal activists in the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau|Chota Nagpur region]] of erstwhile [[Bihar]]. They articulated a unifying religious identity for the diverse, [[Nature religion|nature based]] [[Indigenous religion|ancestral practices]] of tribal communities, with the purpose of asserting Adivasi distinctiveness from mainstream religions of India such as [[Hinduism]], [[Christianity in India|Christianity]], or [[Islam in India|Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Mishra | first1=Alok | last2=Chandra | first2=Vinita | title=Political narratives and reconfiguration of Adivasi identity in Jharkhand | journal=Discourse & Society | date=2025-07-03 | issn=0957-9265 | doi=10.1177/09579265251341469 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09579265251341469 | pages=1–20 |quote=Politically, these communities began to unify in the colonial backdrop, being classified as Animists or tribal religions in Census reports (Gait, 1913; Hutton, 1933; Marten, 1923; Risley and Gait, 1903). They had to identify with these labels or choose another religion.{{nbsp}}...{{nbsp}}A 1932 conference in Chaibasa discussed tribal religion and practices to create a common platform, followed by more conferences (1932–1934) with attendees from Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. Consensus led to the title Sarna Dharam for Adivasi religious practices.| url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Hembram|1988}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Virginius |first=Xaxa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HU8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |title=State, Society, and Tribes: Issues in Post-Colonial India |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-93-325-0632-9 |pages=53 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=Asha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ul6fWJQOfzwC&pg=PA134 |title=Tribal Movements in Jharkhand, 1857-2007 |last2=Paty |first2=Chittaranjan Kumar |date=2010 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-686-2 |pages=134 |language=en}}</ref> However, initially, the unifying concept was prevalent among the [[Kurukh people|Oraons]] of [[History of Ranchi|erstwhile Ranchi]] under the ethno-religious term ''Adivasi''. Later, the Oraon and [[Ho people|Ho]] communities accepted the Mundari ethno-religious term ''[[Sarna (place)|Sarna]]'' to represent their religious identity. It gained broader acceptance through socio-political development associated with leaders such as [[Jaipal Singh Munda]], [[Raghunath Murmu]], and [[Kartik Oraon]].<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Maguni Charan |last1=Behera |first2=Ambrish |last2=Gatuam|chapter=Transcendental Religious Space in Jharkhand: Reading Present from the Past |editor-last=Behera |editor-first=Maguni Charan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tcUEQAAQBAJ |title=The Routledge Handbook of Tribe and Religions in India: Contemporary Readings on Spirituality, Belief and Identity |year=2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-040-11433-9 |language=en |page=158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carrin |first1=Marine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZXXAAAAMAAJ |title=An Encounter of Peripheries: Santals, Missionaries, and Their Changing Worlds, 1867-1900 |last2=Tambs-Lyche |first2=Harald |date=2008 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-755-8 |pages=343 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Borde|2017|page=167}}: "Jaipal Singh Munda, the leader of the Jharkhand movement is reported to have formulated the basic tenets of what is now known as the Sarna Dharam."</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Sharma | first=A.P. | title=Descheduling of the Christian tribes in Cbotanagpur | journal=Social Change | volume=21 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0049-0857 | doi=10.1177/0049085719910407 | pages=57–76 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0049085719910407| url-access=subscription }}</ref> After [[Independence of India|India’s independence]], it experienced steady growth, incorporating diverse tribal communities into its fold, including larger tribes like the [[Santal people|Santal]], who had initially refrained from accepting its tenets but gradually aligned with it over the following decades. Politically, Sarnaism grew alongside the [[Jharkhand movement]], formulated by the [[Adivasi Mahasabha]] and its offspring political organization, the [[Jharkhand Party]], which was centered on the motifs of tribal identity and the demand for autonomy. The movement culminated on 15 November 2000, the birth anniversary of [[Birsa Munda]], when the [[Tribes of Jharkhand|tribal-concentrated]] southern region of Bihar was bifurcated to form the separate state of [[Jharkhand]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=K.K. |last= Mohanti|first2=S.C. |last2= Mohanty|title= Understanding Sarna Dharam |journal=Adivasi |year=1996|volume=36 |others=No. 1 & 2; June & December, 1996 |pages=1-14 |url=https://archive.org/details/adivasi-1996-vol-36-issue-1-2/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Borde |first=Radhika |chapter=Disrupting Classification : ‘Tribes’, the Demand for Recognition of a Tribal Religion, Possessed Women, and the Case of ‘Demons’ |date=2024-09-02 |editor-last=Behera |editor-first=M. C.|title=The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Readings on Tribe and Religions in India |pages=429–444 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003516415/chapters/10.4324/9781003516415-36 |access-date=2025-02-24 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge India |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003516415-36 |isbn=978-1-003-51641-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Singh |first=Anjana |chapter=Polarisation of Adivasis Around Religion |date=2024-07-16 |editor-first=M. C. |editor-last= Behera|title=The Routledge Handbook of Tribe and Religions in India |pages=335–348 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003510826/chapters/10.4324/9781003510826-29 |access-date=2025-03-07 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge India |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003510826-29 |isbn=978-1-003-51082-6}}</ref> | |||
''' | == Theology == | ||
The adherents of Sarnaism believe in, worship, and revere a village deity as protector of village called ''Gaon khunt'', ''Gram deoti'', ''[[Marang Buru]]'', ''Singbonga'', or by other names by different tribes.<ref name="Amit Jha">{{cite book |author=Amit Jha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zgLCCQAAQBAJ&q=sarnaism+belief&pg=PT121 |title=Contemporary Religious Institutions in Tribal India |year=2009 | publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-0-557-09053-2}}</ref> Adherents also believe in, worship, and revere ''Dharti ayo'' or ''Chalapachho Devi'', the [[mother goddess]] identified as the earth or nature. | |||
== | == Practices == | ||
'' | {{Expand section|date=April 2023}} | ||
[[File:Sarna worshippers following their religious rites.jpg|thumb|Sarna worshippers following their religious rites]] | |||
[[Sarna (place)|Sarna]] is place of worship which is sacred grove in Chotanagpur. It is called ''Jaher than ''or ''Jaher gar'' among [[Santal people|Santal]], and can be found in villages. [[Shorea robusta|Sal trees]] are in the sacred grove. The ceremonies are performed by the whole village community at a public gathering with the active participation of village priests, ''[[Pahan]]'' and assistant ''Pujar '' in Chotanagpur. The priest is called ''Naike'' among Santal. The sthal typically has multiple trees like sal, [[Madhuca longifolia|mahua]], neem, and banyan. | |||
The main festival of Sarnaism is [[Sarhul]], a festival in which devotees worship their ancestors. During the festival, the ''pahan'' brings three water pots to the ''sarna''. If the water pots reduce in level, they believe the monsoon will fail, but if it stays the same the monsoon will come as normal. Men then offer ''sakua'' flowers and leaves.<ref>{{harvp|Srivastava|2007}}</ref> | |||
== | == Demographics == | ||
{{see also|Tribes of Jharkhand}} | |||
{{Historical population | |||
|1951|240558 | |||
|1961|428687 | |||
|1971|951558 <!--ST followers: 859701 --> | |||
|1981|1391178 | |||
|1991|1820454 | |||
|2001|4075246 | |||
|2011|4957467 | |||
|footnote=Note: In [[1981 Census of India|1981]] and [[1991 Census of India|1991 census]], the religion 'Sarna' was recorded as 'Swarna'. | |||
|source=Census of India<ref name=Hembram1982>{{harvp|Hembram|1982|page=88}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Special Tables For Scheduled Tribes, Part V-A (ii), Series-1, India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/32121/download/35302/50760_1971_SPE.pdf |pages=305}}</ref><ref name=Religion1981>{{cite web|title=Household Population by Religion of Head of Household, Series-1, Paper 3 of 1984, India - Census 1981|publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |year=1984 |page=54 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/30879/download/34060/26795_1981_HH.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724180108/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/30879/download/34060/26795_1981_HH.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Religion1991>{{cite web|title=Religion, Paper 1 of 1995, Series-1, India - Census 1991 |publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |year=1995 |page=50 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/32995/download/36813/48848_1991_REL.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918171054/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/32995/download/36813/48848_1991_REL.pdf |archive-date=18 September 2023}}</ref><ref name=Religion2001>{{cite web|title=C-01 Appendix: Details of religious communities shown Under 'other religious and persuasions' in main table C-01, India - 2001 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/21563/download/24695/PC01_C01_APP_00.xls }}</ref><ref name=Relegion2011/>}} | |||
{{Pie chart | |||
|caption= '''Adherents of Sarna, 2011 census'''<ref name=TribalReligion/> | |||
|label1 = [[Santal]] | |||
|value1 = 30.48 | |||
|label2 = [[Kurukh people|Oraon]] | |||
|value2 = 21.35 | |||
|label3 = [[Ho people|Ho]] | |||
|value3 = 17.87 | |||
|label4 = [[Munda people|Munda]] | |||
|value4 = 12.48 | |||
|label5 = [[Bhumij people|Bhumij]] | |||
|value5 = 1.72 | |||
|label6 = Lohra | |||
|value6 = 1.70 | |||
|label7 = [[Mahali]] | |||
|value7 = 1.07 | |||
|label8 = [[Kharia people|Kharia]] | |||
|value8 = 0.87 | |||
|label9 = [[Bedia (caste)|Bedia]] | |||
|value9 = 0.67 | |||
|label10 = Other "[[Scheduled Tribes]]" | |||
|value10 = 4.42 | |||
|other = y | |||
|other-label = [[Other Backward Class]]es and Non-Scheduled Communities | |||
|other-color= lightgrey | |||
|footer =The statistics show solely Sarna adherents, without consideration of ''[[Sari Dharam]]'' or other [[Religious denomination|denominations]] claimed to be synonymous. | |||
}} | |||
According to the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census of India]], the Sarna religion counted 4,957,467 followers in India, primarily in the eastern states of [[Religion in Jharkhand|Jharkhand]] (83.33%), [[Religion in Odisha|Odisha]] (8.14%), [[Religion in West Bengal|West Bengal]] (8.13%), [[Religion in Bihar|Bihar]] (0.21%), and [[Religion in Chhattisgarh|Chhattisgarh]] (0.16%), with smaller numbers of followers in [[Religion in Assam|Assam]] (301), [[Religion in Punjab|Punjab]] (190), and [[Religion in Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh]] (133).<ref name=Relegion2011/> [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]] comprise the majority of believers at 92.60%, while Other Backward Classes and Non-Scheduled Communities accounted for 7.39%.<ref name=TribalReligion>{{multiref2 | |||
|{{Cite web|title=ST-14 A: Scheduled tribe population by religious community (State/UT level), Jharkhand - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/12523/download/15636/ST-20-00-014A-DDW-2011.XLS |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=October 25, 2023}} | |||
|{{Cite web|title=ST-14 A: Scheduled tribe population by religious community (State/UT level), Odisha - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/12524/download/15637/ST-21-00-014A-DDW-2011.XLS |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=October 25, 2023}} | |||
|{{Cite web|title=ST-14 A: Scheduled tribe population by religious community (State/UT level), West Bengal - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/12522/download/15635/ST-19-00-014A-DDW-2011.XLS |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=October 25, 2023}} | |||
|{{Cite web|title=ST-14 A: Scheduled tribe population by religious community (State/UT level), Bihar - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/12513/download/15626/ST-10-00-014A-DDW-2011.XLS |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=October 25, 2023}} | |||
|{{Cite web|title=ST-14 A: Scheduled tribe population by religious community (State/UT level), Chhattisgarh - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/12525/download/15638/ST-22-00-014A-DDW-2011.XLS |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=October 25, 2023}} | |||
}}</ref> The [[Santal people|Santal]] (30.48%), [[Kurukh people|Oraon]] (21.35%), [[Ho people|Ho]] (17.87%), [[Munda people|Munda]] (12.48%), [[Bhumij people|Bhumij]] (1.72%), Lohra (1.70%), [[Mahali]] (1.07%), [[Kharia people|Kharia]] (0.87%), and [[Bedia (caste)|Bedia]] (0.64%) are the primary followers. While the rest 4.42% tribal followers belongs to [[Kisan people|Kisan]], [[Kolha]], [[Gondi people|Gond]], Kharwar, [[Chik Baraik]], [[Asur people|Asur]], Bhinjia, [[Karmali tribe|Karmali]], [[Kora (tribe)|Kora]], [[Kol people|Kol]], [[Kanwar (tribe)|Kawar]], Birja, [[Mal Paharia people|Mal Paharia]], Savar, [[Birhor people|Birhor]], Gorait, Parhaiya, [[Lodha people|Lodha]], [[Chero]], [[Kharwar|Khanwar]], [[Sauria Paharia people|Suria Paharia]], Mundari, [[Baiga tribe|Baiga]], [[Korwa people|Korwa]], [[Sounti]], Binjhwar, [[Nagesia]], Mahli, and various generic tribes.<ref name=TribalReligion/> | |||
Additionally, there are 506,369 followers of [[Sari Dharam]] in India,<ref name=Relegion2011/> primarily followed by the Santal tribe of West Bengal, representing 94.43% of the total Sari Dharam adherents.<ref name=TribalReligion/> The religious denomination, which often considered as synonyms or sect of Sarnaisim. | |||
== Religious status == | == Religious status == | ||
As a result of [[Western colonialism]] and [[Western imperialism in Asia|imperialism in Asia]], several attempts of [[indoctrination]] and [[Forced conversion#Christianity|forced conversion]] were carried out by western Christian missionaries in [[colonial India]], which went on for a century, and have caused [[sectarian conflict]] in the tribal areas of the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau|Chota Nagpur region]]. The arrival of the first German Protestant missionaries in 1845 was followed by Roman Catholic missionaries; conflict between Christian and Non-Christian tribals became evident in 1947–1948, when [[Independence of India|British colonial rulers left India]].<ref name=rel2>[https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/tribals-torn-apart-by-religion/article5934381.ece Tribals torn apart by religion], The Hindu. 014.</ref> | As a result of [[Western colonialism]] and [[Western imperialism in Asia|imperialism in Asia]], several attempts of [[indoctrination]] and [[Forced conversion#Christianity|forced conversion]] were carried out by western Christian missionaries in [[colonial India]], which went on for a century, and have caused [[sectarian conflict]] in the tribal areas of the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau|Chota Nagpur region]]. The arrival of the first German Protestant missionaries in 1845 was followed by Roman Catholic missionaries; conflict between [[Christians|Christian]] and Non-Christian tribals became evident in 1947–1948, when [[Independence of India|British colonial rulers left India]].<ref name="rel2">[https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/tribals-torn-apart-by-religion/article5934381.ece Tribals torn apart by religion], The Hindu. 014.</ref> | ||
Also the demand for a separate Sarna religious code has clashed with [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh|RSS-backed]] groups like the Vanvasi Kalyan Kendra, which promote Hindu temples, schools, and rituals in tribal villages. Sarna activists liken these efforts to Christian missionary methods, saying both try to subsume tribal identity, and argue that Sarnaism cannot be treated as part of Hinduism since it worships nature without idols or codified rituals. They insist that only separate recognition can protect their distinct traditions and tribal identity.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lakshman |first=Abhinay |date=2022-07-22 |title=Being Sarna: a fight to define tribal identity in Jharkhand |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/being-sarna-a-fight-to-define-tribal-identity-in-jharkhand/article65670776.ece |access-date=2025-08-24 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> | |||
The | ==Politics== | ||
{{POV section|date=September 2023}} | |||
The [[National Commission for Scheduled Tribes]] (NCST) has suggested that Sarna religion be accorded independent category in the religion code of the [[Census of India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=ST panel for independent religion status to Sarna |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/7433842.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en-IN |date=6 February 2011}}</ref> | |||
Several tribal organisations and Christian missionaries are demanding a distinct census code for Sarnaism.<ref name=rel6>{{cite news |first=Santosh K. |last=Kiro |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130819/jsp/jharkhand/story_17245599.jsp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140103232048/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130819/jsp/jharkhand/story_17245599.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 3, 2014 |title=Delhi demo for Sarna identity |newspaper=The Telegraph |year=2013}}</ref><ref name=rel8>{{cite news |first=Pranab |last=Mukherjee |author-link=Pranab Mukherjee |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/Tribals-to-rally-for-inclusion-of-Sarna-religion-in-census/articleshow/19282700.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002175305/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-30/ranchi/38144883_1_census-format-separate-sarna-religion-code-rally |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-10-02 |title=Tribals to rally for inclusion of Sarna religion in census |date=2013-03-30 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Indian [[Ministry of Tribal Affairs|Minister of Tribal Affairs]], [[Jual Oram]], had, however, claimed in 2015, "There is no denial of the fact that tribals are [[Hindus]]."<ref name=rel1>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/all-tribals-are-hindus-no-need-for-sarna-code-rss/articleshow/49616469.cms All tribals are Hindus, no need for Sarna code: RSS], Times of India, 1 May 2015.</ref> The comment led to protests from 300 tribals, over 100 of whom were arrested by the police to clear the way for Oram, who was going to inaugurate a fair.<ref name="Minister faces ire for Sarna row">{{cite web | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/minister-faces-ire-for-sarna-row/cid/1377629 | title=Minister faces ire for Sarna row }}</ref> Adivasi Sarna Mahasabha leader and former MLA Dev Kumar Dhan said that followers of the Sarna religion were not happy with the statement made by Oram and added, ''"If Jainism, having a population of hardly 60 lakh, can have a separate religion code in the Census forms, why can't Sarnas? This tribal religion have more than 10 crore followers spread over the Fifth Scheduled states like [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Maharashtra|Maharastra]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Odisha]]. Instead of taking steps to ensure a separate religion code, he is saying Sarnas are [[Hindus]]"''.<ref name="Minister faces ire for Sarna row"/> | |||
In 2020, [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]'s (JMM), which was in power in Jharkhand at that time, passed | In 2020, [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]'s (JMM), which was in power in Jharkhand at that time, passed a unanimous assembly resolution on 'Sarna Code' for the inclusion of Sarna as separate religion in 2021 census, and sent to central government for approval.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jharkhand Assembly passes resolution on Sarna Code |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/jharkhand-assembly-passes-resolution-on-sarna-code/article33081116.ece |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=12 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bisoee |first=Animesh |date=25 September 2021 |title=Tribals from nine states seek Sarna code in 2021 census |newspaper=[[:The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/tribals-seek-sarna-code-from-centre-in-2021-census/cid/1832132 }}</ref> | ||
Animesh |date=25 September 2021 |title=Tribals from nine states seek Sarna code in 2021 census |newspaper=[[:The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/tribals-seek-sarna-code-from-centre-in-2021-census/cid/1832132 | |||
Many tribal organizations seek its recognition as a distinct religious category for indigenous peoples.<ref name="outlook india"/> Several Christian churches also support the recognition of Sarna as a different religion from [[Hinduism]].<ref name=rel3>[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/church-writes-to-hemant-demanding-sarna-code-for-tribals/cid/1792471 Church writes to Hemant demanding Sarna code for tribals], Telegraph India, 19.09.2020.</ref> But the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh|RSS]] is against the recognition of Sarna as a separate religion as it believes that tribal people are [[Hinduism|Hindus]].<ref name=rel1/> | |||
== Organisations == | == Organisations == | ||
| Line 108: | Line 141: | ||
*All India Sarna Dharam Mandowa (AISDM) | *All India Sarna Dharam Mandowa (AISDM) | ||
*Kherwal Saonta Semled (KSS) | *Kherwal Saonta Semled (KSS) | ||
*[[Bharat Jakat Majhi Pargana Mahal]] (BJMPM) | |||
*Adivasi Socio-Educational and Cultural Association (ASECA) | |||
*Kendriya Sarna Samiti | |||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
{{Portal|India|Religion | |||
}} | |||
* [[Hinduism]] | * [[Hinduism]] | ||
* [[Indian religions|Indian-origin religions]] | * [[Indian religions|Indian-origin religions]] | ||
* [[Tribal religions in India]] | * [[Tribal religions in India]] | ||
* [[Hindu denominations]] | * [[Hindu denominations]] | ||
*[[Sacred groves]] | |||
{{Clear}} | {{Clear}} | ||
| Line 123: | Line 160: | ||
== Bibliography== | == Bibliography== | ||
===Books=== | ===Books=== | ||
* {{ | * {{Cite book|first1=Shamsher |last1=Alam |first2=Kumari Vibhuti |last2=Nayak |chapter="Sarna Adivasi" Religion Code: Contextualizing Religious Identity of Tribals in India |pages=262–266 |title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Sustainable Development |year=2023 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-032-60104-5}} | ||
* {{cite book |first=James |last=Minahan |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An encyclopedia |series=Ethnic Groups of the World |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=978- | * {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Mukul |chapter="Come Let Us All Play": Sacred Groves, Sarna, and "Green" Politics in Jharkhand, India | ||
|title=Sacred Forests of Asia – Spiritual ecology and the politics of natural conservation |editor-last1=Coggins |editor-first1=Chris |editor-last2=Chen |editor-first2=Bixia |year=2022 |publisher=Routledge|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHYIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |doi=10.4324/9781003143680-5 |isbn=9781003143680 |lccn=2021054055}} | |||
* {{Cite book |first=Balmukund |last=Virottam |title=Religious History of the Chotanagpur Tribes: (Sarna Dharam to Christianity) |year=2020 |publisher=Himalaya Publishing House |isbn=978-93-90515-60-8 |oclc=1320817862}} | |||
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781351393942 |title=Force of Nature: Essays on History and Politics of Environment |chapter=The Sarna Movement in Jharkhand |last= Borde |first=Radhika |date=2017-08-07 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-14168-8 |editor-last=Nag |editor-first=Sajal |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315141688-9 |pages=165–178}} | |||
* {{cite book |first=James |last=Minahan |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An encyclopedia |series=Ethnic Groups of the World |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1}} | |||
* {{cite book |first=Kishor Vidya |last=Niketan |title=The Spectrum of Tribal Religion in Bihar: A study of continuity & change among the Oraon of Chotanagpur |year=1988}} | * {{cite book |first=Kishor Vidya |last=Niketan |title=The Spectrum of Tribal Religion in Bihar: A study of continuity & change among the Oraon of Chotanagpur |year=1988}} | ||
* {{cite book |first=Phatik Chandra |last=Hembram |title=Sari-Sarna (Santhal religion) |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1988 |isbn=8170990440}} | * {{cite book |first=Phatik Chandra |last=Hembram |title=Sari-Sarna (Santhal religion) |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1988 |isbn=8170990440}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Hembram |first=P.C. |chapter=Return to sacred grove | |||
|editor-last=Singh |editor-first=K.S. |url=https://archive.org/details/tmi.singh_vol.ii/ |title=Tribal Movements in India |volume=II |publisher=Manohar |year=1982 |edition=2006 reprint}} | |||
* {{cite book |first=A.K. |last=Sachchidananda |title=Elite and Development |publisher=Concept Publishing Co. |place=New Delhi |year=1980 |asin=B000MBN8J2}} | |||
===Journal articles=== | ===Journal articles=== | ||
* {{cite journal |first=Malini |last=Srivastava |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M-Tt.pdf |title=The Sacred Complex of Munda Tribe <!-- Department of Anthropology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad 211 002, Uttar Pradesh, India --> |journal=Anthropologist |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=327–330 |year=2007|doi=10.1080/09720073.2007.11891020 |s2cid=73737689 }} | * {{cite journal |first=Malini |last=Srivastava |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M-Tt.pdf |title=The Sacred Complex of Munda Tribe <!-- Department of Anthropology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad 211 002, Uttar Pradesh, India --> |journal=Anthropologist |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=327–330 |year=2007|doi=10.1080/09720073.2007.11891020 |s2cid=73737689 }} | ||
==Further reading== | |||
*{{cite book|editor-last=Behera|editor-first= M.C. |year=2024 |title=The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Readings on Tribe and Religions in India: Emerging Negotiations |edition=1st |publisher=Routledge India |isbn=9781032522159|doi=10.4324/9781003516415}} | |||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
| Line 135: | Line 183: | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://www.arsnetwork.org/ |title=Adivasi Religion and Society Network |website=arsnetwork.org}} | * {{cite web |url=http://www.arsnetwork.org/ |title=Adivasi Religion and Society Network |website=arsnetwork.org}} | ||
{{Religion topics}}{{Religion in India topics}}{{Authority control}} | {{paganism}}{{Religion topics}}{{Religion in India topics}}{{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:Indian religions]] | [[Category:Indian religions]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Ethnic religions in Asia]] | ||
[[Category:Sacred groves of India]] | [[Category:Sacred groves of India]] | ||
[[Category:Veneration of the dead]] | [[Category:Veneration of the dead]] | ||
Latest revision as of 02:07, 17 February 2026
 Flag of Sarnaism | |
 The Sarnaism symbol used by Santals | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| c. 5 million[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 India •  Bangladesh •  Nepal | |
| Jharkhand | 4,131,282[2] |
| Odisha | 403,350[2] |
| West Bengal | 403,250[2] |
| Bihar | 10,407[2] |
| Chhattisgarh | 8,057[2] |
| Bangladesh | Unknown |
| Nepal | Unknown |
Sarnaism is a religious faith of the Indian subcontinent, predominantly followed by indigenous communities of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region across states such as Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh.[3][4]
The essence of the Sarna faith revolves around nature worship. Its core principles emphasize jal (water), jaṅgal (forest) and jamīn (land), with adherents offering prayers to trees and hills while believing in the protection of forests.[3] This belief centers around the reverence of Sarna, the sacred groves of village communities, where the village deity, known as Gram Deota, resides, and where sacrificial offerings are made twice a year. It is also referred to as "Sarna Dharma" or the "Religion of the Holy Woods",[5][6] and it holds the distinction of being India's largest tribal religion.[1]
Etymology[edit | edit source]
The term "Sarna", derived from the Mundari language, means "sacred grove" and refers to sites where tribal religious practices take place. However, the term for a sacred grove varies among tribes; for instance, the Santals and Bhumijs call it Jaherthan, the Oraons call it Kurukh Kuti, and the Hos call it Desauli. [7][8] Additionally, Sarna is etymologically related to the name of the Sal tree.[9]
History[edit | edit source]
The socio-political movements that emerged among the tribal communities of the Chota Nagpur region in the late nineteenth century, such as the Birsa Munda movement, the Tana Bhagat movement, and the Dupub movement, shaped a collective tribal consciousness. Though their primary focus was on autonomy in response to colonial expansion, these movements also addressed the preservation of ancestral practices and belief systems by resisting external religious influences. This period laid the foundation for ethno religious identity among tribals, with emerging expressions such as Marangburu practices and Kherwarism among the Santal, Dupub faith among the Ho, early articulation of Sarna and Birsaite path among the Mundas.[10]
Ethnic religious affiliation in Jharkhand, 1901–2011.
Distribution of Sarnaism in India, 1961 Census.
Sarnaism, as a religious identity, emerged in the 1930s, following the assertion of a collective indigenous identity as Adivasi by tribal activists in the Chota Nagpur region of erstwhile Bihar. They articulated a unifying religious identity for the diverse, nature based ancestral practices of tribal communities, with the purpose of asserting Adivasi distinctiveness from mainstream religions of India such as Hinduism, Christianity, or Islam.[11][12][13][14] However, initially, the unifying concept was prevalent among the Oraons of erstwhile Ranchi under the ethno-religious term Adivasi. Later, the Oraon and Ho communities accepted the Mundari ethno-religious term Sarna to represent their religious identity. It gained broader acceptance through socio-political development associated with leaders such as Jaipal Singh Munda, Raghunath Murmu, and Kartik Oraon.[15][16][17][18] After India’s independence, it experienced steady growth, incorporating diverse tribal communities into its fold, including larger tribes like the Santal, who had initially refrained from accepting its tenets but gradually aligned with it over the following decades. Politically, Sarnaism grew alongside the Jharkhand movement, formulated by the Adivasi Mahasabha and its offspring political organization, the Jharkhand Party, which was centered on the motifs of tribal identity and the demand for autonomy. The movement culminated on 15 November 2000, the birth anniversary of Birsa Munda, when the tribal-concentrated southern region of Bihar was bifurcated to form the separate state of Jharkhand.[19][20][21]
Theology[edit | edit source]
The adherents of Sarnaism believe in, worship, and revere a village deity as protector of village called Gaon khunt, Gram deoti, Marang Buru, Singbonga, or by other names by different tribes.[22] Adherents also believe in, worship, and revere Dharti ayo or Chalapachho Devi, the mother goddess identified as the earth or nature.
Practices[edit | edit source]
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2023) |
Sarna is place of worship which is sacred grove in Chotanagpur. It is called Jaher than or Jaher gar among Santal, and can be found in villages. Sal trees are in the sacred grove. The ceremonies are performed by the whole village community at a public gathering with the active participation of village priests, Pahan and assistant Pujar in Chotanagpur. The priest is called Naike among Santal. The sthal typically has multiple trees like sal, mahua, neem, and banyan.
The main festival of Sarnaism is Sarhul, a festival in which devotees worship their ancestors. During the festival, the pahan brings three water pots to the sarna. If the water pots reduce in level, they believe the monsoon will fail, but if it stays the same the monsoon will come as normal. Men then offer sakua flowers and leaves.[23]
Demographics[edit | edit source]
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1951 | 240,558 | — |
| 1961 | 428,687 | +78.2% |
| 1971 | 951,558 | +122.0% |
| 1981 | 1,391,178 | +46.2% |
| 1991 | 1,820,454 | +30.9% |
| 2001 | 4,075,246 | +123.9% |
| 2011 | 4,957,467 | +21.6% |
| Note: In 1981 and 1991 census, the religion 'Sarna' was recorded as 'Swarna'. Source: Census of India[24][25][26][27][28][2] | ||
Adherents of Sarna, 2011 census[29]
Santal (30.48%)
Oraon (21.35%)
Ho (17.87%)
Munda (12.48%)
Bhumij (1.72%)
Lohra (1.70%)
Mahali (1.07%)
Kharia (0.87%)
Bedia (0.67%)
Other "Scheduled Tribes" (4.42%)
Other (7.37%)
The statistics show solely Sarna adherents, without consideration of Sari Dharam or other denominations claimed to be synonymous.
According to the 2011 census of India, the Sarna religion counted 4,957,467 followers in India, primarily in the eastern states of Jharkhand (83.33%), Odisha (8.14%), West Bengal (8.13%), Bihar (0.21%), and Chhattisgarh (0.16%), with smaller numbers of followers in Assam (301), Punjab (190), and Madhya Pradesh (133).[2] Scheduled Tribes comprise the majority of believers at 92.60%, while Other Backward Classes and Non-Scheduled Communities accounted for 7.39%.[29] The Santal (30.48%), Oraon (21.35%), Ho (17.87%), Munda (12.48%), Bhumij (1.72%), Lohra (1.70%), Mahali (1.07%), Kharia (0.87%), and Bedia (0.64%) are the primary followers. While the rest 4.42% tribal followers belongs to Kisan, Kolha, Gond, Kharwar, Chik Baraik, Asur, Bhinjia, Karmali, Kora, Kol, Kawar, Birja, Mal Paharia, Savar, Birhor, Gorait, Parhaiya, Lodha, Chero, Khanwar, Suria Paharia, Mundari, Baiga, Korwa, Sounti, Binjhwar, Nagesia, Mahli, and various generic tribes.[29]
Additionally, there are 506,369 followers of Sari Dharam in India,[2] primarily followed by the Santal tribe of West Bengal, representing 94.43% of the total Sari Dharam adherents.[29] The religious denomination, which often considered as synonyms or sect of Sarnaisim.
Religious status[edit | edit source]
As a result of Western colonialism and imperialism in Asia, several attempts of indoctrination and forced conversion were carried out by western Christian missionaries in colonial India, which went on for a century, and have caused sectarian conflict in the tribal areas of the Chota Nagpur region. The arrival of the first German Protestant missionaries in 1845 was followed by Roman Catholic missionaries; conflict between Christian and Non-Christian tribals became evident in 1947–1948, when British colonial rulers left India.[30]
Also the demand for a separate Sarna religious code has clashed with RSS-backed groups like the Vanvasi Kalyan Kendra, which promote Hindu temples, schools, and rituals in tribal villages. Sarna activists liken these efforts to Christian missionary methods, saying both try to subsume tribal identity, and argue that Sarnaism cannot be treated as part of Hinduism since it worships nature without idols or codified rituals. They insist that only separate recognition can protect their distinct traditions and tribal identity.[31]
Politics[edit | edit source]
Template:POV section The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) has suggested that Sarna religion be accorded independent category in the religion code of the Census of India.[32] Several tribal organisations and Christian missionaries are demanding a distinct census code for Sarnaism.[33][34] The Indian Minister of Tribal Affairs, Jual Oram, had, however, claimed in 2015, "There is no denial of the fact that tribals are Hindus."[35] The comment led to protests from 300 tribals, over 100 of whom were arrested by the police to clear the way for Oram, who was going to inaugurate a fair.[36] Adivasi Sarna Mahasabha leader and former MLA Dev Kumar Dhan said that followers of the Sarna religion were not happy with the statement made by Oram and added, "If Jainism, having a population of hardly 60 lakh, can have a separate religion code in the Census forms, why can't Sarnas? This tribal religion have more than 10 crore followers spread over the Fifth Scheduled states like Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharastra, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Odisha. Instead of taking steps to ensure a separate religion code, he is saying Sarnas are Hindus".[36]
In 2020, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha's (JMM), which was in power in Jharkhand at that time, passed a unanimous assembly resolution on 'Sarna Code' for the inclusion of Sarna as separate religion in 2021 census, and sent to central government for approval.[37][38]
Many tribal organizations seek its recognition as a distinct religious category for indigenous peoples.[3] Several Christian churches also support the recognition of Sarna as a different religion from Hinduism.[39] But the RSS is against the recognition of Sarna as a separate religion as it believes that tribal people are Hindus.[35]
Organisations[edit | edit source]
- Akhil Bharatiya Sarna Dharam (ABSD)
- All India Sarna Dharam Mandowa (AISDM)
- Kherwal Saonta Semled (KSS)
- Bharat Jakat Majhi Pargana Mahal (BJMPM)
- Adivasi Socio-Educational and Cultural Association (ASECA)
- Kendriya Sarna Samiti
See also[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Kramer, Stephanie (September 21, 2021). Religious Composition of India (PDF) (Report). Pew Research Center. p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2022.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 "C-01 Appendix: Details of religious community shown under 'Other religions and persuasions' in main table C01 - 2011". Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Explained: What Is The Sarna Religious Code And What Are Its Followers Demanding?". outlook india. 18 October 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
- ↑ "Religious Complexity in Northeastern South Asia". GeoCurrents. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ↑ Minahan 2012
- ↑ "In India, Believers in an Ancient Indigenous Faith Seek Formal Recognition". Los Angeles Times.
- ↑ Hembram (1982)
- ↑ Sharma (2022), p. 38
- ↑ Krishna, Nanditha (2017-12-26). Hinduism and Nature. Penguin Random House India Private Limited. ISBN 978-93-87326-54-5.
- ↑ Template:Multiref2
- ↑ Mishra, Alok; Chandra, Vinita (2025-07-03). "Political narratives and reconfiguration of Adivasi identity in Jharkhand". Discourse & Society: 1–20. doi:10.1177/09579265251341469. ISSN 0957-9265.
Politically, these communities began to unify in the colonial backdrop, being classified as Animists or tribal religions in Census reports (Gait, 1913; Hutton, 1933; Marten, 1923; Risley and Gait, 1903). They had to identify with these labels or choose another religion. ... A 1932 conference in Chaibasa discussed tribal religion and practices to create a common platform, followed by more conferences (1932–1934) with attendees from Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. Consensus led to the title Sarna Dharam for Adivasi religious practices.
- ↑ Hembram 1988.
- ↑ Virginius, Xaxa (2008). State, Society, and Tribes: Issues in Post-Colonial India. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-93-325-0632-9.
- ↑ Mishra, Asha; Paty, Chittaranjan Kumar (2010). Tribal Movements in Jharkhand, 1857-2007. Concept Publishing Company. p. 134. ISBN 978-81-8069-686-2.
- ↑ Behera, Maguni Charan; Gatuam, Ambrish (2024). "Transcendental Religious Space in Jharkhand: Reading Present from the Past". In Behera, Maguni Charan (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Tribe and Religions in India: Contemporary Readings on Spirituality, Belief and Identity. Taylor & Francis. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-040-11433-9.
- ↑ Carrin, Marine; Tambs-Lyche, Harald (2008). An Encounter of Peripheries: Santals, Missionaries, and Their Changing Worlds, 1867-1900. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. p. 343. ISBN 978-81-7304-755-8.
- ↑ Borde (2017), p. 167: "Jaipal Singh Munda, the leader of the Jharkhand movement is reported to have formulated the basic tenets of what is now known as the Sarna Dharam."
- ↑ Sharma, A.P. (1991). "Descheduling of the Christian tribes in Cbotanagpur". Social Change. 21 (4): 57–76. doi:10.1177/0049085719910407. ISSN 0049-0857.
- ↑ Mohanti, K.K.; Mohanty, S.C. (1996). "Understanding Sarna Dharam". Adivasi. 36. No. 1 & 2; June & December, 1996: 1–14.
- ↑ Borde, Radhika (2024-09-02). "Disrupting Classification : 'Tribes', the Demand for Recognition of a Tribal Religion, Possessed Women, and the Case of 'Demons'". In Behera, M. C. (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Readings on Tribe and Religions in India (1 ed.). London: Routledge India. pp. 429–444. doi:10.4324/9781003516415-36. ISBN 978-1-003-51641-5. Retrieved 2025-02-24.
- ↑ Singh, Anjana (2024-07-16), "Polarisation of Adivasis Around Religion", in Behera, M. C. (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Tribe and Religions in India (1 ed.), London: Routledge India, pp. 335–348, doi:10.4324/9781003510826-29, ISBN 978-1-003-51082-6, retrieved 2025-03-07
- ↑ Amit Jha (2009). Contemporary Religious Institutions in Tribal India. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-0-557-09053-2.
- ↑ Srivastava (2007)
- ↑ Hembram (1982), p. 88
- ↑ Special Tables For Scheduled Tribes, Part V-A (ii), Series-1, India (PDF). p. 305.
- ↑ "Household Population by Religion of Head of Household, Series-1, Paper 3 of 1984, India - Census 1981" (PDF). Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 1984. p. 54. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2024.
- ↑ "Religion, Paper 1 of 1995, Series-1, India - Census 1991" (PDF). Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 1995. p. 50. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023.
- ↑ "C-01 Appendix: Details of religious communities shown Under 'other religious and persuasions' in main table C-01, India - 2001". Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Template:Multiref2
- ↑ Tribals torn apart by religion, The Hindu. 014.
- ↑ Lakshman, Abhinay (2022-07-22). "Being Sarna: a fight to define tribal identity in Jharkhand". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2025-08-24.
- ↑ "ST panel for independent religion status to Sarna". The Times of India. 6 February 2011.
- ↑ Kiro, Santosh K. (2013). "Delhi demo for Sarna identity". The Telegraph.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) - ↑ Mukherjee, Pranab (30 March 2013). "Tribals to rally for inclusion of Sarna religion in census". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 All tribals are Hindus, no need for Sarna code: RSS, Times of India, 1 May 2015.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Minister faces ire for Sarna row".
- ↑ "Jharkhand Assembly passes resolution on Sarna Code". The Hindu. 12 November 2020.
- ↑ Bisoee, Animesh (25 September 2021). "Tribals from nine states seek Sarna code in 2021 census". The Telegraph.
- ↑ Church writes to Hemant demanding Sarna code for tribals, Telegraph India, 19.09.2020.
Bibliography[edit | edit source]
Books[edit | edit source]
- Alam, Shamsher; Nayak, Kumari Vibhuti (2023). ""Sarna Adivasi" Religion Code: Contextualizing Religious Identity of Tribals in India". Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Sustainable Development. CRC Press. pp. 262–266. ISBN 978-1-032-60104-5.
- Sharma, Mukul (2022). ""Come Let Us All Play": Sacred Groves, Sarna, and "Green" Politics in Jharkhand, India". In Coggins, Chris; Chen, Bixia (eds.). Sacred Forests of Asia – Spiritual ecology and the politics of natural conservation. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003143680-5. ISBN 9781003143680. LCCN 2021054055.
- Virottam, Balmukund (2020). Religious History of the Chotanagpur Tribes: (Sarna Dharam to Christianity). Himalaya Publishing House. ISBN 978-93-90515-60-8. OCLC 1320817862.
- Borde, Radhika (2017-08-07). "The Sarna Movement in Jharkhand". In Nag, Sajal (ed.). Force of Nature: Essays on History and Politics of Environment (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 165–178. doi:10.4324/9781315141688-9. ISBN 978-1-315-14168-8.
- Minahan, James (2012). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An encyclopedia. Ethnic Groups of the World. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1.
- Niketan, Kishor Vidya (1988). The Spectrum of Tribal Religion in Bihar: A study of continuity & change among the Oraon of Chotanagpur.
- Hembram, Phatik Chandra (1988). Sari-Sarna (Santhal religion). Mittal Publications. ISBN 8170990440.
- Hembram, P.C. (1982). "Return to sacred grove". In Singh, K.S. (ed.). Tribal Movements in India. Vol. II (2006 reprint ed.). Manohar.
- Sachchidananda, A.K. (1980). Elite and Development. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co. ASIN B000MBN8J2.
Journal articles[edit | edit source]
- Srivastava, Malini (2007). "The Sacred Complex of Munda Tribe" (PDF). Anthropologist. 9 (4): 327–330. doi:10.1080/09720073.2007.11891020. S2CID 73737689.
Further reading[edit | edit source]
- Behera, M.C., ed. (2024). The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Readings on Tribe and Religions in India: Emerging Negotiations (1st ed.). Routledge India. doi:10.4324/9781003516415. ISBN 9781032522159.
External links[edit | edit source]
- "Adivasi Religion and Society Network". arsnetwork.org.
