Pokhran-II: Difference between revisions

What links here Related changes Page information Get shortened URL
Created by Khan786
Last edited March 22, 2026
← Older editNewer edit →
VisualWikitext
robot: Update article
Leonwim (talk | contribs)
12 edits
m clean up
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Successful nuclear test series by India in May 1998}}
{{Short description|1998 series of Indian nuclear weapons tests}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox Nuclear weapons test
{{Infobox Nuclear weapons test
|name               = ''Pokhran-II''<br />''Operation Shakti''
|name               =Pokhran-II <br /> Operation Shakti
|picture             = ShaktiBomb.jpg
|picture           =ShaktiBomb.jpg
|picture_description = A [[Cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]] shaped nuclear bomb, ''Shakti I'', prior to its detonation.
|picture_description=''Shakti I'' prior to its detonation
|country             = India
|country           =India
|test_site           = [[Pokhran Test Range]], [[Rajasthan]]
|test_site         =[[Pokhran Test Range]], [[Rajasthan]]
|coordinates         = {{Coord|27|04|44|N|71|43|20|E|type:event_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates       ={{Coord|27|04|44|N|71|43|20|E|type:event_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
|period             = 11–13 May 1998
|period             =11–13 May 1998
|number_of_tests     = 3 (5 devices fired)
|number_of_tests   =3 (5 devices fired)
|test_type           = [[Underground nuclear testing|Underground tests]] (underground, underground shaft)
|test_type         =[[Underground nuclear testing|Underground]]
|device_type         = [[Nuclear fission|Fission]] and [[Nuclear fusion|Fusion]]
|device_type       =[[Nuclear fission|fission]] and [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]]
|max_yield           = {{convert|45|ktonTNT|lk=in}} tested;<ref name=":0" />
|max_yield         ={{convert|45|ktonTNT|lk=in}}
<br /> Scale down of 200 [[TNT equivalent|kt]] model
|previous_test     =[[Smiling Buddha|Pokhran-I]]
|previous_test       = Pokhran-I (''Operation [[Smiling Buddha]]'')
<!-- |next_test          = ''None so Far...'' -->
}}
}}
'''Pokhran-II''' (''Operation Shakti'') was a series of five [[Nuclear weapons testing|nuclear weapon tests]] conducted by India in May 1998. The bombs were detonated at the [[Indian Army]]'s [[Pokhran Test Range]] in [[Rajasthan]]. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India, after the first test, ''[[Smiling Buddha]]'', in May 1974.


The '''Pokhran-II''' tests were a series of five [[nuclear bomb]] [[Nuclear weapons testing|test explosions]] conducted by India at the [[Indian Army]]'s [[Pokhran|Pokhran Test Range]] in May 1998.<ref name="CNN India Bureau, 1998">{{cite news|last1=CNN India Bureau|title=India releases pictures of nuclear tests |url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/17/india.nuke.tests/ |access-date=14 June 2015|agency=CNN India Bureau|publisher=CNN India Bureau |date=17 May 1998}}</ref> It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code-named ''[[Smiling Buddha]]'', was conducted in May 1974.<ref name="Ministry of External Affairs, 1998">{{cite web|title=Official press release by India |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Indianofficial.txt |website=meadev.gov.in/ |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, 1998|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>
The test consisted of five detonations, the first of which was claimed to be a [[Thermonuclear weapon|two-stage fusion bomb]] while the remaining four were [[fission bomb]]s. The first three tests were [[Nuclear weapons testing#Salvo tests|carried out simultaneously]] on 11 May 1998 and the last two were detonated two days later on 13 May 1998. The tests were collectively called ''Operation Shakti'', and the five nuclear bombs were designated as ''Shakti-I'' to ''Shakti-V''.


The tests achieved their main objective of giving India the capability to build [[Fission bomb|fission]] and [[thermonuclear weapon]]s with yields up to 200 [[kilotons]].<ref name=":0" /> The [[Rajagopala Chidambaram|then-Chairman]] of the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India|Indian Atomic Energy Commission]] described each one of the explosions of ''Pokhran-II'' to be "equivalent to several tests carried out by other nuclear weapon states over decades".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2–15, 1999|title=We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/static/html/fl1601/16010840.htm|url-status=live|journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|volume=16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028030113/https://frontline.thehindu.com/static/html/fl1601/16010840.htm|archive-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> Subsequently, India established [[computer simulation]] capability to predict the yields of nuclear explosives whose designs are related to the designs of explosives used in this test.<ref name=":0" />
The chairman of the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India]] described each of the explosions to be equivalent to several tests carried out over the years by various nations. While announcing the tests, the [[Government of India|Indian government]] declared India as a nuclear state and that the tests achieved the main objective of giving the capability to build fission bombs and thermonuclear weapons with yields up to 200 [[kilotons]]. While the Indian fission bombs have been documented, the design and development of thermonuclear weapons remains uncertain after the tests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kristensen |first=Hans M. |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |last3=Johns |first3=Eliana |last4=Knight |first4=Mackenzie |date=2024-09-02 |title=Indian nuclear weapons, 2024 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00963402.2024.2388470 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=326–342 |doi=10.1080/00963402.2024.2388470 |issn=0096-3402 |access-date=2025-04-12|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


''Pokhran-II'' consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a [[Thermonuclear weapon|fusion bomb]] while the remaining four were [[fission bomb]]s.<ref name="CNN India Bureau, 1998" /> The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name ''Operation Shakti'', with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs.<ref name="CNN India Bureau, 1998" /> On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated,<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> and the [[Premiership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Indian government]] led by [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] shortly convened a press conference to declare India as a full-fledged nuclear state.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> The tests resulted in a [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172|variety of sanctions]] against India by a number of major countries including Japan and the United States.
As a consequence of the tests, [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172]] was enacted and [[economic sanction]]s were imposed by countries including Japan and the United States.


Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called ''Operation Shakti–98'', and the five nuclear bombs were designated ''Shakti-I'' through to ''Shakti-V''. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as ''Pokhran II'', and the 1974 explosion as ''Pokhran-I''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why May 11 be celebrated as National Technology Day? Things you should know|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/current-affairs/why-may-11-be-celebrated-as-national-technology-day-things-you-should-know/articleshow/75669853.cms|website=Times of India}}</ref>
== History ==
=== Early nuclear programme (1944–1965) ===
Efforts towards building a [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]], infrastructure, and research on related [[Nuclear technology|technologies]] have been undertaken by India since the end of [[Second World War]].<ref name="Print">{{cite web|title=Homi Bhabha and how World War II was responsible for creating India's nuclear future|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/homi-bhabha-and-how-world-war-ii-was-responsible-for-creating-indias-nuclear-future/312842/|work=[[The Print]]|date=30 October 2019|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=6 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506125313/https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/homi-bhabha-and-how-world-war-ii-was-responsible-for-creating-indias-nuclear-future/312842/|url-status=live}}</ref> The origins of [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India's nuclear programme]] go back to 1945 when [[nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]] [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] established the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (TIFR) with the aid of [[Tata Group]]. After [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], the Atomic Energy Act was passed on 15 April 1948, that established the [[Indian Atomic Energy Commission]] (IAEC).<ref name="History">{{cite web|last=Sublette|first=Carey|title=Origins of Indian nuclear program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html|publisher=Nuclear weapon Archive|access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> In 1954, [[Department of Atomic Energy (India)|Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)]] was established which was responsible for the atomic development programme and was allocated a significant amount of the defence budget in the subsequent years. In 1956, the first [[nuclear reactor]] became operational at [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] (BARC), becoming the first operating reactor in Asia.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1545653|title=Apsara – U Reactor Becomes Operational at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay|date=11 September 2018|access-date=1 December 2023|publisher=[[Government of India]]}}</ref> In 1961, India commissioned a reprocessing plant to produce [[Weapons-grade nuclear material|weapon grade plutonium]]. In 1962, India was engaged in a [[Sino-Indian War|war with China]], and with China conducting its own [[596 (nuclear test)|nuclear test in 1964]], India accelerated its development of nuclear weapons.<ref name="History"/><ref name="Print"/>


== India's nuclear bomb project ==
With two reactors operational in the early 1960s, research progressed into the manufacture of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=P.|title=Homi J. Bhabha: A Complete Biography: Homi J. Bhabha: A Complete Biography: Architect of India's Nuclear Program|publisher=Prabhakar Prakashan|year=2024|isbn=978-93-5562-943-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdXsEAAAQBAJ|page=1960|access-date=20 May 2024|archive-date=20 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520143446/https://books.google.com/books?id=VdXsEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="History"/> With the unexpected deaths of then [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] in 1964 and Bhabha in 1966, the programme slowed down.<ref name="Program">{{cite web|title=On to Weapons Development, 1960–67|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaWDevelop.html|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date=14 January 2013|date=30 March 2001}}</ref> The incoming prime minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] appointed physicist [[Vikram Sarabhai]] as the head of the nuclear programme and the direction of the programme changed towards using nuclear energy for peaceful purposes rather than military development.<ref name="Kanavi">{{cite web|last=Kanavi|first=Shivanand|title=How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=2 April 2024|archive-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115120835/https://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
Efforts towards building the [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]], infrastructure, and research on related [[Nuclear technology|technologies]] have been undertaken by [[India]] since [[World War II]]. Origins of [[Indian nuclear programme|India's nuclear program]] date back to [[1944]] when [[Nuclear Physics|nuclear physicist]] [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] began persuading the [[Indian National Congress]] towards the harnessing of [[Nuclear power in India|nuclear energy]]— a year later he established the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (TIFR).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Homi Bhabha and how World War II was responsible for creating India's nuclear future|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/homi-bhabha-and-how-world-war-ii-was-responsible-for-creating-indias-nuclear-future/312842/|website=The print}}</ref>


In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]] and plans were developed to produce [[plutonium]] and other [[bomb]] components. In 1962, India and [[People's Republic of China|China]] [[Sino-Indian War|engaged]] in the disputed [[Northern India|northern front]], and was further intimidated with a Chinese [[596 (nuclear test)|nuclear test]] in 1964. Direction towards [[militarisation]] of the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]] slowed down when [[Vikram Sarabhai]] became its head and [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] showed little interest after becoming the [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] in that year.<ref name=":1" />
=== Development of nuclear bomb and first test (1966–1972) ===
[[File:Trombay.jpg|thumb|APSARA reactor and plutonium reprocessing facility at [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]] as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966]]


After [[Indira Gandhi]] became [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] in 1966, the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]] was consolidated when [[physicist]] [[Raja Ramanna]] joined the efforts. Another [[Test No. 6|nuclear test]] by China eventually led to India's decision to build [[nuclear weapon]]s in 1967 and conduct its first nuclear test, [[Smiling Buddha]], in 1974.<ref name=Bates>{{cite book|last=Bates|first=Crispin|title=Subalterns and Raj: South Asia Since 1600|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-21484-1|page=343}}</ref>
After Shastri's death in 1966, [[Indira Gandhi]] became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed. The design work on the bomb proceeded under physicist [[Raja Ramanna]], who continued the nuclear weapons technology research after Bhabha's death in 1966.<ref name="Program"/> The project employed 75 scientists and progressed in secrecy.<ref name="Kanavi"/> During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistani War]], the US government sent a [[carrier battle group]] into the [[Bay of Bengal]] in an attempt to intimidate India, who were aided by the [[Soviet Union]], who responded by sending a [[submarine]] armed with [[nuclear missile]]s. The Soviet response underlined the [[Deterrence theory|deterrent value]] and significance of nuclear weapons to India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indiandefencereview.com/2010/02/arihant-the-annihilator.html|title=Arihant: the annihilator|publisher=Indian Defence Review|date=25 October 2010|access-date=8 January 2012|archive-date=13 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613034034/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/EXPRESS-EXCLUSIVE-Maiden-Test-of-Undersea-K-4-Missile-From-Arihant-Submarine/2016/04/09/article3370608.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> After India gained military and political initiative over Pakistan in the war, the work on building a nuclear device continued. The hardware began to be built in early 1972 and the Prime Minister authorised the development of a nuclear test device in September 1972.<ref>{{cite book|last=Perkovich|first=G.|title=India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation|publisher=University of California Press|series=ACLS Humanities E-Book|year=1999|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5|page=172}}</ref>


=== Post-Smiling Buddha ===
On 18 May 1974, India tested a [[Nuclear weapon design#Implosion-type weapon|implosion-type]] fission device at the [[Indian Army]]'s [[Pokhran Test Range]] under the code name ''[[Smiling Buddha]]''.<ref name="Smiling Buddha">{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html|work=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|title=Smiling Buddha, 1974|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive}}</ref> The test was described as a [[peaceful nuclear explosion]] (PNE) and the [[nuclear yield|yield]] was estimated to be between 6 and 10 [[kiloton]]s.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/><ref name="Pahuja">{{cite book|first=Om Parkash|last=Pahuja|title=India: A Nuclear Weapon State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GiI_Yt7SOA8C&pg=PT63|access-date=29 June 2012|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|isbn=978-81-87100-69-0|pages=63–|year=2001}}</ref><ref name="Nuclear files archives">{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_page.php?year=1974|title=1974 Nuclear files|work=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation|publisher=Nuclear files archives|access-date=14 January 2013|archive-date=2 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702032049/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_page.php?year=1974|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bates|first=Crispin|title=Subalterns and Raj: South Asia Since 1600|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-21484-1|page=343}}</ref>


Responding to Smiling Buddha,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Smiling Buddha: All about Pokhran test that made India a nuclear power|url=https://www.theindianhawk.com/2020/05/smiling-buddha-all-about-pokhran-test-that-made-india-nuclear-power.html|access-date=2020-07-05|website=The Indian Hawk {{!}} Indian Defence News}}</ref> the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] severely affected [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India's nuclear program]].<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> The world's [[G8|major nuclear powers]] imposed [[Technological apartheid|technological embargo]] on India and Pakistan, which was on its own technological race to match India's achievement.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> The [[India and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear program]] struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress was crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependence on imported technology and technical assistance.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> [[Indian Prime Minister|Prime Minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] declared to the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] that India's nuclear program was not for military purposes, despite authorising preliminary work on the [[Teller-Ulam design|hydrogen bomb]] design.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" />
{{Atal Bihari Vajpayee series}}


In the aftermath of the [[The Emergency (India)|state emergency]] in 1975 that resulted in the [[Government failure|collapse]] of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's [[Second Indira Gandhi ministry|government]], the nuclear program was left in a vacuum, lacking political leadership and even basic management.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under [[M.R. Srinivasan|M. Srinivasan]], a [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical engineer]], but progress was slow.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" />
=== Aftermath of nuclear tests (1973–1988) ===
While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many countries. The [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international [[nuclear proliferation]].<ref name="NSG">{{cite web|title=History of the NSG|url=https://www.nsg-online.org/en/about-nsg|work=Nuclear Suppliers Group|access-date=14 January 2023|archive-date=3 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203133606/https://www.nsg-online.org/en/about-nsg|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Technological apartheid|technological embargo]] and sanctions affected the development of India's nuclear programme.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smiling Buddha: All about Pokhran test that made India a nuclear power|url=https://www.theindianhawk.com/2020/05/smiling-buddha-all-about-pokhran-test-that-made-india-nuclear-power.html|access-date=5 July 2020|work=The Indian Hawk|date=19 May 2020|archive-date=7 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707010619/https://www.theindianhawk.com/2020/05/smiling-buddha-all-about-pokhran-test-that-made-india-nuclear-power.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It was crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependence on imported technology on certain areas. Though India declared to the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) that India's nuclear program was intended only for peaceful purposes, preliminary work on a [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] bomb was initiated.<ref name="Pause">{{cite web|title=The Long Pause: 1974–1989|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaPause.html|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref> In the aftermath of the [[The Emergency (India)|state emergency]] in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the [[Second Indira Gandhi ministry]], the programme continued under [[M.R. Srinivasan]], but made slow progress. Though the nuclear programme did not receive much attention from incoming Prime Minister [[Morarji Desai]] at first, it gained impetus when Ramanna was appointed to the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chengappa|first=Raj|title=Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power|year=2000|publisher=[[Harper Collins]]|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7223-330-2|pages=219–220}}</ref>  


The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister [[Morarji Desai]] who was renowned for his [[Gandhism|peace advocacy]].<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred [[physicist]] [[Raja Ramanna|Ramanna]] to [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Indian MoD]], and [[Premiership of Morarji Desai|his government]] once again accelerated [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India's nuclear program]].<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Chengappa|first=Raj|title=Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power|year=2000|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers, India|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7223-330-2|pages=219–220}}</ref>
With the discovery of [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program]], India realised that it was very likely to succeed in its project in a few years. With the return of Indira Gandhi in [[1980 Indian general election|1980]], the nuclear programme gained momentum. Two new underground shafts were constructed at the Pokhran test range by 1982 and Gandhi approved further nuclear tests in 1982. But the decision was reversed owing to pressure from the United States as it might end up in [[nuclear brinksmanship]] with Pakistan and potential foreign policy implications. Work continued towards weaponizing the nuclear bomb under [[V. S. R. Arunachalam]] and the [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme|Indian missile programme]] was launched under [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]].<ref name="Pause"/> Ramanna pushed forward with a [[Enriched uranium|uranium enrichment program]] and despite the sanctions, India imported [[heavy water]] required as a [[neutron moderator]] in the [[nuclear reactors]], from countries like China, Norway and Soviet Union through a middleman. Though [[Rajiv Gandhi]], who became the Prime Minister in 1984, supported technological development and research, he was sceptical about nuclear testing as he believed it would result in further technological alienation from the developed countries. ''Dhruva'', a new reactor with a capability to produce larger quantities of weapon grade material, was commissioned at BARC in 1985. Other components for a nuclear fusion bomb were developed during the time with capabilities to air drop nuclear weapons. In late 1985, a study group commissioned by the Prime Minister outlined a plan for the production of 70 to 100 nuclear warheads and a strict no [[First use of nuclear weapons|first use]] policy.<ref name="Pause"/>


Shortly thereafter, the world discovered the [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program]].<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Contrary to India's nuclear program, Pakistan's atomic bomb program was akin to United States [[Manhattan Project]], in that it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> The Pakistan's secretive atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by China; India realised that Pakistan was very likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">{{cite web|last=Sublette|first=Carey|title=The Long Pause: 1974–1989|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaPause.html|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref>
=== Building towards second nuclear test (1989–1998) ===
In [[1989 Indian general election|1989]], [[Vishwanath Pratap Singh|V.P. Singh]] formed the [[V. P. Singh ministry|government]], which collapsed within two years and this period of instability caused a snag in the nuclear weapons programme. [[India-Pakistan Relations|Foreign relations]] between India and Pakistan severely worsened when India accused Pakistan of supporting the [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]. During this time, the Indian Missile Program succeeded in the development of the [[Prithvi (missile)|''Prithvi'']] [[missile]]s. India decided to observe the temporary moratorium on the nuclear tests for fear of inviting international criticism.<ref name="Momentum">{{cite web|url=https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaMomentum.html|title=The Momentum Builds: 1989-1998|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)|url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf|publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative|access-date=4 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030503120417/http://nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf|archive-date=3 May 2003|df=dmy-all}}</ref>


In 1980, the [[1980 Indian general election|general elections]] marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional [[nuclear test]]s continued to be denied by the [[Third Indira Gandhi ministry|government]] after Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan begin engaging in [[Nuclear brinksmanship|brinkmanship]], though the nuclear program continued to advance.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Work towards the hydrogen bomb, as well as the launch of the [[Indian Missile Program|missile programme]], began under [[Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam|Dr. Abdul Kalam]], who was then an [[Aerospace engineering|aerospace engineer]].<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" />
Though India had stock-piled material and components to be able to construct a dozen nuclear fission bombs, the deliverance mechanism was still under development. With the successful testing of [[Agni missile]] and successful trials involving dropping of similar bombs without fissionable material from [[bomber aircraft]] in 1994, the weaponization became successful. With the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] under discussion and global pressure pushing India to sign, then Indian Prime Minister [[P.V. Narasimha Rao|Narasimha Rao]] ordered preparations for further nuclear tests in 1995. Based on the direction of the director of DAE [[Rajagopala Chidambaram|R. Chidambaram]], [[S. K. Sikka]] was tasked with the development of a thermo-nuclear fusion device. In August, [[Krishnamurthy Santhanam|K. Santhanam]], the chief technical adviser of DRDO, was appointed the director for carrying out the tests. While water was being pumped out of the shafts constructed more than ten years earlier, American [[Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL|spy satellites]] picked up the signs.<ref name="Momentum"/> With pressure from [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]], the test never progressed.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=CNN|title=India wants to divert attention from N-test plan|url=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1996/04Jan96.html#indi|access-date=16 January 2013|newspaper=Dawn Archives|date=4 January 1996|archive-date=30 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330231716/http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1996/04Jan96.html#indi|url-status=dead}}</ref>


== Political momentum: 1988–1998 ==
With Rao's term ending in 1996, the next two years saw multiple governments being formed. [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], who was a strong advocate of nuclear weaponization, came to power following the [[1998 Indian general election|1998 general elections]]. Vajpayee had earlier declared that if re-voted to power, his government would induct nuclear weapons and declare India's might to gather respect.<ref name="Nuclear politics">{{cite web|title=The nuclear politics: The 1998 Election|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|work=Nuclear weapon archives|publisher=Nuclear politics|access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Soon after assuming power in March 1998, Vajpayee organized a discussion with Abdul Kalam and Chidambaram to conduct nuclear tests. On 28 March 1998, he asked to make preparations for a test.<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|title=Pokhran II row: Sethna slams Kalam, Iyengar says tests were done in haste|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_pokhran-ii-row-sethna-slams-kalam-iyengar-says-tests-were-done-in-haste_1286978|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|access-date=15 November 2011|date=September 2009|archive-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329184008/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_pokhran-ii-row-sethna-slams-kalam-iyengar-says-tests-were-done-in-haste_1286978|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Ab vajpayee.jpg|200px|thumb|right|During the [[1998 Indian general election]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]'s [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] promised to carry out nuclear tests.]]


In 1989, the [[1989 Indian general election|general elections]] witnessed the [[Janata Dal]] party led by [[Vishwanath Pratap Singh|V.P. Singh]], forming the [[V. P. Singh ministry|government]].<ref name="Nuclear weapon Archive" /> [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Vishwanath Pratap Singh|V.P. Singh]] downplayed the [[India-Pakistan Relations|relations]] with the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Benazir Bhutto]] whose [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] (PPP) won the [[1988 Pakistani general elections|general elections]] in 1988. [[India-Pakistan Relations|Foreign relations]] between India and Pakistan severely worsened when India accused Pakistan of supporting the [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name="Nuclear weapon Archive" /> During this time, the [[Indian Missile Program]] succeeded in the development of the [[Prithvi (missile)|''Prithvi'']] [[missile]]s.
== Nuclear test ==
[[File:Tracking Nuclear Proliferation, India.jpg|thumb|[[Marine Corps Intelligence Activity|US Marine Intelligence]] maps showing the Indian test site in 1997]]


Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> The Indian public had supported the [[nuclear test]]s which ultimately led [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[P.V. Narasimha Rao|Narasimha Rao]] deciding to conduct further tests in 1995.<ref name="Nuclear weapon Archive">{{cite web|last=weapon archive|title=The Momentum builds|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaMomentum.html|publisher=Nuclear weapon Archive|access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref> Plans were halted after American [[Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL|spy satellites]] picked up signs of preparations for [[nuclear testing]] at [[Pokhran Test Range]] in [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="Nuclear weapon Archive" /> [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] and his [[Clinton administration|administration]] exerted enormous pressure on [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[P.V. Narasimha Rao|Narasimha Rao]] to stop the preparations.<ref name="Nuclear weapon Archive" /> Responding to India, [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Benazir Bhutto]] issued harsh criticism towards India on Pakistan's [[News channels in Pakistan|news channels]]; thus putting stress on the [[India-Pakistan Relations|relations]] between [[India and Pakistan|two countries]].<ref name="Dawn Archives">{{cite news|publisher=CNN|title=India wants to divert attention from N-test plan|url=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1996/04Jan96.html#indi|access-date=16 January 2013|newspaper=Dawn Archives|date=4 January 1996}}</ref>
=== Preparation ===
The [[Indian Intelligence Bureau]] had been aware of the capability of the United States [[Nuclear MASINT|spy satellites]] in detecting Indian test preparations. Therefore, the tests required complete secrecy and the [[List of regiments and corps of the Indian Army|58th Engineer Regiment]] of the [[Indian Army Corps of Engineers]] was tasked with preparing the test sites without being detected.<ref name="India Today">{{cite news|title=Books: Weapons of Peace—How the CIA was Fooled|work=[[India Today]]|url=http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html|access-date=30 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112002020/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html|archive-date=12 January 2016|url-status=dead }}</ref> Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place during the day to give the impression that it was never moved. Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug-out sand was shaped like natural [[sand dune]]s. Cables and sensors were either covered with sand or concealed using native vegetation. A select group was involved in the detonation process with all personnel required to wear uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. They were given pseudo-names and they traveled in smaller groups to avoid detection.<ref name="India Today"/><ref name="Nuclear politics" />  


Diplomatic tensions escalated between [[India and Pakistan]] when [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Benazir Bhutto]] raised the [[Kashmir problem|Kashmir issue]] at the [[United Nations]] in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N95/864/50/PDF/N9586450.pdf?OpenElement|title=UN General Assembly—11th Meeting official records|website=documents-dds-ny.un.org|access-date=2018-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N95/864/38/PDF/N9586438.pdf?OpenElement|title=UN General Assembly—10th Meeting official records|last=Team|first=ODS|website=documents-dds-ny.un.org|access-date=2018-05-24}}</ref><ref name="19950905DawnWireService">{{cite news|last=Masood Haider|title=Pakistan's raising of Kashmir issue upsets India|url=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1995/07Sp95.html#paki|access-date=19 November 2011|newspaper=Dawn  |date=5 September 1995}}</ref> In a speech delivered by then-[[Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan]], [[Yousaf Raza Gillani]], stressed the "[[Kashmir problem]]" as a continuing threat to peace and security in the region.<ref name="19950905DawnWireService" /> The Indian delegation headed by [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] at the [[United Nations]], reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan— the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area."<ref name="19950905DawnWireService" />
Scientists and engineers of BARC, the [[Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research|Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER)]], and DRDO were involved in the development and assembly of the bombs. Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the [[detonator]]s, the implosion and high-voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for systems engineering, aerodynamics and safety. The bombs were transported moved from BARC at 3&nbsp;am on 1 May 1998 to [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport|Bombay airport]], then flown in an [[Indian Air Force]]'s [[AN-32]] aircraft to [[Jaisalmer Airport]]. It was then transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as ''Prayer Hall''.<ref name="Shakti"/>


=== 1998 Indian general elections ===
=== Personnel ===  
{{Main|1998 Indian general election|Bharatiya Janata Party|Indian economy|Indian politics}}
[[File:A.P.J Abdul Kalam.jpg|thumb|[[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] was one of the co-ordinators for the test.]]
Following were the main personnel involved in the testing:<ref name="Shakti">{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program—Operation Shakti: 1998|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref>


The [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]], came to power in [[1998 Indian general election|1998 general elections]] with an exclusive [[exclusive mandate|public mandate]].<ref name="Nuclear politics">{{cite web |title=The nuclear politics: The 1998 Election|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|work=Nuclear weapon archives|publisher=Nuclear politics|access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> BJP's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.
* Chief Coordinators :
** [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam]], scientific adviser to the [[Defence Minister of India|defence minister]] and head of the [[DRDO]]
** [[Rajagopala Chidambaram|R. Chidambaram]], chairman of the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India|Atomic Energy Commission]] and the [[Department of Atomic Energy]]
* [[Defence Research & Development Organization]] (DRDO):
** [[Krishnamurthy Santhanam|K. Santhanam]], director of test site preparations
* [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] (BARC) :
** [[Anil Kakodkar]], director
** [[S. K. Sikka|Satinder Kumar Sikka]], lead for thermonuclear weapon development
** [[M. S. Ramakumar]], Director of Nuclear Fuel and Automation Manufacturing Group; lead for manufacture of nuclear components
** D.D. Sood, director of Radiochemistry and Isotope Group; director of nuclear materials acquisition
** S.K. Gupta, Solid State Physics and Spectroscopy Group; director of device design and assessment
** G. Govindraj, associate director of Electronic and Instrumentation Group; director of field instrumentation


In Pakistan, the similar [[Conservatism in Pakistan|conservative force]], the [[Pakistan Muslim League (N)|PML(N)]], was also in [[Power (politics)|power]] with an [[exclusive mandate]] led by [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] who defeated the [[Socialism in Pakistan|leftist]] [[Pakistan Peoples Party|PPP]] led by [[Benazir Bhutto]] in the [[1997 Pakistani general election|general elections]] held in 1997.<ref>See: [[1997 Pakistani general elections]]</ref> During the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] campaign, [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] indulged in grandstanding— such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that [[Azad Kashmir|part of Kashmir]] that is under Pakistan's control."<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> Before this declaration, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP platform]] had clear intentions to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons" and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved."<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee publicly began lobbying for [[nuclear testing]] and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty."<ref name="Nuclear politics" />
=== Testing === 
[[File:A sunset on the dunes of the Great Indian Thar Desert Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|The [[Thar Desert]] in the state of [[Rajasthan]] where the nuclear site, the [[Pokhran Test Range]], is located]]
The test was organized into two groups to be fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. Five nuclear devices were tested during the operation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Forces gung-ho on N-arsenal|url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/ml.asp?Ref=VE9JTS8yMDA5LzA4LzI4I0FyMDE1MDA|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=21 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521000616/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/ml.asp?Ref=VE9JTS8yMDA5LzA4LzI4I0FyMDE1MDA|archive-date=21 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Shakti"/><ref name="PR">{{Cite journal|date=24 September 2009|title=Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|url-status=live|journal=[[Press Information Bureau|Press Information Bureau, Government of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024045228/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|archive-date=24 October 2017}}</ref>
<br/>
Group-I:
* ''Shakti I'': Two stage [[thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear device]] with [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] boosted primary, test design yield 45 kt, but designed for up to 200 kt deployed yield
* ''Shakti II'': A light-weight [[Implosion-type nuclear weapon|plutonium implosion]] [[nuclear fission|fission]] device yielding 12&nbsp;kt and intended as a warhead that could be delivered by bomber or missile
* ''Shakti III'': An experimental [[Implosion nuclear weapon|linear implosion]] fission device that used [[reactor-grade]] plutonium, yielding 0.3&nbsp;kt
Group-II:
* ''Shakti IV'': A 0.5&nbsp;kt experimental fission device
* ''Shakti V'': A 0.2&nbsp;kt [[Uranium-233|thorium/U-233]] experimental fission device


Consultation began between [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]], [[APJ Abdul Kalam|Dr.Abdul Kalam]], [[R. Chidambaram]] and officials of the [[Department of Atomic Energy (India)|Indian DAE]] on nuclear options. [[R. Chidambaram|Chidambaram]] briefed [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]] extensively on the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]]; [[APJ Abdul Kalam|Abdul Kalam]] presented the status of the [[Indian Missile Program|missile program]]. On 28 March 1998, [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]] asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.<ref name="dna news.">{{cite web|last=(PTI)|first=Press Trust of India|title=Pokhran II row: Sethna slams Kalam, Iyengar says tests were done in haste|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_pokhran-ii-row-sethna-slams-kalam-iyengar-says-tests-were-done-in-haste_1286978|work=DNA News|publisher=dna news.|access-date=15 November 2011|date=September 2009}}</ref>
An additional, sixth device (''Shakti VI'') was developed but not detonated. The first test was planned on 11 May.<ref>{{cite news|title=Spectral defence|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/science-and-technology/article30188509.ece|access-date=23 March 2024|work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|archive-date=23 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323093429/https://frontline.thehindu.com/science-and-technology/article30188509.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named ''White House'', which was approximately {{convert|230|m|ft|abbr=~}} deep, the fission bomb was placed in a {{convert|150|m}} deep shaft code named ''Taj Mahal'', and the first sub-kiloton device in shaft ''Kumbhkaran''. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May. The first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8:30&nbsp;PM. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed by 4&nbsp;AM on the next day with the fission device being placed by 7:30&nbsp;AM. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber used for the test devices.<ref name="Shakti"/> The timing of the tests was pursuant to the local weather conditions, and the test sequence was initiated in the afternoon. Santhanam, in-charge of the test site, handed over the site to M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying the test indicators. After the safety clearance, the countdown system was activated and at 3:45&nbsp;PM [[Indian Standard Time|IST]], the three devices were detonated simultaneously.<ref name="Shakti"/><ref name="Nuclear politics"/><ref>{{cite news|title=India releases pictures of nuclear tests|url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/17/india.nuke.tests/|access-date=14 June 2015|work=[[CNN]]|date=17 May 1998|archive-date=30 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330231713/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/17/india.nuke.tests/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 13 May, at 12.21&nbsp;PM IST, two sub-kiloton devices (''Shakti IV'' and ''V'') were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station.<ref name="Nuclear politics"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program|author=Sumit Ganguly|journal=International Security|volume=23|issue=4|date=Spring 1999|pages=148–177|jstor=2539297|doi=10.1162/isec.23.4.148|s2cid=57565560}}</ref>


Pakistan, at a [[Conference on Disarmament]], said it would offered a peace agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields."<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> Pakistan's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee's position to order the tests.<ref name="Nuclear politics" />
=== Announcement ===
 
Having tested weaponized nuclear warheads, India became the sixth country to join the [[nuclear club]].<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|title=Asia's nuclear challenge: Third World joins the nuclear club|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/asia_nuclear_crisis/analysis/92783.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|date=13 May 1998|archive-date=20 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020185904/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/asia_nuclear_crisis/analysis/92783.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly after the tests, Prime Minister Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
=== Preparations for the test ===
{{Main|CIA activities in India|ISI activities in India|Indo-US Relations}}
[[File:Tracking Nuclear Proliferation, India.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Marine Corps Intelligence Activity|US Marine Intelligence]] maps showing the Indian test site, 1997.]]
 
Unlike Pakistan's [[Nuclear test site|weapon–testing laboratories]], there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at [[Pokhran]].<ref name="India Today">{{cite news | title = Books: Weapons of Peace—How the CIA was Fooled | newspaper = India Today | url = http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html | access-date = 30 October 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160112002020/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html | archive-date = 12 January 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Unlike the high-altitude [[Mountain ranges of Pakistan|granite mountains]] in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the [[Rajasthan Desert]] provide little cover from [[Surveillance satellite|probing satellites]].<ref name="India Today" /> The [[Indian Intelligence Agency]] had been aware of United States [[Nuclear MASINT|spy satellites]] and the [[CIA]] had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995. Therefore, the tests required complete [[secrecy]] in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries.<ref name="India Today" /> The [[58th Engineer Regiment (India)|58th Engineer Regiment]] of the [[Indian Army Corps of Engineers]] was commissioned to prepare the test sites to avoid detection by the United States [[Nuclear MASINT|spy satellites]]. The 58th Engineer's commander [[Colonel]] Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy."<ref name="India Today" />
 
Extensive planning was done by a small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the [[Indian government]] didn't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)]], [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam|Dr. Abdul Kalam]], and [[R. Chidambaram|Dr. R. Chidambaram]], the Director of the [[Department of Atomic Energy|Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)]], were the chief coordinators of this test planning.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> The scientists and engineers of the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)]], the [[Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research|Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER)]], and the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)]] were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and data collection.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> A small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process. All scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned how to avoid satellite detection.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.<ref name="Nuclear politics" />
 
Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug-out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniforms, to prevent detection in satellite images.<ref name="India Today" />
 
== Nuclear weapon designs and development ==


=== Development and test teams ===
{{cquote|Today, at 15:45 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also confirmed that there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974. I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/news/india/1998/05/vajpayee1198.htm|title=Prime Minister's announcement of India's three underground nuclear tests|work=FAS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020314083350/https://fas.org/news/india/1998/05/vajpayee1198.htm|access-date=31 January 2013|archive-date=14 March 2002|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFuUKVxHOX0&t=28|title=Prime Minister's press briefing video|work=[[YouTube]]|date=13 May 2019 |access-date=24 December 2023|archive-date=24 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224184549/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFuUKVxHOX0&t=28|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:<ref name=nwa>{{cite web |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html |title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program—Operation Shakti: 1998 |date=30 March 2001 |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref>


* Project Chief Coordinators :
On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.<ref name="GOI">{{cite press release|title=Planned Series of Nuclear Tests Completed|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Indianofficial.txt|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=17 January 2013|date=13 May 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ganguly|first=Sumit|date=1999|title=India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539297|journal=International Security|volume=23|issue=4|pages=148–177|doi=10.1162/isec.23.4.148|jstor=2539297|s2cid=57565560|issn=0162-2889|access-date=25 May 2022|archive-date=25 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525030913/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539297|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
** Dr. [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam]] (later, [[List of presidents of India|President of India]]), Scientific Adviser to the prime minister and Head of the [[DRDO]].
** Dr. [[Rajagopala Chidambaram|R. Chidambaram]], Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Atomic energy.
*[[Defence Research & Development Organization]] (DRDO) :
**Dr. [[Krishnamurthy Santhanam|K. Santhanam]]; Director, Test Site Preparations.
*[[Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research]] :
**Dr. G. R. Dikshitulu; Senior Research Scientist B.S.O.I Group, Nuclear Materials Acquisition.
*[[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] (BARC) :
**Dr. [[Anil Kakodkar]], Director of BARC.
**Dr. [[S. K. Sikka|Satinder Kumar Sikka]], Director; Thermonuclear Weapon Development.
**Dr. [[M. S. Ramakumar]], Director of Nuclear Fuel and Automation Manufacturing Group; Director, Nuclear Component Manufacture.
**Dr. D.D. Sood, Director of Radiochemistry and Isotope Group; Director, Nuclear Materials Acquisition.
**Dr. S.K. Gupta, Solid State Physics and Spectroscopy Group; Director, Device Design & Assessment.
**Dr. G. Govindraj, Associate Director of Electronic and Instrumentation Group; Director, Field Instrumentation.
 
=== Movement and logistics ===
{{Main|Military logistics|Indian Army Corps of Engineers}}
[[File:A sunset on the dunes of the Great Indian Thar Desert Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Thar Desert]] in the state of [[Rajasthan]] where the nuclear site, the [[Pokhran Test Range]], is located.]]
 
Three laboratories of the [[DRDO]] were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high-voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials.<ref name=nwa /> The bombs were transported in four [[Indian Army]] trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]] were relocated at 3&nbsp;am on 1 May 1998. From the [[Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport]], the bombs were flown in an [[Indian Air Force]]'s [[AN-32]] commanded by Squadron Leader Mahendra Prasad Sharma plane to Jaisalmer. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as 'Prayer Hall'.<ref name=nwa />
 
The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (''Shakti I''), the fission device (''Shakti II''), and a sub-kiloton device (''Shakti III''). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices ''Shakti IV'' and ''V''. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named 'White House', which was over {{convert|200|m}} deep, the fission bomb was placed in a {{convert|150|m}} deep shaft code named 'Taj Mahal', and the first sub-kiloton device in 'Kumbhkaran'. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the 'Kumbhkaran' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8:30&nbsp;pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the 'White House' shaft by 4&nbsp;am, and the fission device being placed in the 'Taj Mahal' shaft was sealed at 7:30&nbsp;am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.<ref name=nwa />
 
The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the [[Soviet Union]], and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak-proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3:45&nbsp;pm the three devices were detonated.<ref name=nwa />
 
=== Specifications and detonation ===
Five nuclear devices were tested during Operation Shakti.<ref name=toi>{{cite web|title=Forces gung-ho on N-arsenal|url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/ml.asp?Ref=VE9JTS8yMDA5LzA4LzI4I0FyMDE1MDA|work=The Times of India|access-date=21 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521000616/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/ml.asp?Ref=VE9JTS8yMDA5LzA4LzI4I0FyMDE1MDA|archive-date=21 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Four of the devices were weapon-grade [[plutonium]]<ref name=nwa /> and one [[Uranium-233|Thorium/U-233]]. They were:<ref name=nwa /><ref name=":0" />
 
* ''Shakti I'': A [[thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear device]] yielding 56&nbsp;kt, but designed for up to 200&nbsp;kt.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=24 September 2009|title=Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|url-status=live|journal=[[Press Information Bureau|Press Information Bureau, Government of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024045228/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|archive-date=24 October 2017}}</ref> The yield of this device was deliberately kept low in order to avoid civilian damage and to eliminate the possibility of a radioactive leak.<ref name=":0" />
* ''Shakti II'': A [[Implosion-type nuclear weapon|plutonium implosion]] design yielding 15&nbsp;kt and intended as a warhead that could be delivered by bomber or missile. It was an improvement of the device detonated in the 1974 [[Smiling Buddha]] (Pokhran-I) test of 1974, developed using simulations on the [[PARAM]] supercomputer.
* ''Shakti III'': An experimental [[Implosion nuclear weapon|linear implosion]] design that used "non-[[Weapons-grade|weapon grade]]"<ref>Note: While the plutonium used in Shakti III has been reported in some sources as "[[reactor-grade]]", it may have been fuel-grade, which is intermediate between the former and weapons-grade; [[cf.]] [http://depletedcranium.com/why-you-cant-build-a-bomb-from-spent-fuel/ Why You Can’t Build a Bomb From Spent Fuel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520124004/http://depletedcranium.com/why-you-cant-build-a-bomb-from-spent-fuel/ |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> plutonium, but which likely omitted the material required for fusion, yielding 0.3&nbsp;kt.
* ''Shakti IV'': A 0.5&nbsp;kt experimental device.
* ''Shakti V'': A 0.2&nbsp;kt [[Uranium-233|Thorium/U-233]] experimental device.
 
An additional, sixth device (''Shakti VI'') is suspected to have been present but not detonated.<ref name=nwa />
 
At 3:43&nbsp;pm [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the ''Shakti I'', ''II'' and ''III'') were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST (6:51 UTC), two sub-kiloton devices (''Shakti IV'' and ''V'') were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.<ref name="Ministry of External Affairs">{{cite web|last=Press Release|title=Planned Series of Nuclear Tests Completed|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Indianofficial.txt|work=Indian Government |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs |access-date=17 January 2013|date=13 May 1998}}</ref>
 
=== Announcement ===
Having tested weaponized nuclear warheads in the Pokhran-II series, India became the sixth country to join the [[nuclear club]].<ref name="BBC India 1998">{{cite news|last=BBC Report|title=Asia's nuclear challenge: Third World joins the nuclear club|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/asia_nuclear_crisis/analysis/92783.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|newspaper=BBC India 1998|date=13 May 1998}}</ref> Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
 
{{cquote|Today, at 15:45 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also confirmed that there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974. I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/news/india/1998/05/vajpayee1198.htm |title=Prime Minister's announcement of India's three underground nuclear tests |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=31 January 2013}}</ref>}}


== Reactions to tests ==
== Reactions to tests ==
=== Domestic ===
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by general public in India. The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] registered significant gains. The media praised the government for its decision and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country's armed forces. The opposition led by [[Indian National Congress]] criticized the [[Vajpayee Government|Vajpayee administration]] for carrying out the series of nuclear tests, accusing the government of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country's national security.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lyon|first=David|title=India detonates two more bombs|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/93111.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|date=31 May 1998|archive-date=1 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101141730/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/93111.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Domestic reactions ===
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44bn in loans in 1998, from the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the [[World Bank]]. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy were likely to be hurt by sanctions with the foreign companies, which had invested heavily in India, facing consequences of impending sanctions. The Indian government announced that it had factored the economic response and was willing to take the consequences.<ref>{{cite news|title=India—will sanctions bite?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/asia_nuclear_crisis/analysis/92942.stm|work=[[BBC News]]|date=1 June 1998|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=30 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630050933/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/asia_nuclear_crisis/analysis/92942.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by society in India.<ref name="BBC India, 1998 (Follow up)">{{cite news|last=Lyon|first=David|title=India detonates two more bombs|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/93111.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|newspaper=BBC India, 1998 (Follow up)|date=31 May 1998}}</ref> The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country's armed forces.<ref name="BBC India, 1998 (Follow up)" /> The Indian opposition, led by [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] criticised the [[Vajpayee Government|Vajpayee administration]] for carrying out the series of nuclear tests. The Congress Party spokesperson [[Salman Khursheed]], accused the [[Bharatiya Janta Party|BJP]] of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country's national security.<ref name="BBC India, 1998 (Follow up)" />
 
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44bn in loans in 1998, from the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the [[World Bank]].<ref name="BBC Economic review" /> The industrial sectors of the Indian economy, such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions.<ref name="BBC Economic review" /> The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions.<ref name="BBC Economic review" /> In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.<ref name="BBC Economic review">{{cite news|last=BBC Reports|title=India—will sanctions bite?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/asia_nuclear_crisis/analysis/92942.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|newspaper=BBC Economic review|date=1 June 1998<!--, 13:24 GMT 14:24 UK-->}}</ref>


== International reactions ==
=== International ===
The United States issued a statement condemning India and threatened [[economic sanctions]]. The [[US intelligence community|intelligence community]] felt humiliated for its failure to detect the preparations for the test.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weiner|first=T.|title=Nuclear anxiety: The Blunders; U.S. Blundered On Intelligence, Officials Admit|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/13/world/nuclear-anxiety-the-blunders-us-blundered-on-intelligence-officials-admit.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 May 1998|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=9 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209070934/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/13/world/nuclear-anxiety-the-blunders-us-blundered-on-intelligence-officials-admit.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In keeping with its preferred approach to [[Foreign policy of the clinton administration|foreign policy]] in [[History of the United States (1991–present)|recent decades]], and in compliance with the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|1994 anti-proliferation law]], the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.<ref>{{cite news|title=US imposes sanctions on India|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92797.stm|work=[[BBC News]]|date=13 May 1998|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226123705/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92797.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defense material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/13/india.us/|work=[[CNN]]|title=U.S. imposes sanctions on India|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=30 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630050930/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/13/india.us/|url-status=live}}</ref> The United States held talks with India over the issue of India becoming a part of the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|CTBT]] and [[Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]] and pressurized to [[rollback]] India's nuclear program.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clarifying India's Nascent Nuclear Doctrine|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/1999_12/jsde99|publisher=Arms control interview|access-date=10 June 2015|archive-date=10 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610130902/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/1999_12/jsde99|url-status=live}}</ref> India did not accede to the request stating that it was not consistent with her national security interest.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chandrasekharan|first=S.|title=CTBT : where does India stand?|url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper8#sthash.0vCRukPh.dpuf|work=South Asia Analysis|access-date=10 June 2015|archive-date=10 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610110216/http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper8#sthash.0vCRukPh.dpuf|url-status=usurped}}</ref>


=== Canada, Japan, and other countries ===
China stated that it was seriously concerned about the tests which are not favorable to the peace and stability in the region and called for the international community to pressure India to cease the development of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/13/world/nuclear-anxiety-reaction-china-seriously-concerned-but-restrained-its-criticism.html|title=China is 'Seriously Concerned' But Restrained in Its Criticism|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 May 1998|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=20 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520162007/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/13/world/nuclear-anxiety-reaction-china-seriously-concerned-but-restrained-its-criticism.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It further rejected claims of India's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as unfounded.<ref>{{cite web|last=Resources on India and Pakistan|title=China's Reaction to India's Nuclear Tests|url=http://cns.miis.edu/archive/country_india/china/nsacris.htm|access-date=15 May 2012|work=CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies|date=1999|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103195522/http://cns.miis.edu/archive/country_india/china/nsacris.htm|archive-date=3 January 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, the other [[permanent members of the United Nations Security Council]]&ndash; the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from making any statements condemning the tests.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Costs of Economic Sanctions: Aftermath of Pokhran II|author=Charan D. Wadhva|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=33|issue=26|date=27 June 1998|pages=1604–1607|jstor=4406922}}</ref>


Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India's actions and its [[List of Ambassadors and High Commissioners of Canada|High Commissioner]].<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/east-meets-far-east/article6365598.ece | title=East meets Far East| newspaper=The Hindu| date=31 August 2014| last1=Haidar| first1=Suhasini}}</ref> [[Economic sanctions|Sanctions]] were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://articles.cnn.com/2001-10-26/world/japan.sanctions_1_pakistan-sanctions-pakistan-and-india-nuclear-testing?_s=PM:asiapcf | publisher=CNN | title=U.S. lifts final sanctions on Pakistan | date=29 October 2001 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403005307/http://articles.cnn.com/2001-10-26/world/japan.sanctions_1_pakistan-sanctions-pakistan-and-india-nuclear-testing?_s=PM:asiapcf | archive-date=3 April 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
Few other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid and government-to-government credit lines. Canada criticized India's actions,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/east-meets-far-east/article6365598.ece|title=East meets Far East|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=31 August 2014|last1=Haidar|first1=Suhasini|access-date=14 January 2015|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128101012/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/east-meets-far-east/article6365598.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> and Japan imposed [[economic sanctions]] which included freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2001-10-26/world/japan.sanctions_1_pakistan-sanctions-pakistan-and-india-nuclear-testing?_s=PM:asiapcf|work=[[CNN]]|title=U.S. lifts final sanctions on Pakistan|date=29 October 2001|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403005307/http://articles.cnn.com/2001-10-26/world/japan.sanctions_1_pakistan-sanctions-pakistan-and-india-nuclear-testing?_s=PM:asiapcf|archive-date=3 April 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>


Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of [[:Category:Foreign aid to India|foreign aid]] to India and government-to-government credit lines.<ref name="EPW, Wadhva" /> However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.<ref name="EPW, Wadhva" />
Pakistan issued a statement blaming India for instigating a [[nuclear arms race]] in the region with [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|prime minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] stating that his country will take appropriate action.<ref>{{cite news|last=Special Report|title=Pakistan condemns India's nuclear tests|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92841.stm|work=BBC|date=13 May 1998|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=1 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101142307/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92841.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> It later carried out six [[Pakistan's nuclear testing series|nuclear tests]] under the code name ''[[Chagai-I]]'' on 28 May 1998 and ''[[Chagai-II]]'' on 30 May 1998.<ref name="Nuclear politics"/> Pakistan's leading [[nuclear physicist]], [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hoodbhoy|first=Pervez Amerali|author-link=Pervaiz Hoodbhoy|title=Nuclear Bayonet|newspaper=[[The Herald (Pakistan)|The Herald]]|date=23 January 2011|url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=18 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218212415/http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan's tests invited similar condemnation and economic sanctions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cns.miis.edu/research/india/wreactpk.htm|title=cns.miis.edu|access-date=8 January 2009|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011118130330/http://cns.miis.edu/research/india/wreactpk.htm|archive-date=18 November 2001|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gertz|first1=Bill|title=Betrayal: How the Clinton Administration Undermined American Security.|date=2013|publisher=Regnery Publishing|location=[[Washington DC]]|isbn=978-1-62157-137-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/betrayal00bill}}</ref> On June 6, the [[UN Security Council]] adopted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172|Resolution 1172]], condemning the Indian and Pakistani nuclear tests.<ref name="Sharpe">{{cite book|editor=Dittmer, L.|title=South Asia's nuclear ecurity dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China|year=2005|publisher=Sharpe|location=[[Armonk]]|isbn=978-0-7656-1419-3}}</ref>


=== China ===
== Aftermath ==
Though the test was carried out in an uninhabited area, the residents of the villages&ndash;Odhaniya, Chacha, Loharki, and Khetolai, which were within a five-kilometre radius, felt the effects of the test. The tremors resulted in damage to the houses, and water storage facilities in the villages. The government compensated the villagers whose houses were damaged. A later study found traces of [[radiation exposure|radiation]] in the water, soil, and vegetation. While the villagers complained of an increase in the rate of [[cancers]] and [[genetic disorders]] in the years following the explosion, it had not been established with certainty that these were due to radiation exposure.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shukla |first=Chinky |date= 1 May 2019 |title=Life at Ground Zero |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/photo-essay/documenting-effects-nuclear-testing-pokhran-residents |access-date=29 December 2025 |work=[[The Caravan]] }}</ref>


On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India," and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia.".<ref name="New York Times, 13 May 1998">{{cite news|title=China is 'Seriously Concerned' But Restrained in Its Criticism|newspaper=New York Times, 13 May 1998|date=13 May 1998}}</ref> The next day the [[Chinese Foreign Ministry]] issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned" the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons".<ref name="CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies">{{cite news|last=Resources on India and Pakistan|title=China's Reaction to India's Nuclear Tests|url=http://cns.miis.edu/archive/country_india/china/nsacris.htm|access-date=15 May 2012|newspaper=CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies|date=1999|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103195522/http://cns.miis.edu/archive/country_india/china/nsacris.htm|archive-date=3 January 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> China further rejected India's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable".<ref name="CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies" /> In a meeting with [[Masayoshi Takemura]] of [[Democratic Party of Japan]], [[Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China]] [[Qian Qichen]] was quoted as saying that India's nuclear tests were a "serious matter," particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a ''"China threat''".<ref name="CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies" /> On 24 November 1998, the [[Embassy of China, New Delhi|Chinese Embassy, New Delhi]] issued a formal statement:
== Legacy and popular culture ==
The Government of India declared 11 May as ''National Technology Day'' in India to commemorate the first of the five successful nuclear weapon tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.<ref>{{cite news|title=Why May 11 be celebrated as National Technology Day? Things you should know|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/current-affairs/why-may-11-be-celebrated-as-national-technology-day-things-you-should-know/articleshow/75669853.cms|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=11 May 2020|access-date=11 May 2020|archive-date=24 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524165319/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/current-affairs/why-may-11-be-celebrated-as-national-technology-day-things-you-should-know/articleshow/75669853.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release08/tech-day.htm|title=National technology day celebrated|agency=[[Press Information Bureau]]|date=11 May 2008|publisher=[[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]]|access-date=9 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215195518/http://dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release08/tech-day.htm|archive-date=15 December 2010|df=dmy-all }}</ref>


{{quote|text=(sic).... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.|sign=[[Embassy of China, New Delhi]]<ref name="The Hindu, 24/xi-1998">{{cite news|last=Active Correspondents|title=India-China Claim 'active approach|newspaper=The Hindu, 24/xi-1998|date=24 November 1998}}</ref>}}
''[[Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran]]'' is a 2018 [[Bollywood]] movie was based on the nuclear tests.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/john-abraham-parmanu-poster-pokhran-nuclear-tests-1029574-2017-08-14|title=John Abraham unveils Parmanu poster: All you need to know about the story of Pokhran|last=Ghosh|first=Samrudhi|work=[[India Today]]|date=14 August 2017|access-date=11 November 2017|archive-date=24 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224074855/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/john-abraham-parmanu-poster-pokhran-nuclear-tests/1/1025701.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[War and Peace (2002 film)|War and Peace]]'' is a documentary by [[Anand Patwardhan]], which details the events of the tests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main13.asp?filename=In070205Short_is.asp|title=War and Peace hits the box office for the first time in India|work=[[Tehelka]]|date=25 June 2005|access-date=1 December 2011|archive-date=12 September 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912213520/http://www.tehelka.com/story_main13.asp?filename=In070205Short_is.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|India-Pakistan relations}}
 
The most vehement and strong reaction to India's [[nuclear explosion]] was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a [[nuclear arms race]] in the region.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> The day after the first tests, [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Foreign Minister]] [[Gohar Ayub Khan]] indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability.... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields", he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent."<ref name="Nuclear politics" />
 
On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk [sic] and was acting in a totally unrestrained way."<ref name="BBC Pakistan">{{cite news|last=Special Report|title=Pakistan condemns India's nuclear tests|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92841.stm|access-date=18 January 2013|publisher=BBC Pakistan|date=13 May 1998}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "''We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security''", he said.<ref name="Nuclear politics" />  Sharif sought to mobilise the entire [[Islamic world]] in support of Pakistan and criticised India for [[nuclear proliferation]].<ref name="Nuclear politics" />
 
[[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] had been under [[Political pressure|intense pressure]] regarding the [[nuclear test]]s by [[US President|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Leader of the Opposition (Pakistan)|Opposition leader]] [[Benazir Bhutto]] at home.<ref name="Regnery Publishing" /> Initially surprising the [[world]], [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] authorised a [[Pakistan's nuclear testing series|nuclear testing program]] and the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) carried out nuclear testing under the codename ''[[Chagai-I]]'' on 28 May 1998 and ''[[Chagai-II]]'' on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the [[Ras Koh Hills|Chagai]] and [[Kharan Desert|Kharan]] test site were conducted fifteen days after India's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: ''[[Chagai-I]]'').<ref>See [[Chagai-I]]</ref>
 
Pakistan's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States.<ref name="cns.miis.edu">{{Cite web |url=http://cns.miis.edu/research/india/wreactpk.htm |title=cns.miis.edu |access-date=8 January 2009 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011118130330/http://cns.miis.edu/research/india/wreactpk.htm |archive-date=18 November 2001 |url-status=dead }}</ref> American President [[Bill Clinton]] was quoted as saying "Two wrongs don't make a right", criticising Pakistan's tests as reactionary to India's Pokhran-II.<ref name="Regnery Publishing">{{cite book|last1=Gertz|first1=Bill|title=Betrayal: How the Clinton Administration Undermined American Security.|date=2013|publisher=Regnery Publishing|location=Washington DC|isbn=978-1-62157-137-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/betrayal00bill}}</ref> The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan's [[Pakistan Academy of Sciences|science community]], the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: [[Kirana-I]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan's tests|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakTests.html|access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>
 
Pakistan's leading [[nuclear physicist]], [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.<ref name="Dr. Prof. Pervez Amerali Hoodbhoy and [[The Herald (Pakistan)|''The Herald'']]">{{cite web  |last=Hoodbhoy |first=Pervez Amerali |author-link=Pervaiz Hoodbhoy |title=Nuclear Bayonet |newspaper=[[The Herald (Pakistan)|The Herald]] |date=23 January 2011 |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html}}</ref>
 
=== United States ===
 
The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that [[Economic sanctions|sanctions]] would follow. The American [[US intelligence community|intelligence community]] was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade" in detecting the preparations for the test.<ref name="THe New York Times">{{ cite news | last = Weiner | first = T. | title = Nuclear anxiety: The Blunders; U.S. Blundered On Intelligence, Officials Admit | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/13/world/nuclear-anxiety-the-blunders-us-blundered-on-intelligence-officials-admit.html | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 13 May 1998 }}</ref>
 
In keeping with its preferred approach to [[Foreign policy of the clinton administration|foreign policy]] in [[History of the United States (1991–present)|recent decades]], and in compliance with the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|1994 anti-proliferation law]], the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.<ref name="BBC America">{{cite news|last=BBC Release|title=US imposes sanctions on India|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92797.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|publisher=BBC America|date=13 May 1998}}</ref> The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/13/india.us/ | publisher=CNN | title=U.S. imposes sanctions on India}}</ref>
 
From 1998 to 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming [[Party (politics)|party]] of the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|CTBT]] and [[Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]].<ref name="South Asia analysis">{{cite web|last1=Chandrasekharan|first1=S.|title=CTBT : where does India stand?|url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper8#sthash.0vCRukPh.dpuf|website=southasiaanalysis.org/|publisher=South Asia analysis|access-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the [[rollback]] of [[Indian nuclear programme|India's nuclear program]].<ref name="arms control interview">{{cite web|title=Clarifying India's Nascent Nuclear Doctrine|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/1999_12/jsde99|website=armscontrol.org/|publisher=arms control interview|access-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> India took a firm stand against the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|CTBT]] and refusing to be signatory [[Party (politics)|party]] of it despite under pressure by the [[United States President|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]], and noted the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|treaty]] as it was not consistent with India's national security interest.<ref name="arms control interview" />
 
=== UN condemnation ===
{{Main|United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172}}
 
The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the [[UN Security Council]] adopted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172|Resolution 1172]], condemning the Indian and the Pakistani tests.<ref name="Sharpe">{{ cite book | editor = Dittmer, L. | title = South Asia's nuclear security dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China | year = 2005 | publisher = Sharpe | location = Armonk, NY | isbn = 978-0-7656-1419-3}}</ref> China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and to eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly in South Asia.<ref name="Sharpe" />
 
== Legacy ==
{{Main|Public holidays in India}}
 
The [[Indian government]] has officially declared 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five [[nuclear test]]s that were carried out on 11 May 1998.<ref name="Press Information Bureau">{{cite web |url=http://www.dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release08/tech-day.htm |title=National technology day celebrated |author=Press Information Bureau |date=11 May 2008 |publisher=Department of Science and Technology |access-date=9 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215195518/http://dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release08/tech-day.htm |archive-date=15 December 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
 
It was officially signed by then-[[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.<ref name="Press Information Bureau" />
 
== In popular culture ==
* ''[[Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran]]'' is a 2018 [[Bollywood]] movie based on India's underground Pokhran-II nuclear tests.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/john-abraham-parmanu-poster-pokhran-nuclear-tests/1/1025701.html |title=John Abraham unveils Parmanu poster: All you need to know about the story of Pokhran |last=Ghosh |first=Samrudhi |work=India Today |date=14 August 2017 |access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref>
* ''[[War and Peace (2002 film)|War and Peace]]'': A documentary by [[Anand Patwardhan]].<ref>{{Citation|last=SatyaShodak|title=War and Peace—Anand Patwardhan|date=2017-12-18|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSieC-Qbeb8|access-date=2019-06-01}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[India and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[India and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Pokhran-I]]—First nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974
* [[Pokhran-I]]


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
{{Reflist}}
 
<ref name="EPW, Wadhva">{{Cite journal
  |title=Costs of Economic Sanctions: Aftermath of Pokhran II
  |author=Charan D. Wadhva
  |journal=Economic and Political Weekly
  |volume=33  |issue=26
  |date=27 June – 3 July 1998
  |pages=1604–1607
  |jstor=4406922
}}</ref>
 
}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Pokhran-II}}
{{Commons category|Pokhran-II}}
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html Nuclear Weapons Archive: Operation Shakti]
* [http://www.dnaindia.com/india/1158324/report-india-aborted-nuclear-bomb-plans-in-1994-nuclear-scientist India aborted nuclear bomb plans in 1994]
* {{Cite journal
  |title=India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program
  |author=Sumit Ganguly
  |journal=International Security
  |volume=23  |issue=4
  |date=Spring 1999
  |pages=148–177
  |jstor=2539297
  |doi=10.1162/isec.23.4.148
|s2cid=57565560
}}
* Chengappa, Raj. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160112002020/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html "How the CIA Was Fooled"] (Weapons of peace). ''[[India Today]]''. Retrieved 24 June 2012.


{{Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti)}}
{{Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti)}}
Line 227: Line 139:
[[Category:Indian nuclear weapons testing]]
[[Category:Indian nuclear weapons testing]]
[[Category:A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]
[[Category:A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]
[[Category:May 1998 events in Asia]]
[[Category:May 1998 in Asia]]
[[Category:Nuclear history of India]]
[[Category:Nuclear history of India]]
[[Category:Pokaran]]
[[Category:Pokhran]]
[[Category:Political history of India]]
[[Category:Political history of India]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]
[[Category:Underground nuclear weapons testing]]
[[Category:Underground nuclear weapons testing]]
[[Category:Vajpayee administration initiatives]]
[[Category:Vajpayee administration initiatives]]

Revision as of 19:26, 16 February 2026


Pokhran-II
Operation Shakti
File:ShaktiBomb.jpg
Shakti I prior to its detonation
Information
CountryIndia
Test sitePokhran Test Range, Rajasthan
Coordinates27°04′44″N 71°43′20″E / 27.07889°N 71.72222°E / 27.07889; 71.72222
Period11–13 May 1998
Number of tests3 (5 devices fired)
Test typeUnderground
Device typefission and fusion
Max. yield45 kilotons of TNT (190 TJ)
Test chronology

Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti) was a series of five nuclear weapon tests conducted by India in May 1998. The bombs were detonated at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India, after the first test, Smiling Buddha, in May 1974.

The test consisted of five detonations, the first of which was claimed to be a two-stage fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The first three tests were carried out simultaneously on 11 May 1998 and the last two were detonated two days later on 13 May 1998. The tests were collectively called Operation Shakti, and the five nuclear bombs were designated as Shakti-I to Shakti-V.

The chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India described each of the explosions to be equivalent to several tests carried out over the years by various nations. While announcing the tests, the Indian government declared India as a nuclear state and that the tests achieved the main objective of giving the capability to build fission bombs and thermonuclear weapons with yields up to 200 kilotons. While the Indian fission bombs have been documented, the design and development of thermonuclear weapons remains uncertain after the tests.[1]

As a consequence of the tests, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172 was enacted and economic sanctions were imposed by countries including Japan and the United States.

History

Early nuclear programme (1944–1965)

Efforts towards building a nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since the end of Second World War.[2] The origins of India's nuclear programme go back to 1945 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) with the aid of Tata Group. After Indian independence, the Atomic Energy Act was passed on 15 April 1948, that established the Indian Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC).[3] In 1954, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established which was responsible for the atomic development programme and was allocated a significant amount of the defence budget in the subsequent years. In 1956, the first nuclear reactor became operational at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), becoming the first operating reactor in Asia.[4] In 1961, India commissioned a reprocessing plant to produce weapon grade plutonium. In 1962, India was engaged in a war with China, and with China conducting its own nuclear test in 1964, India accelerated its development of nuclear weapons.[3][2]

With two reactors operational in the early 1960s, research progressed into the manufacture of nuclear weapons.[5][3] With the unexpected deaths of then Prime Minister Nehru in 1964 and Bhabha in 1966, the programme slowed down.[6] The incoming prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri appointed physicist Vikram Sarabhai as the head of the nuclear programme and the direction of the programme changed towards using nuclear energy for peaceful purposes rather than military development.[7]

Development of nuclear bomb and first test (1966–1972)

APSARA reactor and plutonium reprocessing facility at BARC as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966

After Shastri's death in 1966, Indira Gandhi became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed. The design work on the bomb proceeded under physicist Raja Ramanna, who continued the nuclear weapons technology research after Bhabha's death in 1966.[6] The project employed 75 scientists and progressed in secrecy.[7] During the Indo-Pakistani War, the US government sent a carrier battle group into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India, who were aided by the Soviet Union, who responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles. The Soviet response underlined the deterrent value and significance of nuclear weapons to India.[8] After India gained military and political initiative over Pakistan in the war, the work on building a nuclear device continued. The hardware began to be built in early 1972 and the Prime Minister authorised the development of a nuclear test device in September 1972.[9]

On 18 May 1974, India tested a implosion-type fission device at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range under the code name Smiling Buddha.[10] The test was described as a peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE) and the yield was estimated to be between 6 and 10 kilotons.[10][11][12][13]

This article is part of
a series about
Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Premiership

National policy
Legislations
Treaties and accords
Missions and agencies
Controversies
Wars and attacks

Atal Bihari Vajpayee's signature

Gallery: Picture, Sound, Video

Aftermath of nuclear tests (1973–1988)

While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many countries. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation.[14] The technological embargo and sanctions affected the development of India's nuclear programme.[15] It was crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependence on imported technology on certain areas. Though India declared to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that India's nuclear program was intended only for peaceful purposes, preliminary work on a fusion bomb was initiated.[16] In the aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Second Indira Gandhi ministry, the programme continued under M.R. Srinivasan, but made slow progress. Though the nuclear programme did not receive much attention from incoming Prime Minister Morarji Desai at first, it gained impetus when Ramanna was appointed to the Ministry of Defence.[17]

With the discovery of Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program, India realised that it was very likely to succeed in its project in a few years. With the return of Indira Gandhi in 1980, the nuclear programme gained momentum. Two new underground shafts were constructed at the Pokhran test range by 1982 and Gandhi approved further nuclear tests in 1982. But the decision was reversed owing to pressure from the United States as it might end up in nuclear brinksmanship with Pakistan and potential foreign policy implications. Work continued towards weaponizing the nuclear bomb under V. S. R. Arunachalam and the Indian missile programme was launched under A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.[16] Ramanna pushed forward with a uranium enrichment program and despite the sanctions, India imported heavy water required as a neutron moderator in the nuclear reactors, from countries like China, Norway and Soviet Union through a middleman. Though Rajiv Gandhi, who became the Prime Minister in 1984, supported technological development and research, he was sceptical about nuclear testing as he believed it would result in further technological alienation from the developed countries. Dhruva, a new reactor with a capability to produce larger quantities of weapon grade material, was commissioned at BARC in 1985. Other components for a nuclear fusion bomb were developed during the time with capabilities to air drop nuclear weapons. In late 1985, a study group commissioned by the Prime Minister outlined a plan for the production of 70 to 100 nuclear warheads and a strict no first use policy.[16]

Building towards second nuclear test (1989–1998)

In 1989, V.P. Singh formed the government, which collapsed within two years and this period of instability caused a snag in the nuclear weapons programme. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan severely worsened when India accused Pakistan of supporting the Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the Indian Missile Program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles. India decided to observe the temporary moratorium on the nuclear tests for fear of inviting international criticism.[18] The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India.[19]

Though India had stock-piled material and components to be able to construct a dozen nuclear fission bombs, the deliverance mechanism was still under development. With the successful testing of Agni missile and successful trials involving dropping of similar bombs without fissionable material from bomber aircraft in 1994, the weaponization became successful. With the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty under discussion and global pressure pushing India to sign, then Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao ordered preparations for further nuclear tests in 1995. Based on the direction of the director of DAE R. Chidambaram, S. K. Sikka was tasked with the development of a thermo-nuclear fusion device. In August, K. Santhanam, the chief technical adviser of DRDO, was appointed the director for carrying out the tests. While water was being pumped out of the shafts constructed more than ten years earlier, American spy satellites picked up the signs.[18] With pressure from US President Bill Clinton, the test never progressed.[20]

With Rao's term ending in 1996, the next two years saw multiple governments being formed. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, who was a strong advocate of nuclear weaponization, came to power following the 1998 general elections. Vajpayee had earlier declared that if re-voted to power, his government would induct nuclear weapons and declare India's might to gather respect.[21] Soon after assuming power in March 1998, Vajpayee organized a discussion with Abdul Kalam and Chidambaram to conduct nuclear tests. On 28 March 1998, he asked to make preparations for a test.[22]

Nuclear test

US Marine Intelligence maps showing the Indian test site in 1997

Preparation

The Indian Intelligence Bureau had been aware of the capability of the United States spy satellites in detecting Indian test preparations. Therefore, the tests required complete secrecy and the 58th Engineer Regiment of the Indian Army Corps of Engineers was tasked with preparing the test sites without being detected.[23] Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place during the day to give the impression that it was never moved. Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug-out sand was shaped like natural sand dunes. Cables and sensors were either covered with sand or concealed using native vegetation. A select group was involved in the detonation process with all personnel required to wear uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. They were given pseudo-names and they traveled in smaller groups to avoid detection.[23][21]

Scientists and engineers of BARC, the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and DRDO were involved in the development and assembly of the bombs. Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the detonators, the implosion and high-voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for systems engineering, aerodynamics and safety. The bombs were transported moved from BARC at 3 am on 1 May 1998 to Bombay airport, then flown in an Indian Air Force's AN-32 aircraft to Jaisalmer Airport. It was then transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as Prayer Hall.[24]

Personnel

A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was one of the co-ordinators for the test.

Following were the main personnel involved in the testing:[24]

Testing

The Thar Desert in the state of Rajasthan where the nuclear site, the Pokhran Test Range, is located

The test was organized into two groups to be fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. Five nuclear devices were tested during the operation.[25][24][26]
Group-I:

Group-II:

  • Shakti IV: A 0.5 kt experimental fission device
  • Shakti V: A 0.2 kt thorium/U-233 experimental fission device

An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) was developed but not detonated. The first test was planned on 11 May.[27] The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named White House, which was approximately 230 metres [m] (750 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named Taj Mahal, and the first sub-kiloton device in shaft Kumbhkaran. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May. The first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8:30 PM. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed by 4 AM on the next day with the fission device being placed by 7:30 AM. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber used for the test devices.[24] The timing of the tests was pursuant to the local weather conditions, and the test sequence was initiated in the afternoon. Santhanam, in-charge of the test site, handed over the site to M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying the test indicators. After the safety clearance, the countdown system was activated and at 3:45 PM IST, the three devices were detonated simultaneously.[24][21][28] On 13 May, at 12.21 PM IST, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station.[21][29]

Announcement

Having tested weaponized nuclear warheads, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club.[30] Shortly after the tests, Prime Minister Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:

Today, at 15:45 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also confirmed that there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974. I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests.[31][32]

On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.[33][34]

Reactions to tests

Domestic

News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by general public in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. The media praised the government for its decision and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country's armed forces. The opposition led by Indian National Congress criticized the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests, accusing the government of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country's national security.[35]

By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44bn in loans in 1998, from the IMF and the World Bank. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy were likely to be hurt by sanctions with the foreign companies, which had invested heavily in India, facing consequences of impending sanctions. The Indian government announced that it had factored the economic response and was willing to take the consequences.[36]

International

The United States issued a statement condemning India and threatened economic sanctions. The intelligence community felt humiliated for its failure to detect the preparations for the test.[37] In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.[38] The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defense material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.[39] The United States held talks with India over the issue of India becoming a part of the CTBT and NPT and pressurized to rollback India's nuclear program.[40] India did not accede to the request stating that it was not consistent with her national security interest.[41]

China stated that it was seriously concerned about the tests which are not favorable to the peace and stability in the region and called for the international community to pressure India to cease the development of nuclear weapons.[42] It further rejected claims of India's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as unfounded.[43] However, the other permanent members of the United Nations Security Council– the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from making any statements condemning the tests.[44]

Few other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid and government-to-government credit lines. Canada criticized India's actions,[45] and Japan imposed economic sanctions which included freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid.[46]

Pakistan issued a statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region with prime minister Nawaz Sharif stating that his country will take appropriate action.[47] It later carried out six nuclear tests under the code name Chagai-I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai-II on 30 May 1998.[21] Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments.[48] Pakistan's tests invited similar condemnation and economic sanctions.[49][50] On June 6, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1172, condemning the Indian and Pakistani nuclear tests.[51]

Aftermath

Though the test was carried out in an uninhabited area, the residents of the villages–Odhaniya, Chacha, Loharki, and Khetolai, which were within a five-kilometre radius, felt the effects of the test. The tremors resulted in damage to the houses, and water storage facilities in the villages. The government compensated the villagers whose houses were damaged. A later study found traces of radiation in the water, soil, and vegetation. While the villagers complained of an increase in the rate of cancers and genetic disorders in the years following the explosion, it had not been established with certainty that these were due to radiation exposure.[52]

Legacy and popular culture

The Government of India declared 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five successful nuclear weapon tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.[53] The day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.[54]

Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran is a 2018 Bollywood movie was based on the nuclear tests.[55] War and Peace is a documentary by Anand Patwardhan, which details the events of the tests.[56]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt; Johns, Eliana; Knight, Mackenzie (2 September 2024). "Indian nuclear weapons, 2024". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 80 (5): 326–342. doi:10.1080/00963402.2024.2388470. ISSN 0096-3402. Retrieved 12 April 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Homi Bhabha and how World War II was responsible for creating India's nuclear future". The Print. 30 October 2019. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Sublette, Carey. "Origins of Indian nuclear program". Nuclear weapon Archive. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
  4. ↑ "Apsara – U Reactor Becomes Operational at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay" (Press release). Government of India. 11 September 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  5. ↑ Kumar, P. (2024). Homi J. Bhabha: A Complete Biography: Homi J. Bhabha: A Complete Biography: Architect of India's Nuclear Program. Prabhakar Prakashan. p. 1960. ISBN 978-93-5562-943-2. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "On to Weapons Development, 1960–67". Nuclear Weapon Archive. 30 March 2001. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kanavi, Shivanand. "How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs". Rediff.com. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2024.
  8. ↑ "Arihant: the annihilator". Indian Defence Review. 25 October 2010. Archived from the original on 13 June 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  9. ↑ Perkovich, G. (1999). India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation. ACLS Humanities E-Book. University of California Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-520-23210-5.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Smiling Buddha, 1974". India's Nuclear Weapons Program. Nuclear Weapon Archive.
  11. ↑ Pahuja, Om Parkash (2001). India: A Nuclear Weapon State. Prabhat Prakashan. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-87100-69-0. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  12. ↑ "1974 Nuclear files". Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Nuclear files archives. Archived from the original on 2 July 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
  13. ↑ Bates, Crispin (2007). Subalterns and Raj: South Asia Since 1600. Routledge. p. 343. ISBN 978-0-415-21484-1.
  14. ↑ "History of the NSG". Nuclear Suppliers Group. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
  15. ↑ "Smiling Buddha: All about Pokhran test that made India a nuclear power". The Indian Hawk. 19 May 2020. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "The Long Pause: 1974–1989". Nuclear Weapon Archive. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  17. ↑ Chengappa, Raj (2000). Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power. New Delhi: Harper Collins. pp. 219–220. ISBN 81-7223-330-2.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "The Momentum Builds: 1989-1998". Nuclear Weapon Archive. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  19. ↑ "Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)" (PDF). Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2003. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
  20. ↑ "India wants to divert attention from N-test plan". Dawn Archives. CNN. 4 January 1996. Archived from the original on 30 March 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 "The nuclear politics: The 1998 Election". Nuclear weapon archives. Nuclear politics. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  22. ↑ "Pokhran II row: Sethna slams Kalam, Iyengar says tests were done in haste". Daily News and Analysis. Press Trust of India. September 2009. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Books: Weapons of Peace—How the CIA was Fooled". India Today. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 "India's Nuclear Weapons Program—Operation Shakti: 1998". Nuclear Weapon Archive. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
  25. ↑ "Forces gung-ho on N-arsenal". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
  26. ↑ "Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 24 September 2009. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017.
  27. ↑ "Spectral defence". Frontline. Archived from the original on 23 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  28. ↑ "India releases pictures of nuclear tests". CNN. 17 May 1998. Archived from the original on 30 March 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  29. ↑ Sumit Ganguly (Spring 1999). "India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program". International Security. 23 (4): 148–177. doi:10.1162/isec.23.4.148. JSTOR 2539297. S2CID 57565560.
  30. ↑ "Asia's nuclear challenge: Third World joins the nuclear club". BBC News. 13 May 1998. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  31. ↑ "Prime Minister's announcement of India's three underground nuclear tests". FAS. Archived from the original on 14 March 2002. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  32. ↑ "Prime Minister's press briefing video". YouTube. 13 May 2019. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
  33. ↑ "Planned Series of Nuclear Tests Completed" (Press release). Government of India. 13 May 1998. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  34. ↑ Ganguly, Sumit (1999). "India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program". International Security. 23 (4): 148–177. doi:10.1162/isec.23.4.148. ISSN 0162-2889. JSTOR 2539297. S2CID 57565560. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  35. ↑ Lyon, David (31 May 1998). "India detonates two more bombs". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  36. ↑ "India—will sanctions bite?". BBC News. 1 June 1998. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  37. ↑ Weiner, T. (13 May 1998). "Nuclear anxiety: The Blunders; U.S. Blundered On Intelligence, Officials Admit". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  38. ↑ "US imposes sanctions on India". BBC News. 13 May 1998. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  39. ↑ "U.S. imposes sanctions on India". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  40. ↑ "Clarifying India's Nascent Nuclear Doctrine". Arms control interview. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  41. ↑ Chandrasekharan, S. "CTBT : where does India stand?". South Asia Analysis. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  42. ↑ "China is 'Seriously Concerned' But Restrained in Its Criticism". The New York Times. 13 May 1998. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  43. ↑ Resources on India and Pakistan (1999). "China's Reaction to India's Nuclear Tests". CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
  44. ↑ Charan D. Wadhva (27 June 1998). "Costs of Economic Sanctions: Aftermath of Pokhran II". Economic and Political Weekly. 33 (26): 1604–1607. JSTOR 4406922.
  45. ↑ Haidar, Suhasini (31 August 2014). "East meets Far East". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  46. ↑ "U.S. lifts final sanctions on Pakistan". CNN. 29 October 2001. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012.
  47. ↑ Special Report (13 May 1998). "Pakistan condemns India's nuclear tests". BBC. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  48. ↑ Hoodbhoy, Pervez Amerali (23 January 2011). "Nuclear Bayonet". The Herald. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  49. ↑ "cns.miis.edu". Archived from the original on 18 November 2001. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
  50. ↑ Gertz, Bill (2013). Betrayal: How the Clinton Administration Undermined American Security. Washington DC: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62157-137-7.
  51. ↑ Dittmer, L., ed. (2005). South Asia's nuclear ecurity dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China. Armonk: Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1419-3.
  52. ↑ Shukla, Chinky (1 May 2019). "Life at Ground Zero". The Caravan. Retrieved 29 December 2025.
  53. ↑ "Why May 11 be celebrated as National Technology Day? Things you should know". The Times of India. 11 May 2020. Archived from the original on 24 May 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  54. ↑ "National technology day celebrated". Department of Science and Technology. Press Information Bureau. 11 May 2008. Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
  55. ↑ Ghosh, Samrudhi (14 August 2017). "John Abraham unveils Parmanu poster: All you need to know about the story of Pokhran". India Today. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  56. ↑ "War and Peace hits the box office for the first time in India". Tehelka. 25 June 2005. Retrieved 1 December 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)

External links

Template:Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti)

Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pokhran-II&oldid=445790"
Discover more