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{{short description|history of Manipur state in northeastern India}}
{{Short description|Historical account of Manipur}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}
{{Distinguish|text=history of [[Manipur (Mahabharata)]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Kingdom of Manipur}}
{{Kingdom of Manipur}}
The '''history of [[Manipur]]''' ([[Kangleipak]] in ancient times)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Press|first=Imphal Free|title=Ancient Name Of Manipur – KanglaOnline|url=http://kanglaonline.com/2012/04/ancient-name-of-manipur/|access-date=2020-11-30|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Manipur’s titular king tastes ‘power’, says will be happy if addressed as Maharaja|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/jun/20/manipurs-titular-king-tastes-power-says-will-be-happy-if-addressed-as-maharaja-2159154.html|quote=The Kingdom of Manipur or “Kangleipak Kingdom” was a princely state|access-date=2020-11-30|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> is reflected by archaeological research, mythology and [[recorded history|written history]].
The '''history of the Indian state of Manipur''' is reflected by archaeological research,  [[recorded history|written history]] and [[Meitei mythology|mythology]]. Historically, [[Manipur]] was an independent sovereign kingdom ruled by [[Ningthouja dynasty|Meitei dynasty]] but at different point of time it was invaded and rule over by other state and authority.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keen |first=Caroline |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755624355 |title=An Imperial Crisis in British India |date=2015 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78673-987-2|pages=150–152|doi=10.5040/9780755624355 |quote=Ghose maintained that under the Indian Penal Code only subjects of the Queen or foreigners residing in British India could be guilty of waging war against the Queen. Manipur was an independent sovereign state and..}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arora |first1=Vibha |last2=Kipgen |first2=Ngamjahao |date=2012 |title=The Politics of Identifying with and Distancing from Kuki Identity in Manipur |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26290634 |journal=Sociological Bulletin |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=429–449 |doi=10.1177/0038022920120303 |jstor=26290634 |s2cid=157167951 |issn=0038-0229|quote= Historically, Manipur was an independent kingdom ruled by Meitei dynasty. The physical boundary of Manipur has been fluctuating with historical changes in political power and the intra state and the inter state boundaries|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Htin Aung |first=U. |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofburma00htin |title=A history of Burma |date=1967 |publisher=New York, Columbia University Press |others=Internet Archive|page=117}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baruah |first=S. L. |date=1983 |title=THE BURMESE AND THE NORTH EAST (from the middle of 18th century to the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139912 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=44 |pages=609–613 |jstor=44139912 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> The [[Manipur (princely state)#Kangleipak State|Kangleipak State]] developed under King [[Loiyumba]] with its first written constitution in the early 12th century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=KSHETRIMAYUM |first=JOGENDRO |date=2009 |title=Shooting the Sun: A Study of Death and Protest in Manipur |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25663656 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=44 |issue=40 |pages=48–54 |jstor=25663656 |issn=0012-9976 |quote=Loiyamba Shinyen (ls), considered the first writ ten constitution of Manipur (Kabui 1988; Naorem 1988). Dated to 1110 ad, it was written during the reign of Loiyamba or Loiyumba}}</ref> [[Manipur (princely state)|Manipur]] under the 18th-century king [[Pamheiba]] saw the legendary burning of sacred scripture.


<!---need something about archaeology here---->
Manipur became a [[princely state]] under [[British Raj|British rule]] in 1891 after the [[Anglo-Manipur War|Anglo-Manipur war]], the last of the independent states to be incorporated into [[British Raj]] as a princely state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lokendra |first=N. |title=The Unquiet Valley: Society, Economy, and Politics of Manipur (1891-1950) |date=1998-01-01 |publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=35–38 |isbn=978-81-7099-696-5 |language=en}}</ref> During the [[Second World War]], [[Manipur (princely state)|Manipur]] was the scene of [[Operation U-Go|battles]] between [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese]] and [[Allied forces (World War II)|Allied forces]]. After the war, [[Bodhchandra Singh|Maharaja Bodhachandra]] signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into [[Dominion of India|India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/manipur/documents/papers/manipur_merger_agreement_1949.htm |title=Manipur Merger Agreement, 1949 |publisher=Satp.org |access-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> It was made a [[union territory]] in 1956<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm |title=The Constitution (Amendment) |publisher=Indiacode.nic.in |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501011646/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm |archive-date=1 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and a full-fledged [[States and union territories of India|state]] in 21 January 1972.<ref>{{Cite web | title=An Act further to amend the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation)Act, 1971 | url=http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/392012.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107110726/http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/392012.pdf | archive-date=7 November 2013 | access-date=26 March 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref>
Since ancient times, the [[Meitei people]] have lived in the valleys of Manipur alongside the highlanders in the hills and valley in peace. Pangal (Muslims) people settled in the valleys during the reign of Meidingu Khagemba in the year 1606. Since then, they also lived along with the Meitei.


Mythological origins begin with the reign of the "Konchin Tukthapa Ipu Athoupa Pakhangpa" (Pakhangpa was the name given to him meaning "The one who knows his father"), who gave birth the seven clans of Meitei society.
== Nomenclature ==
{{Further|Manipur#Alternate names}}
During the latter part of its history, Manipur and its people were known by different names to their neighbours. The [[Shan people|Shans]] or Pongs called the area Cassay, the [[Burma|Burmese]] Kathe, and the [[Assamese people|Assamese]] Meklee. In the first treaty between the British [[East India Company]] and [[Ching-Thang Khomba|Chingthangkhomba]] signed in 1762, the kingdom was recorded as Meckley. Bhagyachandra and his successors issued coins engraved with the title of Manipureshwar, or lord of Manipur and the name Meckley was discarded. Later on, the [[Sanskritisation]] work, ''Dharani Samhita'' (1825&ndash;34) popularized the legends of the derivation of Manipur's name.<ref>Gangmuei Kabui, ''History of Manipur'', National Publishing House, Delhi, 1991.</ref>


Manipur became a [[princely state]] under British rule in 1891, the last of the independent states to be incorporated into [[British India]]. During the [[Second World War]], Manipur was the scene of battles between Japanese and Allied forces. The Japanese were beaten back before the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] could enter [[Imphal]]. This proved to be one of the turning points of the war.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}
== Prehistoric ==
{{Main|Prehistory of Manipur}}


After the war, the Manipur Constitution Act, 1947, established a democratic form of government with the [[Maharaja]] as the Executive Head and an elected legislature. In 1949, [[Bodhchandra Singh|Maharaja Bodhachandra]] was summoned to Shillong, capital of the Indian province of Meghalaya where he signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India. Thereafter the legislative assembly was dissolved and Manipur became part of the Republic of India in October, 1949.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/manipur/documents/papers/manipur_merger_agreement_1949.htm |title=Manipur Merger Agreement, 1949 |publisher=Satp.org |access-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> It was made a union territory in 1956<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm |title=The Constitution (Amendment) |publisher=Indiacode.nic.in |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501011646/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm |archive-date=1 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and a full-fledged state in 1972.<ref>[http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/392012.pdf]</ref> Mairembam Koireng Singh became the first Chief Minister in 1972 of the State of Manipur.<ref>http://twocircles.net/2014nov21/1416545962.html#.VHH48cnUZ5c</ref>
Archaeological research in [[Northeast India]] is severely scarce, mostly limited to surface explorations, and lacking in state-of-the-art methods.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=2,10,11}}


==Mythological origins==
=== Human settlement ===
{{Main|Manipuri mythology}}
Few attempts have been made to establish the earliest human settlement in Northeast India, and it is generally thought to have been uninhabited by [[archaic humans]] prior to late [[Pleistocene]] due to unfavorable geographical conditions.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=73,74}} This is however disputed and Northeast Corridors are proposed by some scholars to have played a defining role in early hominid migrations and [[peopling of India]].{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=74,92}}
Mythological origins begin with the reign of the "Konchin Tukthapa Ipu Athoupa Pakhangpa" ([[Pakhangba|Pakhangpa]] was the name given to him meaning "The one who knows his father"). He gave birth to the seven clans of Meitei society. 1. [[Mangang]], 2. [[Luwang]], 3. [[Khuman(Salai)|Khuman]], 4. [[Angom]], 5. [[Moilang|Moirang]], 6. [[Kha Nganpa|Khapa-Nganba]], and 7.[[Salai Leishangthem]].


Kanglei which is now called "[[Kangla]]" was the first capital of the kingdom called "[[Kangleipak]]". "[[Lainingthou Sanamahi]]" is the creator of all according to "Kangleichas", the then residents of the now called Manipur. The religion of the land was purely "[[Sanamahism]]", one of the oldest religions of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=KanglaOnline|title=DISCOVERY OF KANGLEIPAK (29) : Kanglei Theory of the Origin of the Universe – KanglaOnline|url=http://kanglaonline.com/2011/11/discovery-of-kangleipak-kanglei-theory-of-the-origin-of-the-universe/|access-date=2020-10-28|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Paleolithic ===
[[File:Stone Erections of Willong Khullen.jpg|thumb|300px|Prehistoric stone erections in the "Willong Khullen" village in northern [[Manipur]], which slightly resembles the [[Stonehenge]] of [[England]]]]
Most scholars do not discuss a [[Paleolithic]] age in Manipur (and Northeast).{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=75,80}} However, Manjil Hazarika, in his 2017 survey of prehistory of Northeast India, rejects that there exists any plausible ground to deny presence of Paleolithic culture in Manipur.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=153}}


The term is derived from name of the state of [[Manipur]].<ref name="Chelliah 1997: 2">Chelliah (1997: 2)</ref> The name ''Manipur'' itself has basis on [[Hindu]] epic [[Mahabharata]], in which a shining diamond called ''mani'' ('jewel') in [[Sanskrit]] is thrown from the head of a snake god [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]], which spreads natural beauty throughout the land.<ref name="Chelliah 1997: 2"/> but this theory of Manipur history is much contested by many scolars because the Manipur of Mahabharata and present state [[Manipur]] (formerly known as 'Meitei Leipak')<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hodson|first=T. C.|date=1901|title=The Native Tribes of Manipur|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2842805|journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=31|pages=300–309|doi=10.2307/2842805|issn=0959-5295}}</ref> do not mean the same place.<ref>{{harvp|Early Meitei History: Religion, Society and the Manipur Puyas|2013|page=6}}</ref>
A few Paleolithic sites (Khangkhui, Napachik, Machi, Somgu and Singtom) have been located in Manipur.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=79,90}} Though, in absence of good chrono-stratigraphic context of the finds and their cohabitation with remains of other ages, accuracy of such identifications remains open to critiques.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=75,80}} The existence of [[Hoabinhian|Hoabinhian-like complexes]] remains disputed, as well.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=86}}


==Nomenclature==
=== Neolithic ===
Manipur had been known throughout the ages as Meitrabak, Kangleipak or Meeteileipak<ref>Laininghan Naoria Phulo, ''Meetei Haubham Wari'' (''The Origin History of Meiteis''), 1934.</ref> as well as by more than twenty other names.<ref>Naorem Sanajaoba, ''Manipur Past and Present'', Mittal Publication, Delhi, 2005</ref> Sanamahi Laikan wrote that Manipur's new nomenclature was adopted in the eighteenth century during the reign of [[Meidingu Pamheiba]]. According to Sakok Lamlen, the area had different names according to the era. During the Hayachak period it was known as ''Mayai Koiren poirei namthak saronpung'' or  ''Tilli Koktong Ahanba'', then in the Khunungchak period as ''Meera Pongthoklam''. Thereafter during the Langbachak era, it became ''Tilli Koktong Leikoiren'' and finally ''Muwapalli'' in the Konnachak epoch.<ref>Ningthoujongjam Khelchandra, ''History of Ancient Manipuri Literature'', Manipuri Sahitya Parishad, 1969</ref>
Multiple [[Neolithic]] sites have been identified in Manipur; they include Nongpok Keithelmanbi, Napachik, Laimenai, Naran Siena, and Phunan.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=100,111,112}} Considered to be part of a larger Southeast Asian complex, the identifications are primarily accorded on the basis of stone tools and pottery (esp. cord-impressed ware); characteristic cultural identifiers of the Neolithic (agriculture, animal rearing etc.) are yet to be located and their development chronology is subject of active research.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=95,111,112,141,142,153}} Hazarika notes the Neolithic culture in Northeast to have begun some four thousand years after that in the Gangetic Plains.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=140}}


During the latter part of its history, Manipur and its people were known by different names to their neighbours. The [[Shan people|Shans]] or [[Pongs]] called the area Cassay, the [[Burma|Burmese]] Kathe, and the [[Assamese people|Assamese]] Meklee. In the first treaty between the British [[East India Company]] and [[Meidingu Chingthangkhomba]] ([[Bhagyachandra]]) signed in 1762, the kingdom was recorded as Meckley. Bhagyachandra and his successors issued coins engraved with the title of Manipureshwar, or lord of Manipur and the name Meckley was discarded. Later on, the [[Sanskritisation]] work, ''[[Dharani Samhita]]'' (1825&ndash;34) popularized the legends of the derivation of Manipur's name.<ref>Gangmuei Kabui, ''History of Manipur'', National Publishing House, Delhi, 1991.</ref>
[[Meitei language|Meiteilon]], lingua-franca of Meiteis belongs to the TB phylum.{{sfn|Post|Burling|2017|p=232,233}} Hazarika notes the Manipuri sites to have an abundance of three-legged pottery and cord-impressed ware, very similar to the ones found in Southern China and Thailand, and hypothesizes that Manipur might have been the melting pot of Neolithic impulses from adjoining regions.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=112,113,142,143}} [[Roger Blench]], in agreement with [[George van Driem]]'s reconstructions of archeo-linguistic history of Southeast Asia, proposes that Northeast India accommodated a diverse group of foragers since Neolithic age, who learned agriculture and animal rearing c. 4000 B.C before migrating eastwards and establishing the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] (TB) phylum.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=58}}


==Prehistoric Manipur==
=== Chalcolithic and beyond ===
Hazarika notes the broader region to not show evidence of any significant cultural transformation, upon the dawning of [[Chalcolithic|Copper Age]] (and then, [[Iron Age]]).{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=16}} The state has an abundance of [[megalith]]s of various shapes, serving distinct purposes.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=150,151}}


=== Old Stone Age ===
=== Iron Age ===
The four Khangkhui Caves are located near [[Khangkhui]] some {{convert |11|km}} south-east of [[Ukhrul]] on the border with Upper [[Burma]]. Archaeological excavations have found stone and bone tools as well as animal remains as evidence of [[Stone Age]] habitation of these caves.<ref>Sharma, T.C. "Studies in the Sources of Pre-History of Manipur and Nagaland" (1985) pp. 13&ndash;18 in Pandey S.N. (ed.) ''Sources of the History of Manipur'', Imphal: Manipur University</ref> The first evidence of [[Pleistocene]]  man in Manipur dates back to about 30,000&nbsp;BC. Other notable caves nearby include Hunding Caves, {{convert|11|km}} south of Ukhrul, Purul Cave in Purul and the Song Ring rock shelter at Beyang village in [[Tengnoupal]].
There has been a marked absence of historical evidence especially written records governing the span between Iron Age and the first millennium in North East India.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=16}} Chronicles of other nations mention that trade networks between India proper and South China were likely operating via Manipur; pilgrims are reported to have entered India from China via these territories.{{sfn|Hazarika|2017|p=69,70}} The geopolitical history of the region along with the ethno-linguistic background of the inhabitants are largely unknown.{{sfnp|Parratt|2005|pp=2,13}}{{sfnp|Brandt|2017|pp=122}}{{sfnp|Sebastian|2019|pp=55}}


One of archaeologist O.K. Singh's most valuable findings is a pebble chopping tool discovered in Maring Naga Village, Machi, in the [[Chandel district]].<ref>O.K. Singh, ''Archaeology in Manipur'' (Series-I): "Napachik, A Stone Age Site in Manipur Valley", 1984</ref> The [[Maring (tribe)|Marings]] are one of the oldest tribes of Manipur and this find is considered as a landmark in the Paleolithic archaeology of Manipur, as it confirms, the area was inhabited by Neolithic people from the early Stone Age or [[lower Paleolithic]] period.
== History ==
{{Main|Kangleipak}}


==Vaishnavism era==
=== Sources ===
[[File:Vishnu_temple,_Bishnupur_01.jpg|thumb|A temple dedicated to [[Vishnu]], built in Bishnupur]]
The primary source concerning ancient and medieval Manipur has been restricted to the ''[[Cheitharol Kumbaba]]'' (''Ch. K''.) – the court history of the kings of Manipur – which dates the first king to 33 CE.{{sfnp|Parratt|2005|pp=2,13}}{{sfnp|Sebastian|2019|pp=45-46}} However, the historical record herein up to the reign of [[Senbi Kiyamba|King Kyampa]] (1467–1508 CE) are noted to have been redrafted during the reign of [[Ching-Thang Khomba]] (Bhagyachandra) in the mid- to late-18th century because those leaves were "lost". This part of the chronicle remains particularly unreliable. The kings of that period are assigned extraordinary spans of length, and there is a scarcity of objective information.{{sfnp|Sebastian|2019|pp=46}} Saroj Nalili Parratt hypothesizes that many of these monarchs were probably borrowed from the cultural pantheon and interspersed with religious myths to fit into their collective memory of intra-clan conquests and legitimize the current rule by the Meitei. Parratt as well as [[Gangmumei Kamei]] suspect that the initiation date of 33 CE was arrived upon by the scribes via astrological calculations.{{sfnp|Parratt|2005|pp=4-6,13}}


[[Vaishnavism]] came to Manipur during this period and caused a significant change in the history of Manipur. The Meitei script was replaced with Bengali.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}
''Ch. K''. is also a Meitei chronicle – [[Meitei people|Meitei]] being one of the migrant clans, originally named Ningthouja, who (at some unknown point of time) assimilated others into a confederacy, and gained rulership of the monarchy – with the early sections being essentially themed on the expansion of the Meitei across the valley of Manipur and other exploits.{{sfnp|Parratt|2005|pp=4}}{{sfnp|Sebastian|2019|pp=57-58}}


*Meidingu Pamheiba (Garibnawaz) (1709&ndash;1748):
Some local authors have used [[Puya (Meitei texts)|Puyas]], archaic Manipuri manuscripts in their reconstruction of Manipuri History. This tendency has been criticized by Parratt and others; none of these texts are yet dated by professional historians or subject to serious textual-critical scrutiny, and hence are not suitable for purposes other than commenting on Meitei traditions.{{sfnp|Parratt|2005|pp=10,11}}{{sfnp|Sebastian|2019|pp=52-53}}{{efn|Bryce Beemer writes, "Manipur developed a textual tradition on par with that of Upper Burma or Java. The continued existence of clan identities and leadership is one reason for the bewilderingly diverse historical traditions of Manipur. Each clan wrote its own creation myths, religious histories, clan genealogies, and dynastic accounts of noble houses. Although many of these historical texts contradict each other, they represent a rich ore yet to be mined by most Southeast Asianists."{{sfn|Beemer|2013|pp=266}}}} Scholars have also found Puyas to have been (potentially) forged by [[Meitei nationalism|Meitei Nationalists]] in support of their [[Invented tradition|reinvention of history and tradition]].{{sfnp|Parratt|2005|pp=11,17}}{{sfnp|Brandt|2017|pp=128}}{{sfnp|Naorem|2015|pp=219}}


Pamheiba ascended the throne on the 23rd Day of Thawan (August) 1709. His Persian name Garibniwaz, meaning "kind to the poor", was given to him by Muslim immigrants and was adopted to be used in the coinage he issued.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}. Actually he was the step-son of Charairongba. He was known as 'Kari-baniwas' which meant "a prince who was once lost" (Roy, J.- History of Manipur.p.&nbsp;35.)
=== Mythology and early kings ===
Pakhangpa, a primordial dragon god in Meitei mythology, is credited in ''Ch. K''. for having established the Meitei rule by subjugating the "Poireitons". The first seven kings mentioned over ''Ch. K.'' – Pakhangpa, Tompok, Taothingmang, Khui Ningngongpa, Pengsipa, Kaokhongpa and Naokhampa – allegedly ruled until 411 CE. Barring Pakhangpa and Taothingmang, the chronicle only records the regnal span of each king. Parratt notes that there's not even any evidence of these seven rulers belonging to the same dynasty, and in all probabilities they were reconstructed from oral legends of varying origins. The chronicle itself mentions that nothing much is known about these "divine"-like kings.[[File:Uttra Sanglen.JPG|thumb|300px|A historic dual statue of dragon lion [[Kanglasha]] in front of the inner entrance gate to the [[Kangla Palace]] of [[Imphal]], which was once the ruling seat of the [[List of Meitei kings|Meitei kings]] in old days.|left]]Naokhampa was succeeded by Naophangpa, about whom nothing significant is mentioned in the chronicle. He was succeeded by his son Sameirang, who fought a successful battle over Aangom, a fellow clan. The next ruler was Konthoupa and his reign saw some devastating warfare with "Senloi Langmai". After a monarch-less span of five years, Naothingkhong became the next king. During his reign the chieftain of Pong Kingdom is noted to have engaged in an annexation spree before returning via Manipur. Khongtekcha was the next king; a successful battle over the Moirang clan is noted, and he ruled for ten years. After a gap of eleven years, the next king was Keirencha, who ruled for fifteen years. He was succeeded by Yarepa, who reigned for twenty two years. Nothing else is noted about these two kings.  The next four kings were Aayangpa, Ningthoucheng, Chenglei Yipan Lanthapa and Yirengpa, who ruled for a combined total of 253 years. All of them are noted to have emerged victorious in varied kinds of warfare over fellow clans – Aayangpa subdued the Nongyai Khumans, Ningthoucheng raided Houkei, Lanthapa captured a group of Luwangs, and Yirengpa defeated the Moirangs as well as Khumans.{{sfn|Parratt|2005|pp=23-31}}


Pamheiba's rise to prominence as a military conqueror can be divided into three phases. The first phase (1710&ndash;17) focused on internal consolidation of hill tribes. Phase two (1728&ndash;33) involved war against the Burmese kingdom of Awa, and the third and final phase (1745&ndash;48) saw a war against [[Tripura]] in the northeast. Shortly after taking power from his father [[Charairongba]] he invaded [[Burma]] after the Burmese King insulted his sister. The Burmese King asked for the hand of another of Charairongba's daughters in marriage in 1724. Instead of a princess, the King of Burma was met by cavalry, led by Pamheiba that massacred the [[Bamar|Burmese]] army, and brought many [[POW|prisoners of war]] to [[Imphal]].<ref name="KO">[http://www.kanglaonline.com/index.php?template=kshow&kid=58& Garib Niwaz: Wars and Religious Policy in 18th Century Manipur] KanglaOnline</ref> The Burmese sent an expedition in revenge, but it was ambushed in the swamps near Heirok, southwest of [[Thoubal]], and losing heavily retreated in haste. In 1735, Pamheiba invaded [[Myedu]] in [[Shwebo]] district and carried off loot, cattle and a thousand people. In 1737, Pamheiba again invaded Burma, killed two-thirds of a royal levy, including commander, who came to oppose the invading Manipuris, and swept down to [[Tabayin]] in Shwebo district, burning everything they met.<ref name=geh-208>Harvey 1925: 208</ref> Again in 1738, Manipuris went and camped in Thalunbyu west of [[Sagaing]], burnt every house and monastery up to the walls of Ava, stormed the stockade built to protect the Kaunghmudaw pagoda, slaughtering the Burmese troops like cattle in a pen and killing the commandant, a minister of the Hluttaw Council; the old door-leaves of the pagoda's eastern gateway show a gash made by the sword of Maharaj Pamheiba when he was forcing an entrance.<ref name=geh-208-9>Harvey 1925: 208-9</ref>
Loiyumpa was the next king, and Ch. K. records his reign in considerable detail. He is credited with the initiation of the first 'constitution'. He was succeeded by Loitongpa, who emerged successful in some undescribed battles on the eastern fronts, probably waged over autochthonous ethnic groups. After a rule of twenty eight years, he was succeeded by Aatom Yoirenpa, who ruled for thirteen years. Yoirenpa was soon chased out by his brother and had to take refuge with the Khumans. Under Yiwanthapa, who reigned for thirty two years, a successful war was waged on the Khumans and their chief queen was murdered. The next ruler was Thawanthapa. In a thirty six year long rule, he subdued multiple internal and external threats. Despite allying with the Khumans once, in a raid against the villagers of Hairem, he would go on to defeat the Khumans. The next king was Chingthang Lanthapa, who defeated the Khumans as well as Kamus, in his eleven year long rule. Thingpai Senhongpa succeeded him; nothing significant is noted except that he ruled for 5 years. Puranthapa, the next king, re-defeated the Khumans at Pairou, consolidated the territories of Koupa Koutai, and conquered the Chakpas.{{sfn|Parratt|2005|pp=31-36}}


In 1734, Pamheiba invaded Tripura and captured 1100 prisoners, who were absorbed into the Meitei community.<ref name="IIT">[http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/his_mnme.html History of Manipur] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605122530/http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/his_mnme.html |date=2011-06-05 }} – IIT Guwahati</ref> As a result, Pamheiba extended his kingdom from the [[Kabaw Valley]], to the east as far as Nongnang ([[Cachar]]) and Takhel (Tripura) in the west.
Khumompa became king in 1263 and went on to ally with the Khumans to successfully ward off an invasion by the rulers of [[Kabaw Valley]]. A battle over the mountain-folks of Hao was also waged and their king Maimumpa was captured. Moirampa succeeded him, and again defeated the Khumans as well as Moirangs. Other battles against the Kekes and people of Makihao are noted; Korirong was captured. Thangpi Lanthapa ruled for twenty two years and trounced the Moirangs as well as the Loipi Haos; Tengkongbi and Marem Namngapa were captured. Kongyapa ascended in 1324 went on to succeed him. He was succeeded by Tenheipa, who reigned for twenty years and engaged in a multitude of warfare. Nothing is mentioned about the next ruler Tonapa, except that he reigned for five years. Then, Tapungpa ascended to the throne and waged successful warfare against the Loipi Marems, before being assassinated by Khamlangpa, the king of Chingsong, after thirty five years of rule. Again, there is a scarcity of information about the next king Lairenpa; he reigned for five years and there were no king for five, after. Punsipa's reign went until 1432, and was witness to numerous clashes including one with Moirangs.{{sfn|Parratt|2005|pp=36-40}}


Vaisnavite Meitheis Hindus acquired a new surname of "Sing" after their conversion to [[Vaishnavism]]. A fix of "Singh" after every Meitei name is supposed to be after  the fourth [[Vishnu]] [[Avatara]] of  [[narasimha|“Nara-Singh Thakhur”]].<ref>http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=news_section.opinions.The_Effects_of_Burning_of_Meitei_Puyas_By_Madhu_Chandra
One of the early states of the region was the [[Manipur (princely state)#Kangleipak State|Kangleipak State]], its first constitution, the ''Loiyumba Sinyen'', was made during the reign of King [[Loiyumba]] in the late 11th century.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Naorem Sanajaoba, Manipur Treaties and Documents-Vol I,1993, New Delhi. Book I: "Twelfth Century Meetei Constitution To Pemberton Report", http://dspace.nehu.ac.in/bitstream/1/9804/1/Manipur%20treaties%20%28N%20Sanajaoba%29.pdf.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=K |first1=Manikchand |title=The Evolution of Meetei State |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.The_Evolution_of_The_Meetei_State_By_K_Manikchand}}</ref>


http://kanglaonline.com/2010/10/burning-of-puya-commemorated-as-black-day-by-acoam/
=== {{Anchor|Early Modern}}Early Modern<!-- anchor exists because of dispute over whether this is medieval or early modern --> ===
[[File:FB7A9290.jpg|thumb|The [[Shree Govindajee Temple|Temple of Shri Govindaji]] in the "Palace Compound" in [[Imphal]], was the center of [[Meitei Vaishnavism]] of the [[Meitei Hindus]] in Manipur.]]
The [[early modern period]] is often called "medieval" by Meitei historians.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History Of Medieval Manipur 1 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.History_Of_Medieval_Manipur_1 |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>


https://www.imphaltimes.com/it-articles/item/11938-historical-evaluation-of-puya-meithaba-a-contemporary-re-interpretation
Ningthoukhompa ruled from 1432 to 1467. He routed out the Moirangs, and repulsed a rebellion by the Tankhnus of the mountains.{{sfn|Parratt|2005|pp=40-41}}
</ref>


=== Puya Meithaba ===
During the reign of Meidingu [[Senbi Kiyamba]] (1467–1507) the ancient Meitei faith, [[Sanamahism]], began to collapse. It was during his reign that the Brahmin people migrated to the kingdom and the volume of [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavists]] proceeded with the worship of the Pheiya (sacred stone from Pong kingdom) as the Hindu God [[Vishnu]].<ref name="e-pao.net">{{Cite web |title=Hinduism in Manipur Part 1 By Chirom Rajketan |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.Hinduism_in_Manipur_Part_1_By_Chirom_Rajketan |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref> This was the origin of [[Meitei Vaishnavism]].
{{main|Puya Meithaba ( Burning of Puya )}}
Popular accounts mention that the convert-King chose to purge traditional knowledge systems by banishing their ancient manuscripts (''puya''s) to a fire; the usage of Bengali script in place of Meitei Mayek allegedly began after this purge.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=RAY|first=SOHINI|date=2015|title=Boundaries Blurred? Folklore, Mythology, History and the Quest for an Alternative Genealogy in North-east India|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43307692|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=25|issue=2|pages=247–267|issn=1356-1863}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Brandt|first=Carmen|date=2018-01-02|title=Writing off domination: the Chakma and Meitei script movements|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/19472498.2017.1411050|journal=South Asian History and Culture|volume=9|issue=1|pages=125-126|doi=10.1080/19472498.2017.1411050|issn=1947-2498}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Sebastian|first=Rodney|title=Cultural Fusion in a Religious Dance Drama: Building the Sacred Body in the Manipuri Rāslīlās|date=2019|publisher=University of Florida|page=52}}</ref> Details of these accounts vary and are often legendary in nature — some mention that they were scheduled to be incinerated but flew away from the fire, another version mentions that they were indeed burnt but copies were already made of them, yet another mentions that that they were successfully transported out of the valley, whilst some even hold that the puyas were written in water-resistant ink and preserved underwater.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> In any case, the puyas are still found in Manipur.<ref name=":0" />


Carolie Brandt (and others) doubt the extents of historicity of these accounts and have criticized scholars who had uncritically accepted these narratives — there are no primary sources for the event, the earliest of secondary sources give contradictory (and low) values about the number of burnt scripts, numerous documents were written in Meitei during the reign of Pamheiba, and his attitude towards religion was ambivalent.<ref name=":1" /> Brandt notes this event to "serve the construction of a history of oppression" and thus, strengthen [[Meitei nationalism]].<ref name=":1" /> The narrative has become more popular in Manipur since the nationalists decided to commemorate the burning in an annual event since 1979.<ref name=":1" />
[[Kuranganayani]] was a Manipuri princess who became queen of [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] in 1768.


==Anglo-Burmese events==
During the reign of king [[Gharib Niwaz (Manipur)|Gharib Niwaz]] (born Pamheiba, 1709–1748), the name of the kingdom was changed from Kangleipak to Manipur. It was during his regime the religion of the entire Meitei ethnicity was forcibly converted from [[Sanamahism]] into [[Hinduism]].<ref name="e-pao.net"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hinduism in Manipur A Political Perspectives By Rinku Khumukcham |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=reviews.arts.Hinduism_in_Manipur_A_Political_Perspectives_By_Rinku_Khumukcham |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hinduism in Manipur Part 2 By Chirom Rajketan |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.Hinduism_in_Manipur_Part_2_By_Chirom_Rajketan |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref> In 1729, the legendary burning of the sacred scriptures of Sanamahism took place<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puya Meithaba The Burning of Meitei Sacred Scripture By Madhu Chandra |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=news_section.opinions.Puya_Meithaba_The_Burning_of_Meitei_Sacred_Scripture_By_Madhu_Chandra |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref> during the reign of Gharib Niwaz. This event is annually commemorated during the [[Puya Meithaba]].


===The Manipur Expedition===
=== {{Anchor|Modern}}Modern ===
{{main|Anglo-Manipur War}}
[[File:The Kangla Gate.JPG|thumb|200px|The main entrance of the [[Kangla Fort]] in [[Imphal]].]]


Meidingngu [[Surchandra]] (1886&ndash;90) succeeded his father to the throne in 1886 when there were revolts against him led by Sana Borachaoba and Dinachandra that proved unsuccessful. However, on 21 September 1890, Princes Zila Ngamba and Angousana, with the support of Senapati [[Tikendrajit]], revolted against Surchandra who abdicated and left Meitrabak for Brindaban ([[Vrindavan]]). His brother [[Kulachandra Singh]] ascended the throne in 1890 and [[Tikendrajit]], the Senapati or supreme military commander of the armed forces of Manipur, became the ruler behind the scenes. Surchandra requested the government of India to reinstate him on the throne but the British decided to recognize Kulachandra as king of Meitrabak and to arrest Yuvraj Tikendrajit for having caused the palace revolution.<ref name="IGI">[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V17_192.gif Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 17, p. 186.]</ref>
[[File:In_manipur3.gif|thumb|220x220px|Appearance of the [[Coat of arms]] of [[Manipur]] in the [[Emblem of Manipur|Flag of Manipur]]]]
The history of modern Manipur covers the history of Manipur from the [[Seven Years Devastation of Manipur|Seven Years Devastation]] to the Burmese Empire and to the present day.


Chief Commissioner of Assam, [[James Wallace Quinton]], came to Manipur to execute the order of the Government of India with a 400-strong escort under the command of Colonel Charles Mac Donald Skene, D.S.O. This event led to [[Tikendrajit#The Anglo-Manipur War|The Anglo-Manipur War of 1891]]. On hearing the news, Meidingngu Kulachandra sent Kangabam Chidananda ([[Thangal General]]) with 700 Meitei [[sepoy]]s to Mao Thana, a Meitrabak outpost on the border of Nagaland, then called the Naga Hills, to receive the Chief Commissioner of Assam and to make arrangements for a large escort for the Chief Commissioner.<ref>Antony  Brett-James, [https://www.historytoday.com/archive/disaster-manipur-imperial-episode "Disaster in Manipur"], ''History Today'' (Jan 1962), Vol. 12 Issue 1, pp.48-55. {{ProQuest|1299018620}}</ref>{{better source|date=April 2021}}
==== Seven Years Devastation ====
{{Main|Seven Years Devastation of Manipur}}


On 22 March 1891, at about 10 a.m. Quinton arrived at Imphal with his escort. Meidingngu Kulachandra Dhaja and his younger brothers welcomed him at the western Gate of the Kangla Palace. Quinton informed Meidingngu Kulachandra that at noon there would be a [[Durbar (court)|Durbar]] (court) held at the Residency. Thus did Quinton attempt to apprehend Yuvraj Tikendrajit but he was not successful. Quinton then consulted the [[Political officer (British Empire)|political agent]] Grimwood as well as Colonel Skene and decided to arrest Yuvraj forcibly.  
The Burmese invaded Manipur several times but the most notable one was in 1819, during the reign of King Marjit. The Burmese occupied Manipur from 1819 to 1826. During this time, Manipur was devastated and there was chaos and anarchy everywhere. This dark period is called [[Seven Years Devastation of Manipur|Chahi Taret Khuntakpa]] ([[Seven Years Devastation of Manipur|Seven Years Devastation]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=seven years devastation |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.seven_years_devastation |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief Note On Chahi Taret Khuntakpa |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.A_Brief_Note_On_Chahi_Taret_Khuntakpa |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
Grimwood was then speared to death and Quinton, Colonel Skene, Mr. Cossins, Lieutenant Simpson and Bulger were subsequently beheaded by the public executioner in front of the Kangla Sha.
As soon as the news of the failure of the plan to arrest Yuvraj Tikendrajit and the execution of the British officers reached the Government of India, three columns of troops, known as the Manipur Expedition, were sent to Meitrabak from [[Kohima]], [[Silchar]] and [[Tamu, Myanmar|Tamu]] under the command of Major General [[Henry Collett]], Col. R.H.F. Rennick and Brigadier General T. Graham, respectively.  
The column moving in from Tamu faced the strongest resistance from Meitrabak and major hand-to-hand combat took place at [[Khongjom]] on 25 April.  


Maipak Sana, Wangkheirakpa, Yengkhoiba, Chongtha Miya, [[Paona Brajabasi]], Khumbong Major, Wangkhei Meiraba, Chinglen Sana, Loitongba Jamadar, Keisam Jamadar, Heirang Khonja and a number of Meitei soldiers died on the battlefield. Meitrabak lost its independence to the British on 27 April 1891.
==== Manipuri Levy ====
[[File:Action_by_Lt_CJW_Grant,_VC,_1891.jpg|thumb|Action by Lieutenant CJW Grant, VC, at Thobal, Manipur, 1 April 1891.]]
There were exploitations of the Manipuri Levy, which was the first standing army of [[Manipur]], born out of the Manipur National Struggle against the Burmese rule during the [[Seven Years Devastation of Manipur|Seven Years Devastation]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 1 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Glorious_Exploits_of_Manipur_Levy_1 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 2 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Glorious_Exploits_of_Manipur_Levy_2 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 3 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Glorious_Exploits_of_Manipur_Levy_3 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 4 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Glorious_Exploits_of_Manipur_Levy_4 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>


The British government selected Meidingngu Churachand Singh (1891&ndash;1941), minor son of Chaobiyaima as the king of Meitrabak. A new Kangla Palace was constructed at Wangkhei and Kangla was kept under British occupation. During British colonial rule, Kangla was known as Manipur Fort and a battalion of [[Assam Rifles]] was stationed there. Noted Meitei writer, [[M. K. Binodini Devi]] (1922&ndash;2011) was the youngest daughter of the ruler.<ref name=ex>{{cite news |title=Manipuri author Binodini Devi dies at 89  |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/briefly-nation/739280/ |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date= 19 January 2011 }}</ref>
==== Anglo-Manipuri War ====
{{Main|Anglo-Manipur War}}
In the year 1891, the historic Anglo-Manipuri war (Manipur's National Liberation Struggle) took place. The Manipuri soldiers showed their might in the losing battle, sacrificing their lives for the motherland. The combat ended with a British victory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Historic Anglo Manipuri war of 1891 1 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Historic_Anglo_Manipuri_war_of_1891_1 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Historic Anglo Manipuri war of 1891 2 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Historic_Anglo_Manipuri_war_of_1891_2 |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A brief note on Anglo Manipuri War |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.A_brief_note_on_Anglo_Manipuri_War |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Historical significance of Anglo Manipur War of 1891 By Vividraj Achom |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Historical_significance_of_Anglo-Manipur_War_of_1891_By_Vividraj_Achom |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>


==World War II==
==== Japanese bombing ====
{{main|Battle of Imphal}} [[World War II]] came to Manipur with the bombing of Imphal, the capital of Manipur by the Japanese air force. The first bombing was on 10 May 1942, causing many civilian casualties. Another air raid occurred on 16 May 1942.
{{Main|Battle of Imphal}}
A major thrust by the Empire of Japan in 1944 was stopped at Imphal by British and Indian forces. This marked the furthest westward expansion of the Empire.


The British left Manipur in 14 August 1947 one day before Indian independence. Manipur became an independent country till 15 October 1949 when it was merged into India following the Shillong Merger Agreement.
[[File:Hawker_Hurricane_attack_bridge_in_Burma.jpg|thumb|May 1944, a Royal Air Force [[Hawker Hurricane|Hawker Hurricane IIC]] of [[No. 42 Squadron RAF]] based at Kangla, Manipur, piloted by "Chowringhee" Campbell, attacking a bridge near a small Burmese settlement.]]
Japanese bombing in [[Imphal]] took place several times in the history of Manipur, thereby creating high casualties to the people of [[Manipur]]. The first bombing was in the year 1942, heralding the beginning of the [[World War II|Second World War]] in [[Manipur]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese bombing of Imphal Part 1 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Japanese_bombing_of_Imphal_Part_1 |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese bombing of Imphal Part 2 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Historical_War_Manipur.Japanese_bombing_of_Imphal_Part_2 |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>


==See also==
== See also ==
 
* [[Emblem of Manipur]]
* [[Manipur (princely state)]]
* [[Manipur (princely state)]]
* [[Human rights abuses in Manipur]]
* [[Human rights abuses in Manipur]]


==Notes==
== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{notelist}}
 
== References ==
{{reflist}}


==Bibliography==
== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite thesis |last=Beemer |first=Bryce |title=The creole city in mainland Southeast Asia: Slave gathering warfare and cultural exchange in Burma, Thailand and Manipur, 18th – 19th c. |date=2013 |publisher=University of Hawai'i at Manoa |id={{ProQuest|1513230576}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=G. E.| title=History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824 |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd |year=1925 |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.9463 |via=archive.org}}
* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=G. E.| title=History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824 |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd |year=1925 |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.9463 |via=archive.org}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hazarika|first=Manjil|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780199474660.001.0001/oso-9780199474660|title=Prehistory and Archaeology of Northeast India: Multidisciplinary Investigation in an Archaeological Terra Incognita|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199474660.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-947466-0|language=en}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brandt|first=Carmen|date=2017-12-05|title=Writing off domination: the Chakma and Meitei script movements|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19472498.2017.1411050|journal=South Asian History and Culture|volume=9 |pages=116–140 |language=en|doi=10.1080/19472498.2017.1411050|s2cid=148911026 |issn=1947-2498|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book|last=Naorem|first=Naorem Malemsanba|editor-first1=Arambam |editor-first2=Kangujam |editor-last1=Noni |editor-last2=Sanatomba |chapter=Centrality of body politics in Thokachanba’s script and cultural revivalism in Manipur|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315638317/colonialism-resistance-arambam-noni-kangujam-sanatomba|title=Colonialism and Resistance: Society and State in Manipur|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781315638317|location=London|doi=10.4324/9781315638317|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315638317-20/centrality-body-politics-thokachanba-script-cultural-revivalism-manipur-naorem-malemsanba-meetei }}
* {{Cite book|last=Parratt|first=Saroj Nalini Arambam|title=The Court Chronicle of the Kings of Manipur: The Cheitharon Kumpapa : Original Text, Translation, and Notes|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-34430-1|location=London}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Post|first1=Mark W.|edition=2|editor1-last=LaPolla|editor1-first=Randy J.|editor2-last=Thurgood|editor2-first=Graham|title=The Sino-Tibetan Languages|chapter=The Tibeto-Burman Languages of Northeast India|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|language=en|isbn=978-1-138-78332-4|last2=Burling|first2=Robbins|pages=213–242}}
* {{Cite thesis|last=Sebastian|first=Rodney|title=Cultural Fusion in a Religious Dance Drama: Building the Sacred Body in the Manipuri Rāslīlās|date=2019|publisher=University of Florida|id={{ProQuest|2464172212}}}}
== Further reading ==
=== Early Modern ===
* {{Cite web | title=Hinduism in Manipur - News from Manipur - Imphal Times | url=https://www.imphaltimes.com/it-articles/item/15075-hinduism-in-manipur | access-date=2026-02-10 | website=www.imphaltimes.com}}
* {{Cite web | title=MARKET IN MEDIEVAL MANIPUR on JSTOR | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156597?seq=1 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204190101/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156597?seq=1 | access-date=2026-02-10 | archive-date=2021-02-04}}
* {{Cite web | title='LOIYAMBA SHINYEN': A LANDMARK IN MEITEI STATE FORMATION IN MEDIEVAL MANIPUR on JSTOR | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145476?seq=1 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218221511/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145476?seq=1 | access-date=2026-02-10 | archive-date=2023-02-18}}
=== Late Modern ===


==External links==
* [http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/m/manipur.html Manipur princely state, History and genealogy]


==Sources and further reading==
* Brett-James, Antony. "Disaster in Manipur" ''History Today'' (Jan 1962), Vol. 12 Issue 1, p48-55; the failed
revolt in 1890s


* ''[[Cheitharol Kumbaba]]'', Ed - Lairenmayum Ebungohal and Nithoukhongjam Khelchandra, Pub- [[Manipuri Sahitya Parishad]], Imphal, 1967.
* ''The Royal Chronicle of Manipur, the Cheitharol Kumbaba'' Ed. and Trans.- Saroj Nalini Arambam Parratt (London: Routledge, 2005).


==External links==
== External links ==
* [http://archivesmanipur.nic.in/introd.htm Manipur State Archives]
* [http://archivesmanipur.nic.in/introd.htm Manipur State Archives]
{{History of India by State}}
{{History of India by State}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Manipur}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Manipur}}
[[Category:History of Manipur| ]]
[[Category:History of Manipur| ]]
[[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]]

Latest revision as of 09:29, 23 March 2026


Not to be confused with history of Manipur (Mahabharata).
Kingdom of Manipur
Part of History of Manipur
Kings of Manipur
Loiyumba 1074-1112
Senbi Kiyamba 1467-1508
Koirengba 1508-1512
Khagemba 1597-1652
Pitambar Charairongba 1697–1709
Pamheiba 1720–1751
Gaurisiam 1752–1754
Chitsai 1754–1756
Ching-Thang Khomba 1769–1798
Rohinchandra 1798–1801
Maduchandra Singh 1801–1806
Chourjit Singh 1806–1812
Marjit Singh 1812–1819
Gambhir Singh 1825–1834
Raja Nara Singh 1844–1850
Debindro Singh 1850–1850
Chandrakirti Singh 1850–1886
Surachandra Singh 1886–1890
Kulachandra Singh 1890–1891
Churachandra Singh 1891–1941
Bodhchandra Singh 1941–1949
Manipur monarchy data

The history of the Indian state of Manipur is reflected by archaeological research, written history and mythology. Historically, Manipur was an independent sovereign kingdom ruled by Meitei dynasty but at different point of time it was invaded and rule over by other state and authority.[1][2][3][4] The Kangleipak State developed under King Loiyumba with its first written constitution in the early 12th century.[5] Manipur under the 18th-century king Pamheiba saw the legendary burning of sacred scripture.

Manipur became a princely state under British rule in 1891 after the Anglo-Manipur war, the last of the independent states to be incorporated into British Raj as a princely state.[6] During the Second World War, Manipur was the scene of battles between Japanese and Allied forces. After the war, Maharaja Bodhachandra signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India.[7] It was made a union territory in 1956[8] and a full-fledged state in 21 January 1972.[9]

Nomenclature[edit | edit source]

Further information: Manipur § Alternate names

During the latter part of its history, Manipur and its people were known by different names to their neighbours. The Shans or Pongs called the area Cassay, the Burmese Kathe, and the Assamese Meklee. In the first treaty between the British East India Company and Chingthangkhomba signed in 1762, the kingdom was recorded as Meckley. Bhagyachandra and his successors issued coins engraved with the title of Manipureshwar, or lord of Manipur and the name Meckley was discarded. Later on, the Sanskritisation work, Dharani Samhita (1825–34) popularized the legends of the derivation of Manipur's name.[10]

Prehistoric[edit | edit source]

Main article: Prehistory of Manipur

Archaeological research in Northeast India is severely scarce, mostly limited to surface explorations, and lacking in state-of-the-art methods.[11]

Human settlement[edit | edit source]

Few attempts have been made to establish the earliest human settlement in Northeast India, and it is generally thought to have been uninhabited by archaic humans prior to late Pleistocene due to unfavorable geographical conditions.[12] This is however disputed and Northeast Corridors are proposed by some scholars to have played a defining role in early hominid migrations and peopling of India.[13]

Paleolithic[edit | edit source]

Prehistoric stone erections in the "Willong Khullen" village in northern Manipur, which slightly resembles the Stonehenge of England

Most scholars do not discuss a Paleolithic age in Manipur (and Northeast).[14] However, Manjil Hazarika, in his 2017 survey of prehistory of Northeast India, rejects that there exists any plausible ground to deny presence of Paleolithic culture in Manipur.[15]

A few Paleolithic sites (Khangkhui, Napachik, Machi, Somgu and Singtom) have been located in Manipur.[16] Though, in absence of good chrono-stratigraphic context of the finds and their cohabitation with remains of other ages, accuracy of such identifications remains open to critiques.[14] The existence of Hoabinhian-like complexes remains disputed, as well.[17]

Neolithic[edit | edit source]

Multiple Neolithic sites have been identified in Manipur; they include Nongpok Keithelmanbi, Napachik, Laimenai, Naran Siena, and Phunan.[18] Considered to be part of a larger Southeast Asian complex, the identifications are primarily accorded on the basis of stone tools and pottery (esp. cord-impressed ware); characteristic cultural identifiers of the Neolithic (agriculture, animal rearing etc.) are yet to be located and their development chronology is subject of active research.[19] Hazarika notes the Neolithic culture in Northeast to have begun some four thousand years after that in the Gangetic Plains.[20]

Meiteilon, lingua-franca of Meiteis belongs to the TB phylum.[21] Hazarika notes the Manipuri sites to have an abundance of three-legged pottery and cord-impressed ware, very similar to the ones found in Southern China and Thailand, and hypothesizes that Manipur might have been the melting pot of Neolithic impulses from adjoining regions.[22] Roger Blench, in agreement with George van Driem's reconstructions of archeo-linguistic history of Southeast Asia, proposes that Northeast India accommodated a diverse group of foragers since Neolithic age, who learned agriculture and animal rearing c. 4000 B.C before migrating eastwards and establishing the Tibeto-Burman (TB) phylum.[23]

Chalcolithic and beyond[edit | edit source]

Hazarika notes the broader region to not show evidence of any significant cultural transformation, upon the dawning of Copper Age (and then, Iron Age).[24] The state has an abundance of megaliths of various shapes, serving distinct purposes.[25]

Iron Age[edit | edit source]

There has been a marked absence of historical evidence especially written records governing the span between Iron Age and the first millennium in North East India.[24] Chronicles of other nations mention that trade networks between India proper and South China were likely operating via Manipur; pilgrims are reported to have entered India from China via these territories.[26] The geopolitical history of the region along with the ethno-linguistic background of the inhabitants are largely unknown.[27][28][29]

History[edit | edit source]

Main article: Kangleipak

Sources[edit | edit source]

A temple dedicated to Vishnu, built in Bishnupur

The primary source concerning ancient and medieval Manipur has been restricted to the Cheitharol Kumbaba (Ch. K.) – the court history of the kings of Manipur – which dates the first king to 33 CE.[27][30] However, the historical record herein up to the reign of King Kyampa (1467–1508 CE) are noted to have been redrafted during the reign of Ching-Thang Khomba (Bhagyachandra) in the mid- to late-18th century because those leaves were "lost". This part of the chronicle remains particularly unreliable. The kings of that period are assigned extraordinary spans of length, and there is a scarcity of objective information.[31] Saroj Nalili Parratt hypothesizes that many of these monarchs were probably borrowed from the cultural pantheon and interspersed with religious myths to fit into their collective memory of intra-clan conquests and legitimize the current rule by the Meitei. Parratt as well as Gangmumei Kamei suspect that the initiation date of 33 CE was arrived upon by the scribes via astrological calculations.[32]

Ch. K. is also a Meitei chronicle – Meitei being one of the migrant clans, originally named Ningthouja, who (at some unknown point of time) assimilated others into a confederacy, and gained rulership of the monarchy – with the early sections being essentially themed on the expansion of the Meitei across the valley of Manipur and other exploits.[33][34]

Some local authors have used Puyas, archaic Manipuri manuscripts in their reconstruction of Manipuri History. This tendency has been criticized by Parratt and others; none of these texts are yet dated by professional historians or subject to serious textual-critical scrutiny, and hence are not suitable for purposes other than commenting on Meitei traditions.[35][36][lower-alpha 1] Scholars have also found Puyas to have been (potentially) forged by Meitei Nationalists in support of their reinvention of history and tradition.[38][39][40]

Mythology and early kings[edit | edit source]

Pakhangpa, a primordial dragon god in Meitei mythology, is credited in Ch. K. for having established the Meitei rule by subjugating the "Poireitons". The first seven kings mentioned over Ch. K. – Pakhangpa, Tompok, Taothingmang, Khui Ningngongpa, Pengsipa, Kaokhongpa and Naokhampa – allegedly ruled until 411 CE. Barring Pakhangpa and Taothingmang, the chronicle only records the regnal span of each king. Parratt notes that there's not even any evidence of these seven rulers belonging to the same dynasty, and in all probabilities they were reconstructed from oral legends of varying origins. The chronicle itself mentions that nothing much is known about these "divine"-like kings.

A historic dual statue of dragon lion Kanglasha in front of the inner entrance gate to the Kangla Palace of Imphal, which was once the ruling seat of the Meitei kings in old days.

Naokhampa was succeeded by Naophangpa, about whom nothing significant is mentioned in the chronicle. He was succeeded by his son Sameirang, who fought a successful battle over Aangom, a fellow clan. The next ruler was Konthoupa and his reign saw some devastating warfare with "Senloi Langmai". After a monarch-less span of five years, Naothingkhong became the next king. During his reign the chieftain of Pong Kingdom is noted to have engaged in an annexation spree before returning via Manipur. Khongtekcha was the next king; a successful battle over the Moirang clan is noted, and he ruled for ten years. After a gap of eleven years, the next king was Keirencha, who ruled for fifteen years. He was succeeded by Yarepa, who reigned for twenty two years. Nothing else is noted about these two kings. The next four kings were Aayangpa, Ningthoucheng, Chenglei Yipan Lanthapa and Yirengpa, who ruled for a combined total of 253 years. All of them are noted to have emerged victorious in varied kinds of warfare over fellow clans – Aayangpa subdued the Nongyai Khumans, Ningthoucheng raided Houkei, Lanthapa captured a group of Luwangs, and Yirengpa defeated the Moirangs as well as Khumans.[41]

Loiyumpa was the next king, and Ch. K. records his reign in considerable detail. He is credited with the initiation of the first 'constitution'. He was succeeded by Loitongpa, who emerged successful in some undescribed battles on the eastern fronts, probably waged over autochthonous ethnic groups. After a rule of twenty eight years, he was succeeded by Aatom Yoirenpa, who ruled for thirteen years. Yoirenpa was soon chased out by his brother and had to take refuge with the Khumans. Under Yiwanthapa, who reigned for thirty two years, a successful war was waged on the Khumans and their chief queen was murdered. The next ruler was Thawanthapa. In a thirty six year long rule, he subdued multiple internal and external threats. Despite allying with the Khumans once, in a raid against the villagers of Hairem, he would go on to defeat the Khumans. The next king was Chingthang Lanthapa, who defeated the Khumans as well as Kamus, in his eleven year long rule. Thingpai Senhongpa succeeded him; nothing significant is noted except that he ruled for 5 years. Puranthapa, the next king, re-defeated the Khumans at Pairou, consolidated the territories of Koupa Koutai, and conquered the Chakpas.[42]

Khumompa became king in 1263 and went on to ally with the Khumans to successfully ward off an invasion by the rulers of Kabaw Valley. A battle over the mountain-folks of Hao was also waged and their king Maimumpa was captured. Moirampa succeeded him, and again defeated the Khumans as well as Moirangs. Other battles against the Kekes and people of Makihao are noted; Korirong was captured. Thangpi Lanthapa ruled for twenty two years and trounced the Moirangs as well as the Loipi Haos; Tengkongbi and Marem Namngapa were captured. Kongyapa ascended in 1324 went on to succeed him. He was succeeded by Tenheipa, who reigned for twenty years and engaged in a multitude of warfare. Nothing is mentioned about the next ruler Tonapa, except that he reigned for five years. Then, Tapungpa ascended to the throne and waged successful warfare against the Loipi Marems, before being assassinated by Khamlangpa, the king of Chingsong, after thirty five years of rule. Again, there is a scarcity of information about the next king Lairenpa; he reigned for five years and there were no king for five, after. Punsipa's reign went until 1432, and was witness to numerous clashes including one with Moirangs.[43]

One of the early states of the region was the Kangleipak State, its first constitution, the Loiyumba Sinyen, was made during the reign of King Loiyumba in the late 11th century.[5][44][45]

Early Modern[edit | edit source]

The Temple of Shri Govindaji in the "Palace Compound" in Imphal, was the center of Meitei Vaishnavism of the Meitei Hindus in Manipur.

The early modern period is often called "medieval" by Meitei historians.[46]

Ningthoukhompa ruled from 1432 to 1467. He routed out the Moirangs, and repulsed a rebellion by the Tankhnus of the mountains.[47]

During the reign of Meidingu Senbi Kiyamba (1467–1507) the ancient Meitei faith, Sanamahism, began to collapse. It was during his reign that the Brahmin people migrated to the kingdom and the volume of Vaishnavists proceeded with the worship of the Pheiya (sacred stone from Pong kingdom) as the Hindu God Vishnu.[48] This was the origin of Meitei Vaishnavism.

Kuranganayani was a Manipuri princess who became queen of Ahom in 1768.

During the reign of king Gharib Niwaz (born Pamheiba, 1709–1748), the name of the kingdom was changed from Kangleipak to Manipur. It was during his regime the religion of the entire Meitei ethnicity was forcibly converted from Sanamahism into Hinduism.[48][49][50] In 1729, the legendary burning of the sacred scriptures of Sanamahism took place[51] during the reign of Gharib Niwaz. This event is annually commemorated during the Puya Meithaba.

Modern[edit | edit source]

Appearance of the Coat of arms of Manipur in the Flag of Manipur

The history of modern Manipur covers the history of Manipur from the Seven Years Devastation to the Burmese Empire and to the present day.

Seven Years Devastation[edit | edit source]

Main article: Seven Years Devastation of Manipur

The Burmese invaded Manipur several times but the most notable one was in 1819, during the reign of King Marjit. The Burmese occupied Manipur from 1819 to 1826. During this time, Manipur was devastated and there was chaos and anarchy everywhere. This dark period is called Chahi Taret Khuntakpa (Seven Years Devastation).[52][53]

Manipuri Levy[edit | edit source]

Action by Lieutenant CJW Grant, VC, at Thobal, Manipur, 1 April 1891.

There were exploitations of the Manipuri Levy, which was the first standing army of Manipur, born out of the Manipur National Struggle against the Burmese rule during the Seven Years Devastation.[54][55][56][57]

Anglo-Manipuri War[edit | edit source]

Main article: Anglo-Manipur War

In the year 1891, the historic Anglo-Manipuri war (Manipur's National Liberation Struggle) took place. The Manipuri soldiers showed their might in the losing battle, sacrificing their lives for the motherland. The combat ended with a British victory.[58][59][60][61]

Japanese bombing[edit | edit source]

Main article: Battle of Imphal
May 1944, a Royal Air Force Hawker Hurricane IIC of No. 42 Squadron RAF based at Kangla, Manipur, piloted by "Chowringhee" Campbell, attacking a bridge near a small Burmese settlement.

Japanese bombing in Imphal took place several times in the history of Manipur, thereby creating high casualties to the people of Manipur. The first bombing was in the year 1942, heralding the beginning of the Second World War in Manipur.[62][63]

See also[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Bryce Beemer writes, "Manipur developed a textual tradition on par with that of Upper Burma or Java. The continued existence of clan identities and leadership is one reason for the bewilderingly diverse historical traditions of Manipur. Each clan wrote its own creation myths, religious histories, clan genealogies, and dynastic accounts of noble houses. Although many of these historical texts contradict each other, they represent a rich ore yet to be mined by most Southeast Asianists."[37]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Keen, Caroline (2015). An Imperial Crisis in British India. I.B. Tauris. pp. 150–152. doi:10.5040/9780755624355. ISBN 978-1-78673-987-2. Ghose maintained that under the Indian Penal Code only subjects of the Queen or foreigners residing in British India could be guilty of waging war against the Queen. Manipur was an independent sovereign state and..
  2. ↑ Arora, Vibha; Kipgen, Ngamjahao (2012). "The Politics of Identifying with and Distancing from Kuki Identity in Manipur". Sociological Bulletin. 61 (3): 429–449. doi:10.1177/0038022920120303. ISSN 0038-0229. JSTOR 26290634. S2CID 157167951. Historically, Manipur was an independent kingdom ruled by Meitei dynasty. The physical boundary of Manipur has been fluctuating with historical changes in political power and the intra state and the inter state boundaries
  3. ↑ Htin Aung, U. (1967). A history of Burma. Internet Archive. New York, Columbia University Press. p. 117.
  4. ↑ Baruah, S. L. (1983). "THE BURMESE AND THE NORTH EAST (from the middle of 18th century to the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 44: 609–613. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44139912.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 KSHETRIMAYUM, JOGENDRO (2009). "Shooting the Sun: A Study of Death and Protest in Manipur". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (40): 48–54. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 25663656. Loiyamba Shinyen (ls), considered the first writ ten constitution of Manipur (Kabui 1988; Naorem 1988). Dated to 1110 ad, it was written during the reign of Loiyamba or Loiyumba
  6. ↑ Lokendra, N. (1 January 1998). The Unquiet Valley: Society, Economy, and Politics of Manipur (1891-1950). Mittal Publications. pp. 35–38. ISBN 978-81-7099-696-5.
  7. ↑ "Manipur Merger Agreement, 1949". Satp.org. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
  8. ↑ "The Constitution (Amendment)". Indiacode.nic.in. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
  9. ↑ "An Act further to amend the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation)Act, 1971" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 November 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
  10. ↑ Gangmuei Kabui, History of Manipur, National Publishing House, Delhi, 1991.
  11. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 2,10,11.
  12. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 73,74.
  13. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 74,92.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Hazarika 2017, p. 75,80.
  15. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 153.
  16. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 79,90.
  17. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 86.
  18. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 100,111,112.
  19. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 95,111,112,141,142,153.
  20. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 140.
  21. ↑ Post & Burling 2017, p. 232,233.
  22. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 112,113,142,143.
  23. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 58.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Hazarika 2017, p. 16.
  25. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 150,151.
  26. ↑ Hazarika 2017, p. 69,70.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Parratt (2005), pp. 2,13.
  28. ↑ Brandt (2017), pp. 122.
  29. ↑ Sebastian (2019), pp. 55.
  30. ↑ Sebastian (2019), pp. 45-46.
  31. ↑ Sebastian (2019), pp. 46.
  32. ↑ Parratt (2005), pp. 4-6,13.
  33. ↑ Parratt (2005), pp. 4.
  34. ↑ Sebastian (2019), pp. 57-58.
  35. ↑ Parratt (2005), pp. 10,11.
  36. ↑ Sebastian (2019), pp. 52-53.
  37. ↑ Beemer 2013, pp. 266.
  38. ↑ Parratt (2005), pp. 11,17.
  39. ↑ Brandt (2017), pp. 128.
  40. ↑ Naorem (2015), pp. 219.
  41. ↑ Parratt 2005, pp. 23-31.
  42. ↑ Parratt 2005, pp. 31-36.
  43. ↑ Parratt 2005, pp. 36-40.
  44. ↑ Naorem Sanajaoba, Manipur Treaties and Documents-Vol I,1993, New Delhi. Book I: "Twelfth Century Meetei Constitution To Pemberton Report", http://dspace.nehu.ac.in/bitstream/1/9804/1/Manipur%20treaties%20%28N%20Sanajaoba%29.pdf.
  45. ↑ K, Manikchand. "The Evolution of Meetei State".
  46. ↑ "History Of Medieval Manipur 1". e-pao.net. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  47. ↑ Parratt 2005, pp. 40-41.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Hinduism in Manipur Part 1 By Chirom Rajketan". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  49. ↑ "Hinduism in Manipur A Political Perspectives By Rinku Khumukcham". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  50. ↑ "Hinduism in Manipur Part 2 By Chirom Rajketan". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  51. ↑ "Puya Meithaba The Burning of Meitei Sacred Scripture By Madhu Chandra". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  52. ↑ "seven years devastation". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  53. ↑ "A Brief Note On Chahi Taret Khuntakpa". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  54. ↑ "Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 1". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  55. ↑ "Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 2". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  56. ↑ "Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 3". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  57. ↑ "Glorious Exploits of Manipur Levy 4". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  58. ↑ "Historic Anglo Manipuri war of 1891 1". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  59. ↑ "Historic Anglo Manipuri war of 1891 2". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  60. ↑ "A brief note on Anglo Manipuri War". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  61. ↑ "Historical significance of Anglo Manipur War of 1891 By Vividraj Achom". e-pao.net. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  62. ↑ "Japanese bombing of Imphal Part 1". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  63. ↑ "Japanese bombing of Imphal Part 2". e-pao.net. Retrieved 18 February 2023.

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

Further reading[edit | edit source]

Early Modern[edit | edit source]

Late Modern[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

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