Ayurveda: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 19:19, 17 March 2023

Ayurveda (/ˌɑːjʊərˈveɪdə, -ˈviː-/)^[1] is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.^[2] The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific.^[3]^[4]^[5] Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia.^[2] Therapies include herbal medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage, laxatives, enemas, and medical oils.^[9]^[10] Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early Indian alchemy or rasashastra). Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, and the extraction of foreign objects.^[11]^[12]

The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.^[13] Printed editions of the Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium), frame the work as the teachings of Dhanvantari, Hindu god of Ayurveda, incarnated as King Divodāsa of Varanasi, to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.^[14]^[15] The oldest manuscripts of the work, however, omit this frame, ascribing the work directly to King Divodāsa.^[16] Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and Maharishi Ayurveda in the 1980s.^[17] Historical evidence for Ayurvedic texts, terminology and concepts appears from the middle of the first millennium BCE onwards.^[18]

In Ayurveda texts, Dosha balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.^[19] Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental doshas viz. vāta, pitta and kapha, and state that balance (Skt. sāmyatva) of the doshas results in health, while imbalance (viṣamatva) results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the common era.^[20]

There is no good evidence that Ayurveda is effective to treat or cure cancer.^[10] Some Ayurvedic preparations have been found to contain lead, mercury, and arsenic,^[9] substances known to be harmful to humans. A 2008 study found the three substances in close to 21% of U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent Ayurvedic medicines sold through the Internet.^[21] The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown.^[21]

Etymology

The term Āyurveda (Sanskrit: आयुर्वेद) is composed of two words, āyus, आयुस्, "life" or "longevity", and veda, वेद, "knowledge", translated as "knowledge of longevity"^[22]^[23] or "knowledge of life and longevity".^[24]

Eight components

Nagarjuna, known for the Madhyamaka (middle path), wrote the medical works The Hundred Prescriptions and The Precious Collection.^[25]

The earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided into eight components (Skt. aṅga).^[26]^[27] This characterization of the physician's art, "the medicine that has eight components" (Skt. cikitsāyām aṣṭāṅgāyāṃ चिकित्सायामष्टाङ्गायाम्), is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata, c. 4th century BCE.^[28] The components are:^[29]^[24]^[30]

Kāyachikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body
Kaumāra-bhṛtya (Pediatrics): Discussions about prenatal and postnatal care of baby and mother; methods of conception; choosing the child's sex, intelligence, and constitution; childhood diseases; and midwifery^[31]
Śalyatantra: surgical techniques and the extraction of foreign objects
Śhālākyatantra: treatment of ailments affecting openings or cavities in the upper body: ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc.
Bhūtavidyā: pacification of possessing spirits, and the people whose minds are affected by such possession
Agadatantra/Vishagara-vairodh Tantra (Toxicology): includes epidemics; toxins in animals, vegetables and minerals; and keys for recognizing those anomalies and their antidotes
Rasāyantantra: rejuvenation and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength
Vājīkaraṇatantra: aphrodisiacs; treatments for increasing the volume and viability of semen and sexual pleasure; infertility problems; and spiritual development (transmutation of sexual energy into spiritual energy)

Principles and terminology

The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda show parallels with Samkhya and Vaisheshika philosophies, as well as with Buddhism and Jainism.^[32]^[33] Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.^[19] For example, to suppress sneezing is said to potentially give rise to shoulder pain.^[34] However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure when following nature's urges.^[19] For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake,^[35] sleep, and sexual intercourse.^[19]

The three Doshas and the five elements from which they are composed.

According to Ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (dhatus), waste (malas), and humoral biomaterials (doshas).^[36] The seven dhatus are chyle (rasa), blood (rakta), muscles (māmsa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), marrow (majja), and semen (shukra). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, the classic treatises of Ayurveda divided bodily substances into five classical elements (panchamahabhuta) viz. earth, water, fire, air and ether.^[37] There are also twenty gunas (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.^[38]

The three postulated elemental bodily humors, the doshas or tridosha, are vata (air, which some modern authors equate with the nervous system), pitta (bile, fire, equated by some with enzymes), and kapha (phlegm, or earth and water, equated by some with mucus). Contemporary critics assert that doshas are not real, but are a fictional concept.^[39] The humours (doshas) may also affect mental health. Each dosha has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more doshas thus explains a person's physical constitution (prakriti) and personality.^[36]^[40]^[41] Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental doshas is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the doshas are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the doshas which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the doshas and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental dosha makeup, as certain prakriti are said to predispose one to particular diseases.^[42]^[36] For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced Adam's apple, and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely vata prakriti and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism.^[36]^[43] Deranged vata is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess vayu (gas), although the Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita also attributes "insanity" (unmada) to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (brahmarakshasa).^[36]^[42]^[44]^[45]

Ama (a Sanskrit word meaning "uncooked" or "undigested") is used to refer to the concept of anything that exists in a state of incomplete transformation. With regards to oral hygiene, it is claimed to be a toxic byproduct generated by improper or incomplete digestion.^[46]^[47]^[48] The concept has no equivalent in standard medicine.

In medieval taxonomies of the Sanskrit knowledge systems, Ayurveda is assigned a place as a subsidiary Veda (upaveda).^[49] Some medicinal plant names from the Atharvaveda and other Vedas can be found in subsequent Ayurveda literature.^[50] Some other school of thoughts considers 'Ayurveda' as the 'Fifth Veda'.^[51] The earliest recorded theoretical statements about the canonical models of disease in Ayurveda occur in the earliest Buddhist Canon.^[52]

Practice

Physician taking pulse, Delhi, c. 1825

Ayurvedic practitioners regard physical existence, mental existence, and personality as three separate elements of a whole person with each element being able to influence the others.^[53] This holistic approach used during diagnosis and healing is a fundamental aspect of Ayurveda. Another part of Ayurvedic treatment says that there are channels (srotas) which transport fluids, and that the channels can be opened up by massage treatment using oils and Swedana (fomentation). Unhealthy, or blocked, channels are thought to cause disease.^[54]

Diagnosis

An Ayurvedic practitioner applying oil using head massage

Ayurveda has eight ways to diagnose illness, called Nadi (pulse), Mootra (urine), Mala (stool), Jihva (tongue), Shabda (speech), Sparsha (touch), Druk (vision), and Aakruti (appearance).^[55] Ayurvedic practitioners approach diagnosis by using the five senses.^[56] For example, hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.^[37] The study of the lethal points or marman marma is of special importance.^[38]

Treatment procedures

Treatment and prevention

Two of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda deal with surgery (Śalya-cikitsā and Śālākya-tantra), but contemporary Ayurveda tends to stress attaining vitality by building a healthy metabolic system and maintaining good digestion and excretion.^[38] Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, and meditation.^[57] One type of prescription is a Sattvic diet.

Ayurveda follows the concept of Dinacharya, which says that natural cycles (waking, sleeping, working, meditation etc.) are important for health. Hygiene, including regular bathing, cleaning of teeth, oil pulling, tongue scraping, skin care, and eye washing, is also a central practice.^[37]

Substances used

Ayurvedic preparations displayed in Delhi in 2016

The vast majority (90%) of Ayurvedic remedies are plant based.^[58] Plant-based treatments in Ayurveda may be derived from roots, leaves, fruits, bark, or seeds; some examples of plant-based substances include cardamom and cinnamon. In the 19th century, William Dymock and co-authors summarized hundreds of plant-derived medicines along with the uses, microscopic structure, chemical composition, toxicology, prevalent myths and stories, and relation to commerce in British India.^[59] Triphala, an herbal formulation of three fruits, Amalaki, Bibhitaki, and Haritaki, is one of the most commonly used^[60] Ayurvedic remedies.^[61]^[62] The herbs Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)^[63] and Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulsi)^[58] are also routinely used in Ayurveda.

Tulsi-flower (holy basil), an Ayurvedic herb

Animal products used in Ayurveda include milk, bones, and gallstones.^[64] In addition, fats are prescribed both for consumption and for external use. Consumption of minerals, including sulphur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate and gold, are also prescribed.^[37] The addition of minerals to herbal medicine is called rasashastra.

Ayurveda uses alcoholic beverages called Madya,^[65] which are said to adjust the doshas by increasing pitta and reducing vatta and kapha.^[65] Madya are classified by the raw material and fermentation process, and the categories include: sugar-based, fruit-based, cereal-based, cereal-based with herbs, fermentated with vinegar, and tonic wines. The intended outcomes can include causing purgation, improving digestion or taste, creating dryness, or loosening joints. Ayurvedic texts describe Madya as non-viscid and fast-acting, and say that it enters and cleans minute pores in the body.^[65]

Purified opium^[66] is used in eight Ayurvedic preparations^[67] and is said to balance the vata and kapha doshas and increase the pitta dosha.^[66] It is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery, for increasing the sexual and muscular ability, and for affecting the brain. The sedative and pain-relieving properties of opium are considered in Ayurveda. The use of opium is found in the ancient Ayurvedic texts, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara Samhita (1300–1400 CE), a book on pharmacy used in Rajasthan in Western India, as an ingredient of an aphrodisiac to delay male ejaculation.^[68] It is possible that opium was brought to India along with or before Muslim conquests.^[67]^[69] The book Yoga Ratnakara (1700–1800 CE, unknown author), which is popular in Maharashtra, uses opium in a herbal-mineral composition prescribed for diarrhea.^[68] In the Bhaisajya Ratnavali, opium and camphor are used for acute gastroenteritis. In this drug, the respiratory depressant action of opium is counteracted by the respiratory stimulant property of camphor.^[68] Later books have included the narcotic property for use as analgesic pain reliever.^[68]

Cannabis indica is also mentioned in the ancient Ayurveda books, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara Samhita as a treatment for diarrhea.^[68] In the Bhaisajya Ratnavali it is named as an ingredient in an aphrodisiac.^[68]

Ayurveda says that both oil and tar can be used to stop bleeding,^[37] and that traumatic bleeding can be stopped by four different methods: ligation of the blood vessel, cauterisation by heat, use of preparations to facilitate clotting, and use of preparations to constrict the blood vessels.

Ayurvedic treatment set up used for applying oil to patients, Kerala, 2017

Massage with oil is commonly prescribed by Ayurvedic practitioners.^[70] Oils are used in a number of ways, including regular consumption, anointing, smearing, head massage, application to affected areas,^[71]^{[failed verification]} and oil pulling. Liquids may also be poured on the patient's forehead, a technique called shirodhara.^[72]

Panchakarma

According to Ayurveda, panchakarma are techniques to eliminate toxic elements from the body.^[73] Panchakarma refers to five actions, which are meant to be performed in a designated sequence with the stated aim of restoring balance in the body through a process of purgation.^[74]

Current status

Ayurveda is widely practiced in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal^[75] where public institutions offer formal study in the form of a Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery (BAMS) degree. In certain parts of the world, the legal standing of practitioners is equivalent to that of conventional medicine.^[75] Several scholars have described the contemporary Indian application of Ayurvedic practice as being "biomedicalized" relative to the more "spiritualized" emphasis to practice found in variants in the West.^[76]^[74]

Exposure to European developments in medicine from the nineteenth century onwards, through European colonization of India and the subsequent institutionalized support for European forms of medicine amongst European heritage settlers in India^[77] were challenging to Ayurveda, with the entire epistemology called into question. From the twentieth century, Ayurveda became politically, conceptually, and commercially dominated by modern biomedicine, resulting in "Modern Ayurveda" and "Global Ayurveda".^[22] Modern Ayurveda is geographically located in the Indian subcontinent and tends towards secularization through minimization of the magic and mythic aspects of Ayurveda.^[22]^[23] Global Ayurveda encompasses multiple forms of practice that developed through dispersal to a wide geographical area outside of India.^[22] Smith and Wujastyk further delineate that Global Ayurveda includes those primarily interested in the Ayurveda pharmacopeia, and also the practitioners of New Age Ayurveda (which may link Ayurveda to yoga and Indian spirituality and/or emphasize preventative practice, mind body medicine, or Maharishi Ayurveda).^[23]

Since the 1980s, Ayurveda has also become the subject of interdisciplinary studies in ethnomedicine which seeks to integrate the biomedical sciences and humanities to improve the pharmacopeia of Ayurveda.^[23] According to Industry Research, the global Ayurveda market was worth US$4.5 billion in 2017.^[78]

The Indian subcontinent

A typical Ayurvedic pharmacy, Rishikesh

India

It was reported in 2008^[6] and again in 2018^[79] that 80 percent of people in India used Ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine.^[6]^[79] A 2014 national health survey found that, in general, forms of the Indian System of Medicine or AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga and naturopathy, Unani, Sidha, and Homeopathy) were used by about 3.5% of patients who were seeking outpatient care over a two-week reference period.^[80]

In 1970, the Parliament of India passed the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aimed to standardise qualifications for Ayurveda practitioners and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.^[81] In 1971, the Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) was established under the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha medicine and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, to monitor higher education in Ayurveda in India.^[82] The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalise traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.^[83] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is designed to do research on Ayurveda.^[84] Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes.^[81] As of 2013^[update], India had over 180 training centers that offered degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.^[57]

To fight biopiracy and unethical patents, the government of India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library in 2001 to serve as a repository for formulations from systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha medicine.^[85]^[86] The formulations come from over 100 traditional Ayurveda books.^[87] An Indian Academy of Sciences document quoting a 2003–04 report states that India had 432,625 registered medical practitioners, 13,925 dispensaries, 2,253 hospitals and a bed strength of 43,803. 209 undergraduate teaching institutions and 16 postgraduate institutions.^[88] In 2012, it was reported that insurance companies covered expenses for Ayurvedic treatments in case of conditions such as spinal cord disorders, bone disorder, arthritis and cancer. Such claims constituted 5–10 percent of the country's health insurance claims.^[89]

Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti, an organisation dedicated to fighting superstition in India, considers Ayurveda to be pseudoscience.^[5]

On 9 November 2014, India formed the Ministry of AYUSH.^[90]^[91] National Ayurveda Day is also observed in India on the birth of Dhanvantari that is Dhanteras.^[92]

In 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report titled "The Health Workforce in India" which found that 31 percent of those who claimed to be doctors in India in 2001 were educated only up to the secondary school level and 57 percent went without any medical qualification.^[93] The WHO study found that the situation was worse in rural India with only 18.8 percent of doctors holding a medical qualification.^[93] Overall, the study revealed that nationally the density of all doctors (mainstream, ayurvedic, homeopathic and unani) was 8 doctors per 10,000 people compared to 13 per 10,000 people in China.^[93]^[94]

Nepal

About 75% to 80% of the population of Nepal use Ayurveda.^[7]^[8] As of 2009, Ayurveda was considered to be the most common and popular form of medicine in Nepal.^[95]

Sri Lanka

File:SwaSwara Ayurveda and Yoga on Om Beach meditation (4).jpg

Practitioners in 2017 in Sri Lanka where Ayurveda spas are common.

The Sri Lankan tradition of Ayurveda is similar to the Indian tradition. Practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka refer to Sanskrit texts which are common to both countries. However, they do differ in some aspects, particularly in the herbs used.

In 1980, the Sri Lankan government established a Ministry of Indigenous Medicine to revive and regulate Ayurveda.^[96] The Institute of Indigenous Medicine (affiliated to the University of Colombo) offers undergraduate, postgraduate, and MD degrees in Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery, and similar degrees in unani medicine.^[97] In 2010, the public system had 62 Ayurvedic hospitals and 208 central dispensaries, which served about 3 million people (about 11% of Sri Lanka's population). There are an estimated 20,000 registered practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka.^[98]^[99]

According to the Mahavamsa, an ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty from the sixth century CE, King Pandukabhaya (reigned 437 BCE to 367 BCE) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documented evidence available of institutions dedicated specifically to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.^[100]^[101] The hospital at Mihintale is the oldest in the world.^[102]

Outside the Indian subcontinent

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in Amsterdam in 1967

Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine developed during antiquity and the medieval period, and as such is comparable to pre-modern Chinese and European systems of medicine. In the 1960s, Ayurveda began to be advertised as alternative medicine in the Western world. Due to different laws and medical regulations around the globe, the expanding practice and commercialisation of Ayurveda raised ethical and legal issues.^[103] Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, Ayurveda was adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and by Maharishi Ayurveda in the 1980s.^[17] In some cases, this involved active fraud on the part of proponents of Ayurveda in an attempt to falsely represent the system as equal to the standards of modern medical research.^[103]^[104]^[105]

United States

Baba Hari Dass was an early proponent who helped bring Ayurveda to the United States in the early 1970s. His teachings led to the establishment of the Mount Madonna Institute.^[106] He invited several notable Ayurvedic teachers, including Vasant Lad, Sarita Shrestha, and Ram Harsh Singh. The Ayurvedic practitioner Michael Tierra wrote that the "history of Ayurveda in North America will always owe a debt to the selfless contributions of Baba Hari Dass."^[107]

In the United States, the practice of Ayurveda is not licensed or regulated by any state. The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) stated that "Few well-designed clinical trials and systematic research reviews suggest that Ayurvedic approaches are effective". The NCCIH warned against the issue of heavy metal poisoning, and emphasised the use of conventional health providers first.^[108] As of 2018, the NCCIH reported that 240,000 Americans were using Ayurvedic medicine.^[108]

Europe

The first Ayurvedic clinic in Switzerland was opened in 1987 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.^[109] In 2015, the government of Switzerland introduced a federally recognized diploma in Ayurveda.^[110]

Classification and efficacy

Ayurvedic medicine is considered pseudoscientific because its premises are not based on science.^[4]^[3] Both the lack of scientific soundness in the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda and the quality of research have been criticized.^[4]^[111]^[112]^[113]

Although laboratory experiments suggest that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.^[114]^[115] There is no good evidence that Ayurvedic medicine is effective to treat or cure cancer in people.^[10] Although Ayurveda may help "improve quality of life" and Cancer Research UK also acknowledges that "researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms," the organization warns that some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or may interact with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.^[10]

Ethnologist Johannes Quack writes that although the rationalist movement Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti officially labels Ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to astrology, these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members.^[5]

A review of the use of Ayurveda for cardiovascular disease concluded that the evidence is not convincing for the use of any Ayurvedic herbal treatment for heart disease or hypertension, but that many herbs used by Ayurvedic practitioners could be appropriate for further research.^[116]

Research

In India, research in Ayurveda is undertaken by the Ministry of AYUSH through a national network of research institutes.^[117]

In Nepal, the National Ayurvedic Training and Research Centre (NATRC) researches medicinal herbs in the country.^[118]

In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine looks after the research in Ayurveda through various national research institutes.^[119]

Use of toxic metals

Rasashastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbal preparations, may include toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic.^[21] The public health implications of metals in rasashastra in India is unknown.^[21] Adverse reactions to herbs are described in traditional Ayurvedic texts, but practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and that reliable information on herbal toxicity is not readily available. There is a communication gap between practitioners of medicine and Ayurveda.^[120]

Some traditional Indian herbal medicinal products contain harmful levels of heavy metals, including lead.^[121] For example, ghasard, a product commonly given to infants for digestive issues, has been found to have up to 1.6% lead concentration by weight, leading to lead encephalopathy.^[122] A 1990 study on Ayurvedic medicines in India found that 41% of the products tested contained arsenic, and that 64% contained lead and mercury.^[6] A 2004 study found toxic levels of heavy metals in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations made in South Asia and sold in the Boston area, and concluded that Ayurvedic products posed serious health risks and should be tested for heavy-metal contamination.^[123] A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of rasashastra medicines) purchased over the Internet from U.S. and Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic.^[21]^[124]^[125] A 2015 study of users in the United States found elevated blood lead levels in 40% of those tested, leading physician and former U.S. Air Force flight surgeon Harriet Hall to say that "Ayurveda is basically superstition mixed with a soupçon of practical health advice. And it can be dangerous."^[126]^[127]

Heavy metals are thought of as active ingredients by advocates of Indian herbal medicinal products.^[121] According to ancient Ayurvedic texts, certain physico-chemical purification processes such as samskaras or shodhanas (for metals) 'detoxify' the heavy metals in it.^[128]^[129] These are similar to the Chinese pao zhi, although the Ayurvedic techniques are more complex and may involve physical pharmacy techniques as well as mantras. However, these products have nonetheless caused severe lead poisoning and other toxic effects.^[124] Between 1978 and 2008, "more than 80 cases of lead poisoning associated with Ayurvedic medicine use [were] reported worldwide".^[130] In 2012, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) linked Ayurvedic drugs to lead poisoning, based on cases where toxic materials were found in the blood of pregnant women who had taken Ayurvedic drugs.^[131]

Ayurvedic practitioners argue that the toxicity of bhasmas (ash products) comes from improper manufacturing processes, contaminants, improper use of Ayurvedic medicine, quality of raw materials and that the end products and improper procedures are used by charlatans.^[129]

In India, the government ruled that Ayurvedic products must be labelled with their metallic content.^[132] However, in Current Science, a publication of the Indian Academy of Sciences, M. S. Valiathan said that "the absence of post-market surveillance and the paucity of test laboratory facilities [in India] make the quality control of Ayurvedic medicines exceedingly difficult at this time".^[132] In the United States, most Ayurvedic products are marketed without having been reviewed or approved by the FDA. Since 2007, the FDA has placed an import alert on some Ayurvedic products in order to prevent them from entering the United States.^[133] A 2012 toxicological review of mercury-based traditional herbo-metallic preparations concluded that the long-term pharmacotherapeutic and in-depth toxicity studies of these preparations are lacking.^[134]

History

Some scholars assert that the concepts of traditional Ayurvedic medicine have existed since the times of the Indus Valley civilisation^[135] but since the Indus script has not been deciphered, such assertions are moot.^[22]^: The Atharvaveda contains hymns and prayers aimed at curing disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, such as that it was received by Dhanvantari (or Divodasa) from Brahma.^[15]^[37] Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage Agnivesha.^[136]

Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in modern times.^[23] As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine.^[137]^[138] Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (śuddha "pure" Ayurveda) and those who thought Ayurveda should modernize and syncretize (aśuddha "impure, tainted" Ayurveda).^[139]^[140]^[141] The political debate about the place of Ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present, both in the public arena and in government.^[142] Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues today.^[143]^[144]

Main texts

Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,^[145] but manuscripts of three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day. These works are the Charaka Samhita, the Sushruta Samhita and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors. All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his History of Indian Medical Literature.^[2] After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the Suśrutasaṃhitā, Meulenbeld stated (IA, 348),

The Suśrutasaṃhitā is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors.

The dating of this work to 600 BCE was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago,^[146] but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the Suśrutasaṃhitā was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE.^[2]^[20] The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna in the 2nd century CE^[147] has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.^[2] Similar arguments apply to the Charaka Samhita, written by Charaka, and the Bhela Samhita, attributed to Atreya Punarvasu, that are also dated to the 6th century BCE by non-specialist scholars^[148]^[149]^[150] but are in fact, in their present form, datable to a period between the second and fifth centuries CE.^[2]^[20]^[11] The Charaka Samhita was also updated by Dridhabala during the early centuries of the Common Era.^[151]

Statue of Charaka, ancient Indian physician, in Haridwar, India

The Bower Manuscript (dated to the early 6th century CE^[152]) includes of excerpts from the Bheda Samhita^[153] and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (c. 337–422 CE) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.^[154]

Some dictionaries of materia medica include Astanga nighantu (8th century) by Vagbhata, Paryaya ratnamala (9th century) by Madhava, Siddhasara nighantu (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, Dravyavali (10th century), and Dravyaguna sangraha (11th century) by Chakrapani Datta, among others.^[155]^[156]

Illnesses portrayed

Cataract surgery is mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita, to be performed with a jabamukhi salaka, a curved needle used to loosen and remove the obstructing phlegm, with eye soaked with warm butter and bandaged afterward.^[157]

Underwood and Rhodes state that the early forms of traditional Indian medicine identified fever, cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and leprosy,^[37] and that treatments included plastic surgery, lithotomy, tonsillectomy,^[158] couching (a form of cataract surgery), puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign bodies, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections,^{[Vagbhata 1]}^[158]^{[disputed – discuss]} and stitching of wounds.^[37] The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.^[37] During this period, treatments were also prescribed for complex ailments, including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones.^[160]^[161]

Further development and spread

Ayurveda flourished throughout the Indian Middle Ages. Dalhana (fl. 1200), Sarngadhara (fl. 1300) and Bhavamisra (fl. 1500) compiled works on Indian medicine.^[162] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were also translated into the Chinese language in the 5th century,^[163] and during the 8th century, they were translated into the Arabic and Persian language.^[164] The 9th-century Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi was familiar with the text.^[165]^[166] The Arabic works derived from the Ayurvedic texts eventually also reached Europe by the 12th century.^[167]^[168] In Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were influenced by the Arabic reception of the Sushruta's surgical techniques.^[168]

British physicians traveled to India to observe rhinoplasty being performed using Indian methods, and reports on their rhinoplasty methods were published in the Gentleman's Magazine in 1794.^[169] Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in Europe.^[170] Joseph Constantine Carpue studied plastic surgery methods in India for 20 years and, in 1815, was able to perform the first major rhinoplasty surgery in the western world, using the "Indian" method of nose reconstruction.^[171] In 1840 Brett published an article about this technique.^[172]

The British had shown some interest in understanding local medicinal practices in the early nineteenth century. A Native Medical Institution was setup in 1822 where both indigenous and European medicine were taught. After the English Education Act 1835, their policy changed to champion European medicine and disparage local practices.^[173] After Indian independence, there was more focus on Ayurveda and other traditional medical systems. Ayurveda became a part of the Indian National healthcare system, with state hospitals for Ayurveda established across the country. However, the treatments of traditional medicines were not always integrated with others.^[75]

Footnotes

↑ Vāgbhaṭa's Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā describes a procedure for the removal of a dead foetus from the womb of a living mother, and of a living child from the womb of a mother who has died (शारीरस्थान २, गर्भव्यापद्, २.२६-२७, २.५३).^[159] Both these descriptions speak of removal of the fetus through the uterine passage. It is disputed^{[by whom?]} to assert that early Indian Ayurvedic practitioner knew the caesarian section procedure. The earlier description of the Suśrutasaṃhitā (चिकित्सास्थान १५ "मूढगर्भ") is similar. A dead fetus is removed through the uterine passage and vagina. Although Suśruta does not describe removing a living child from a dead mother.

References

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↑ Skolnick, Andrew A. (1991). "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's marketing scheme promises the world eternal 'perfect health'". JAMA. 266 (13): 1741–2, 1744–5, 1749–50. doi:10.1001/jama.1991.03470130017003. PMID 1817475.
↑ "National Policy on Traditional Medicine and Regulation of Herbal Medicines" (PDF). World Health Organization. May 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2009.
↑ Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006). Melton, J. Gordon (ed.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. p. 179. ISBN 9780816075645.
↑ Khalsa, Karta Purkh Singh; Tierra, Michael (2008). The Way of Ayurvedic Herbs: The Most Complete Guide to Natural Healing and Health with Traditional Ayurvedic Herbalism. Lotus Press. pp. x. ISBN 978-0-940985-98-8. Independently, we both first learned Ayurvedic medicine from our respective spiritual mentors – myself with Baba Hari Dass and K.P., with Yogi Bhajan.
↑ ^108.0 ^108.1 "Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. December 2018. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
↑ Wujastyk, Dagmar; Smith, Frederick M. (9 September 2013). Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. SUNY Press. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-7914-7816-5.
↑ Chandrasekhar, Anand (4 June 2017). "Ayurveda seeks respectability through Swiss diploma". SWI. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
↑ Sujatha, V (July 2011). "What could 'integrative' medicine mean? Social science perspectives on contemporary Ayurveda". Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine. 2 (3): 115–23. doi:10.4103/0975-9476.85549. PMC 3193682. PMID 22022153.
↑ Manohar, PR (April 2013). "Uniform standards and quality control of research publications in the field of Ayurveda". Ancient Science of Life. 32 (4): 185–6. doi:10.4103/0257-7941.131968. PMC 4078466. PMID 24991064.
↑ Bausell, R. Barker (2007). Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-19-538342-3.
↑ "Ayurveda". American Cancer Society. 26 August 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2015. The effectiveness of Ayurveda has not been proven in scientific studies, but early research suggests that certain herbs may offer potential therapeutic value... Although Ayurveda has been largely untested by Western researchers, there is a growing interest in integrating some parts of the system into medical practice. In fact, a few of the herbs and substances have been purified into drugs that are used (along with other medicines) to treat cancer. Early studies suggest that other parts of Ayurveda may have potential therapeutic value.
↑ Patwardhan, Bhushan (1 November 2014). "Bridging Ayurveda with evidence-based scientific approaches in medicine". The EPMA Journal. 5 (1): 19. doi:10.1186/1878-5085-5-19. ISSN 1878-5077. PMC 4230501. PMID 25395997.
↑ Mamtani, R.; Mamtani, R. (2005). "Ayurveda and Yoga in Cardiovascular Diseases". Cardiology in Review. 13 (3): 155–162. doi:10.1097/01.crd.0000128730.31658.36. PMID 15834238. S2CID 27195105.
↑ "Research in Ayurveda - About CCRAS". Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha. Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Archived from the original on 30 May 2014.
↑ "China hands over Ayurveda research centre to govt". Kantipur Publications. The Kathmandu Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2015. The centre will play a positive role in promotion and utilisation of Ayurveda in the country, by conducting research on medicinal herbs available here.
↑ "Part I : Section (I) — General Government Notifications The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Notification" (PDF). The Gazette of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Extraordinary. Colombo, Sri Lanka. 1933/13. 21 September 2015.
↑ Urmila, T.; Supriya, B. (2008). "Pharmacovigilance of ayurvedic medicines in India". Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 40 (S1): 10–12.
↑ ^121.0 ^121.1 Ernst, Edzard (2002). "Heavy metals in traditional Indian remedies". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 57 (12): 891–896. doi:10.1007/s00228-001-0400-y. ISSN 0031-6970. PMID 11936709. S2CID 1698767.
↑ Karri, Surya K.; Saper, Robert B.; Kales, Stefanos N. (January 2008). "Lead Encephalopathy Due to Traditional Medicines". Current Drug Safety. 3 (1): 54–59. doi:10.2174/157488608783333907. ISSN 1574-8863. PMC 2538609. PMID 18690981.
↑ Saper, R. B.; Kales SN; Paquin, J; et al. (2004). "Heavy metal content of ayurveda herbal medicine products". Journal of the American Medical Association. 292 (23): 2868–73. doi:10.1001/jama.292.23.2868. PMID 15598918. S2CID 9914911.
↑ ^124.0 ^124.1 Ellin, Abby (17 September 2008). "Skin deep: ancient, but how safe?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2008. A report in the August 27 [2008] issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association found that nearly 21 percent of 193 ayurvedic herbal supplements bought online, produced in both India and the United States, contained lead, mercury or arsenic.
↑ Szabo, Liz (26 August 2008). "Study finds toxins in some herbal medicines". USA Today. Archived from the original on 8 October 2012.
↑ Hall, Harriet (14 December 2017). "Ayurveda: Ancient Superstition, Not Ancient Wisdom". Skeptical Inquirer. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
↑ Breeher L, Mikulski MA, Czeczok T, Leinenkugel K, Fuortes LJ (6 April 2015). "A cluster of lead poisoning among consumers of Ayurvedic medicine". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 21 (4): 303–307. doi:10.1179/2049396715Y.0000000009. PMC 4727589. PMID 25843124.
↑ CCRAS. "Guidelines for toxicity / safety profile evaluation of Ayurveda & Siddha plant drugs". CCRAS Guidelines. Archived from the original on 11 March 2013.
↑ ^129.0 ^129.1 Katiyar, C. K. (2006). "Safety Aspects of Ayurveda" (PDF). Ranbaxy Research Laboratories.
↑ Saper RB; Phillips RS; Sehgal A (August 2008). "Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured ayurvedic medicines sold via the internet". JAMA. 300 (8): 915–923. doi:10.1001/jama.300.8.915. PMC 2755247. PMID 18728265.
↑ "Ayurveda linked to lead poisoning in US women". The Financial Express (Washington ed.). 24 August 2012. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014.
↑ ^132.0 ^132.1 Valiathan, MS (2006). "Ayurveda: putting the house in order" (PDF). Current Science. 90 (1): 5–6.
↑ "Use caution with Ayurvedic products". US FDA. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
↑ Kamath, Sushant U.; Pemiah, Brindha; Sekar, Rajan K.; Krishnaswamy, Sridharan; Sethuraman, Swaminathan; Krishnan, Uma Maheswari (1 June 2012). "Mercury-based traditional herbo-metallic preparations: a toxicological perspective". Archives of Toxicology. 86 (6): 831–838. doi:10.1007/s00204-012-0826-2. ISSN 1432-0738. PMID 22441626. S2CID 13947298.
↑ Svoboda, Robert (1992). Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity. Penguin Books India. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-14-019322-0.
↑ Ṭhākara, Vināyaka Jayānanda (1989). Methodology of Research in Ayurveda. Jamnagar, India: Gujarat Ayurved University Press. p. 7.
↑ Leslie, Charles, ed. (1976). Asian Medical Systems. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. passim. ISBN 978-0-520-03511-9.
↑ Taylor, Carl (1977). "The Place of Indigenous Medical Practitioners in the Modernization of Health Services". In Leslie, Charles (ed.). Asian Medical Systems. University of California Press. pp. 285–292. ISBN 9780520035119.
↑ Leslie, Charles (1976). "The Ambiguities of Medical Revivalism in Modern India". The Ambiguites of Medical Revivalism in Modern India. pp. 356–367. doi:10.1525/9780520322295-022. ISBN 9780520322295. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
↑ Sharma, Shiv (1975). Ayurvedic Medicine: Past and Present. Calcutta: Dabur (S. K. Burman).
↑ Berger, Rachel (2013). Ayurveda made modern : political histories of indigenous medicine in North India, 1900–1955. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137315908. ISBN 978-0-230-28455-5.
↑ Wujastyk, Dominik (2008). "The Evolution of Indian Government Policy on Ayurveda in the Twentieth Century". Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. SUNY Press. pp. 43–76. doi:10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73. ISBN 9780791474907.
↑ Wujastyk, Dominik (2005). "Policy Formation and Debate Concerning the Government Regulation of Ayurveda in Great Britain in the 21st Century" (PDF). Asian Medicine. 1: 162–184. doi:10.1163/157342105777996719. S2CID 71229532.
↑ Redy, Sita (2002). "Asian Medicine in America: The Ayurvedic Case". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 583: 97–121. doi:10.1177/000271620258300107. JSTOR 1049691. S2CID 145626093.
↑ Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2000). A history of Indian medical literature. Vol. IA. Groningen. pp. 689–699. ISBN 90-6980-124-8. OCLC 42207455.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Osteology or the bones of the human body. Oxford: Clarendon P. OCLC 28563136.
↑ J. N. Roy; Braja Bihārī Kumāra. India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods. Concept Publishing Company. p. 103.
↑ Leonore Loeb Adler; B. Runi Mukherji. Spirit Versus Scalpel: Traditional Healing and Modern Psychotherapy. Greenwood. p. 76.
↑ Saxena, Praveen K. Development of Plant-Based Medicines: Conservation, Efficacy and Safety. Springer. p. 48.
↑ Mohammad Ali Jazayery; Winter, Werner (1988). Languages and Cultures: Studies in Honor of Edgar C. Polomé. Walter de Gruyter. p. 116. ISBN 978-3-11-010204-8.
↑ Glucklich, Ariel (2008). The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-19-531405-2.
↑ Sander, Lore (1987). "Origin and Date of the {Bower Manuscript}, a New Approach" in Investigating Indian Art: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Development of Early Buddhist and Hindu Iconography Held at the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin, in May 1986. Berlin: Museum Fuer Indische Kunst. pp. 313–323.
↑ Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1991). History of Science and Technology in Ancient India: Formation of the theoretical fundamentals of natural science. p. 153.
↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
↑ Vaidya Bhagwan Dash. Materia Medica of Ayurveda: Based on: Madanapala's Nighantu. B. Jain Publishers. p. 14.
↑ AYUSH. "e-Nighantu".
↑ Finger, p. 66
↑ ^158.0 ^158.1 Magner, Lois N. (13 August 2002). A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8247-0824-5. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
↑ Vāgbhaṭa (1939). Ashtanga Hridaya. Retrieved 2 January 2017. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
↑ Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence" (PDF). Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences. 49: 243–244. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2008. (Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India.)
↑ Lock et al., p. 836
↑ Wujastyk 2003a, p. XXVI
↑ Wujastyk, Dagmar (2002). Well-Mannered Medicine: Medical Ethics and Etiquette in Classical Ayurveda. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-985627-5.
↑ Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. 12 March 2008. Bibcode:2008ehst.book.....S. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
↑ Rhyner, Hans H. (1994). Ayurveda: The Gentle Health System. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 15. ISBN 978-81-208-1500-1.
↑ Ramachandra S.K. Rao, Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine: historical perspective, Volume 1, 2005, 94–98^{[need quotation to verify]}
↑ K. Mangathayaru (2013). Pharmacognosy: An Indian perspective. Pearson education. p. 54. ISBN 978-93-325-2026-4.
↑ ^168.0 ^168.1 Lock 2001, p. 607
↑ Lock 2001, p. 651
↑ Lock 2001, p. 652
↑ Lock 2001, pp. 651–652
↑ Brett, F. H. (1840). A practical essay on some of the principal surgical diseases of India. Calcutta, India: W. Thacker & Company. p. 458. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
↑ Hardiman, David (2009). "Indian Medical Indigeneity: From Nationalist Assertion to the Global Market". Social History. 34 (3): 263–283. doi:10.1080/03071020902975131. ISSN 0307-1022. JSTOR 25594366. S2CID 144288544. On the whole, such courses provided a back door into a career of improvised and only half-understood biomedical practice. Indeed, for biomedical practitioners, such self-titled 'doctors' are no more than quacks.

Cited references

Chopra, Ananda S. (2003). "Āyurveda". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). Medicine across cultures: history and practice of medicine in non-western cultures. Kluwer Academic. pp. 75–83. ISBN 978-1-4020-1166-5.
Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence" (PDF). Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences. 49: 243–244. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2008. (Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India.)
Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514694-3.
Kutumbian, P. (1999). Ancient Indian Medicine. Andhra Pradesh, India: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-1521-5.
Lock, Stephen (2001). The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-262950-0.
Underwood, E. Ashworth; Rhodes, P. (2008). "History of Medicine". Encyclopædia Britannica (2008 ed.).
Wujastyk, D. (2003a). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044824-5.

External links

WHO benchmarks for the training of Ayurveda World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, 2022.

Template:Ayurveda

Template:Massage types Template:Pseudoscience Template:Traditional Medicine

[160] Vāgbhaṭa's Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā describes a procedure for the removal of a dead foetus from the womb of a living mother, and of a living child from the womb of a mother who has died (शारीरस्थान २, गर्भव्यापद्, २.२६-२७, २.५३).^[159] Both these descriptions speak of removal of the fetus through the uterine passage. It is disputed^{[by whom?]} to assert that early Indian Ayurvedic practitioner knew the caesarian section procedure. The earlier description of the Suśrutasaṃhitā (चिकित्सास्थान १५ "मूढगर्भ") is similar. A dead fetus is removed through the uterine passage and vagina. Although Suśruta does not describe removing a living child from a dead mother.

[oxford-1] "Ayurveda". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016.

[HIML-intro-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). "Introduction". A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. ISBN 978-90-6980-124-7.

[kaufman-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Beall, Jeffrey (2018). "Scientific soundness and the problem of predatory journals". In Kaufman, Allison B.; Kaufman, James C. (eds.). Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science. MIT Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-262-03742-6. Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these 'scholarly' journals devoted to Ayurveda alone..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience....Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as 'tooth fairy science,' research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist....Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda.

[oxpsych-4] 4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 Semple D, Smyth R (2019). Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry. p. 24. doi:10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-879555-1. These pseudoscientific theories may...confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g....Ayurvedic medicine) {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) (subscription required)

[Quack-2011-5] 5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 Quack, Johannes (2011). Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India. Oxford University Press. pp. 213, 3. ISBN 978-0-19-981260-8. ordinary members told me how they practice some of these pseudosciences, either privately or as certified doctors themselves, most often Ayurveda.

[Dargan-6] 6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Dargan, Paul I.; Gawarammana, Indika B.; Archer, John R.H.; House, Ivan M.; Shaw, Debbie; Wood, David M. (2008). "Heavy metal poisoning from Ayurvedic traditional medicines: An emerging problem?". International Journal of Environment and Health. 2 (3/4): 463. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.561.9726. doi:10.1504/IJENVH.2008.020936.

[:1-7] 7.0 ^7.1 "Weeklong programme to observe Health Day". The Himalayan Times. The Himalayan Times. 28 October 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2015. In Nepal, 80 per cent of the population receives Ayurvedic medicine as first aid treatment.

[:3-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Alam, Zulfeequar (2008). Herbal Medicines. New Delhi, India: A.P.H. Publishing. pp. 8–13, 122. ISBN 978-81-313-0358-0.

[WebMD-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Miller, Kelli (20 March 2021). "What Is Ayurveda?". WebMD. Medically Reviewed by Melinda Ratini.

[cruk-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 "Ayurvedic medicine". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved 18 April 2022. There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer. Researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms. It can also improve quality of life.

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[mukh-surg-12] Mukhopadhyaya, Girindranath (1913). The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus, with a Comparative Study of the Surgical Instruments of the Greek, Roman, Arab, and the Modern European Surgeons. Calcutta: Calcutta University. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[zysk-myth-13] Zysk, Kenneth G. (1999). "Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy". In Josephson, Folke (ed.). Categorisation and Interpretation. Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet. pp. 125–145. ISBN 978-91-630-7978-8.

[14] Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunjalal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text. Calcutta: K. K. Bhishagratna. p. 1. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[britannica-15] 15.0 ^15.1 "Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2022.

[16] Birch, Jason; Wujastyk, Dominik; Klebanov, Andrey; Parameswaran, Madhu; Rimal, Madhusudan; Chakraborty, Deepro; Bhatt, Harshal; Shenoy, Devyani; Lele, Vandana (2021). "Further Insight into the Role of Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods, in the Suśrutasaṃhitā". Academia Letters. doi:10.20935/al2992. S2CID 238681626.

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[18] Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2000). A history of Indian medical literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten; Brill. pp. passim. ISBN 90-6980-124-8. OCLC 42207455.

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[Smith+Wujastyk-23] 23.0 ^23.1 ^23.2 ^23.3 ^23.4 Smith, Frederick M.; Wujastyk, Dagmar (2008). "Introduction". In Smith, Frederick M.; Wujastyk, Dagmar (eds.). Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. New York, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-7914-7816-5. OCLC 244771011.

[GregoryFields-24] 24.0 ^24.1 Fields, Gregory P. (2001). Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Ayurveda, and Tantra. SUNY Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7914-4915-8.

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@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 {{Alternative medical systems
 | image = [[File:Dhanvantari-at-Ayurveda-expo.jpg|200px]]
-| caption = [[Dhanvantari]], an avatar of Vishnu, is the Hindu god associated with Ayurveda.
+| caption = [[Dhanvantari]], an avatar of [[Vishnu]], is the Hindu god associated with Ayurveda.
 | traditional
 }}{{Hinduism|scriptures}}
-'''Ayurveda''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑː|j|ʊər|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə|,_|-|ˈ|v|iː|-}})<ref name="oxford">{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ayurveda|work=Oxford University Press|title=Ayurveda}}</ref> is an [[alternative medicine]] system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=HIML-intro>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=Gerrit Jan|title=A History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|isbn=978-90-6980-124-7|chapter=Introduction}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> The theory and practice of Ayurveda is [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]].<ref name="kaufman">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA293|title=Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science|publisher=MIT Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-262-03742-6|first=Jeffrey|last=Beall|editor-last1=Kaufman|editor-first1=Allison B.|page=293|quote=Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these "scholarly" journals devoted to Ayurveda alone..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience....Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as "tooth fairy science," research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist....Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as ''An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda''.|editor-last2=Kaufman|editor-first2=James C.}}</ref><ref name="oxpsych">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=626fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|title=Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry|vauthors=Semple D, Smyth R|work=Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-879555-1|edition=4th|page=24|doi=10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001|quote=These pseudoscientific theories may...confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g....Ayurvedic medicine)}} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name=Quack-2011/> The [[Indian Medical Association]] describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice [[medicine]] as [[Quackery|quacks]], and this is how they are regarded by many medical practitioners.<ref name="IMA">{{cite web|last1=Aggarwal|first1=K. K.|last2=Sharma|first2=V. N.|title=IMA Anti Quackery Wing|url=https://www.ima-india.org/ima/free-way-page.php?pid=143|access-date=February 11, 2022|work=Indian Medical Association|quote=The purpose of this compendium of court orders and various rules and regulations is to acquaint doctors regarding specific provisions and orders barring quackery by unqualified people, practitioners of Indian & Integrated Medicine to practice Modern Medicine.}}</ref><ref name="Hardiman2009">{{cite journal |last1=Hardiman |first1=David |title=Indian Medical Indigeneity: From Nationalist Assertion to the Global Market |journal=Social History |date=2009 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=263–283 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25594366 |issn=0307-1022 |quote=On the whole, such courses provided a back door into a career of improvised and only half-understood biomedical practice. Indeed, for biomedical practitioners, such self-titled 'doctors' are no more than quacks.}}</ref> Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.<ref name="Dargan" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />
+'''Ayurveda''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑː|j|ʊər|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə|,_|-|ˈ|v|iː|-}})<ref name="oxford">{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ayurveda|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210124157/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Ayurveda|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 December 2016|work=Oxford University Press|title=Ayurveda}}</ref> is an [[alternative medicine]] system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=HIML-intro>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=Gerrit Jan|title=A History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|isbn=978-90-6980-124-7|chapter=Introduction}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> The theory and practice of Ayurveda is [[pseudoscientific]].<ref name="kaufman">{{cite book |last=Beall |first=Jeffrey |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA293 |title=Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science |publisher=MIT Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-262-03742-6 |editor-last1=Kaufman |editor-first1=Allison B. |page=293 |chapter=Scientific soundness and the problem of predatory journals |quote=Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these 'scholarly' journals devoted to Ayurveda alone..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience....Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as 'tooth fairy science,' research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist....Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as ''An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda''. |author-link=Jeffrey Beall |editor-last2=Kaufman |editor-first2=James C.}}</ref><ref name="oxpsych">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=626fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|title=Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry|vauthors=Semple D, Smyth R|work=Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-879555-1|edition=4th|page=24|doi=10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001|quote=These pseudoscientific theories may...confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g....Ayurvedic medicine)}} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name=Quack-2011/> Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.<ref name="Dargan" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />
 Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia.<ref name="HIML-intro" /> Therapies include [[herbal medicine]]s, [[Dieting#Detox|special diets]], [[Meditation#Hinduism|meditation]], [[yoga]], [[massage]], [[Laxative#Historical and health fraud uses|laxatives]], [[Enema#Alternative medicine|enemas]], and medical oils.<ref name="WebMD" /><ref name="cruk" /> Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early Indian alchemy or ''[[rasashastra]]''). Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including [[rhinoplasty]], [[lithotomy|kidney stone extractions]], sutures, and the extraction of foreign objects.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003a}}<ref name="mukh-surg">{{cite book|last1=Mukhopadhyaya|first1=Girindranath|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924012165522|title=The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus, with a Comparative Study of the Surgical Instruments of the Greek, Roman, Arab, and the Modern European Surgeons|date=1913|publisher=Calcutta University|location=Calcutta|access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref>
-The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.<ref name="zysk-myth">{{cite book|last1=Zysk|first1=Kenneth G.|editor1-last=Josephson|editor1-first=Folke|title=Categorisation and Interpretation|date=1999|publisher=Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet|isbn=978-91-630-7978-8|pages=125–145|chapter=Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> Printed editions of the ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (''Sushruta's Compendium''), frame the work as the teachings of [[Dhanvantari]], [[Hindu]] god of Ayurveda, incarnated as King Divodāsa of Varanasi, to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhishagratna|first1=Kaviraj Kunjalal|title=An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text|date=1907|publisher=K. K. Bhishagratna|location=Calcutta|page=1|url=https://archive.org/stream/b24758619_0001#page/n103/mode/2up|access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160641/Dhanvantari Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online]</ref> The oldest manuscripts of the work, however, omit this frame, ascribing the work directly to King Divodāsa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birch |first=Jason |last2=Wujastyk |first2=Dominik |last3=Klebanov |first3=Andrey |last4=Parameswaran |first4=Madhu |last5=Rimal |first5=Madhusudan |last6=Chakraborty |first6=Deepro |last7=Bhatt |first7=Harshal |last8=Shenoy |first8=Devyani |last9=Lele |first9=Vandana |date=2021 |title=Further Insight into the Role of Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods, in the Suśrutasaṃhitā |url=https://www.academia.edu/56668282/Further_Insight_into_the_Role_of_Dhanvantari_the_physician_to_the_gods_in_the_Su%C5%9Brutasa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81 |journal=Academia Letters |doi=10.20935/al2992}}</ref> Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by [[Baba Hari Dass]] in the 1970s and [[Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health|Maharishi Ayurveda]] in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dagmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |last2=Smith |first2=Frederick M. |date=2013-09-09 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7816-5 |language=en}}</ref> Historical evidence for Ayurvedic texts, terminology and concepts appears from the middle of the first millennium BCE onwards.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meulenbeld |first=G. Jan |title=A history of Indian medical literature |date= |publisher=Egbert Forsten; Brill |year=1999-2000 |isbn=90-6980-124-8 |location=Groningen |pages=passim |oclc=42207455}}</ref>
+The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.<ref name="zysk-myth">{{cite book|last1=Zysk|first1=Kenneth G.|editor1-last=Josephson|editor1-first=Folke|title=Categorisation and Interpretation|date=1999|publisher=Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet|isbn=978-91-630-7978-8|pages=125–145|chapter=Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> Printed editions of the ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (''Sushruta's Compendium''), frame the work as the teachings of [[Dhanvantari]], [[Hindu god]] of Ayurveda, incarnated as King [[Divodāsa]] of Varanasi, to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhishagratna|first1=Kaviraj Kunjalal|title=An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text|date=1907|publisher=K. K. Bhishagratna|location=Calcutta|page=1|url=https://archive.org/stream/b24758619_0001#page/n103/mode/2up|access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="britannica">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160641/Dhanvantari |title=Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427134748/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160641/Dhanvantari |url-status=live }}</ref> The oldest manuscripts of the work, however, omit this frame, ascribing the work directly to King Divodāsa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birch |first1=Jason |last2=Wujastyk |first2=Dominik |last3=Klebanov |first3=Andrey |last4=Parameswaran |first4=Madhu |last5=Rimal |first5=Madhusudan |last6=Chakraborty |first6=Deepro |last7=Bhatt |first7=Harshal |last8=Shenoy |first8=Devyani |last9=Lele |first9=Vandana |date=2021 |title=Further Insight into the Role of Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods, in the Suśrutasaṃhitā |url=https://www.academia.edu/56668282 |journal=Academia Letters |doi=10.20935/al2992|s2cid=238681626 }}</ref> Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by [[Baba Hari Dass]] in the 1970s and [[Maharishi Ayurveda]] in the 1980s.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Wujastyk |first1=Dagmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC&pg=PP1 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |last2=Smith |first2=Frederick M. |date=2013-09-09 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7816-5 |language=en}}</ref> Historical evidence for Ayurvedic texts, terminology and concepts appears from the middle of the first millennium BCE onwards.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meulenbeld |first=G. Jan |title=A history of Indian medical literature |publisher=Egbert Forsten; Brill |year=1999–2000 |isbn=90-6980-124-8 |location=Groningen |pages=passim |oclc=42207455}}</ref>
-In Ayurveda texts, ''[[Dosha]]'' balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental ''doshas'' viz. ''vāta'', ''pitta a''nd ''kapha'', and state that balance (Skt. ''sāmyatva'') of the ''doshas'' results in health, while imbalance (''viṣamatva'') results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the [[Common Era|common era]].<ref name="shar-hist">{{cite book|title=History of Medicine in India|last1=Sharma|first1=Priya Vrat|date=1992|publisher=Indian National Science Academy|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
+In Ayurveda texts, ''[[Dosha]]'' balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental ''doshas'' ''viz.'' ''vāta'', ''pitta'' and ''kapha'', and state that balance ([[Skt.]] ''sāmyatva'') of the ''doshas'' results in health, while imbalance (''viṣamatva'') results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the [[Common Era|common era]].<ref name="shar-hist">{{cite book|title=History of Medicine in India|last1=Sharma|first1=Priya Vrat|date=1992|publisher=Indian National Science Academy|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
 There is no good evidence that Ayurveda is effective to treat or cure cancer.<ref name=cruk/> Some Ayurvedic preparations have been found to contain [[Lead poisoning|lead]], [[Mercury poisoning|mercury]], and [[Arsenic poisoning|arsenic]],<ref name="WebMD">{{cite web|last=Miller|first=Kelli|date=March 20, 2021|others=Medically Reviewed by Melinda Ratini|title=What Is Ayurveda?|url=https://www.webmd.com/balance/qa/is-ayurveda-treatment-approved-in-the-us|work=WebMD}}</ref> substances known to be [[Toxic heavy metal|harmful to humans]]. A 2008 study found the three substances in close to 21% of U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent Ayurvedic medicines sold through the Internet.<ref name="Saper2008">{{cite journal |author1=Saper RB |title=Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured medicines sold via the internet |journal=JAMA |volume=300 |issue=8 |pages=915–923 |year=2008 |pmid=18728265 |doi=10.1001/jama.300.8.915 |pmc=2755247 |author2=Phillips RS |author3=Sehgal A |last4=Khouri |first4=N |last5=Davis |first5=RB |last6=Paquin |first6=J |last7=Thuppil |first7=V |last8=Kales |first8=SN|display-authors=2 }}</ref> The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown.<ref name="Saper2008"/>
 == Etymology ==
-The term ''Āyurveda'' ({{lang-sa|[[:wikt:आयुर्वेद|आयुर्वेद]]}}) is composed of ''āyus, आयुस्,'' "life" or "longevity", and ''veda, वेद,'' "knowledge", translated as "knowledge of longevity"<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018">{{Cite book |last=Maas |first=Philipp A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWV9DwAAQBAJ&dq=The+Cambridge+History+of+Science+vol+1+Indian+Medicine+and+Ayurveda&pg=PT727 |title=The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 1, Ancient Science |date=2018-12-13 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-68262-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Alexander |pages=532–550 |language=en |chapter=27. Indian Medicine and Ayurveda |doi=10.1017/9780511980145.029 |s2cid=209267391 |editor-last2=Taub |editor-first2=Liba}}</ref><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> or "knowledge of life and longevity".<ref name="GregoryFields">{{cite book |last=Fields |first=Gregory P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvQhuyGpB3wC&pg=PA37 |title=Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Ayurveda, and Tantra |date=2001 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4915-8 |page=36}}</ref>
+The term ''Āyurveda'' ({{lang-sa|[[:wikt:आयुर्वेद|आयुर्वेद]]}}) is composed of two words, ''āyus'', आयुस्, "life" or "longevity", and ''veda'', वेद, "knowledge", translated as "knowledge of longevity"<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018">{{Cite book |last=Maas |first=Philipp A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWV9DwAAQBAJ&dq=The+Cambridge+History+of+Science+vol+1+Indian+Medicine+and+Ayurveda&pg=PT727 |title=The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 1, Ancient Science |date=2018-12-13 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-68262-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Alexander |pages=532–550 |language=en |chapter=27. Indian Medicine and Ayurveda |doi=10.1017/9780511980145.029 |s2cid=209267391 |editor-last2=Taub |editor-first2=Liba}}</ref><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> or "knowledge of life and longevity".<ref name="GregoryFields">{{cite book |last=Fields |first=Gregory P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvQhuyGpB3wC&pg=PA37 |title=Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Ayurveda, and Tantra |date=2001 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4915-8 |page=36}}</ref>
 == Eight components ==
-[[File:Nagarjuna.gif|thumb|[[Nagarjuna]], known for the ''[[Madhyamaka]]'' (middle path), wrote the medical works ''The Hundred Prescriptions'' and ''The Precious Collection''.<ref name="CliffordMLBD">Clifford, Terry; Chandra, Lokesh (2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=FiEzEAAAQBAJ&vq=Ayurveda&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry''.] 42. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. {{ISBN|9788120812055|}}.</ref>|left]]
+[[File:Nagarjuna.gif|thumb|[[Nagarjuna]], known for the ''[[Madhyamaka]]'' (middle path), wrote the medical works ''The Hundred Prescriptions'' and ''The Precious Collection''.<ref name="CliffordMLBD">Clifford, Terry; Chandra, Lokesh (2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=FiEzEAAAQBAJ&q=Ayurveda ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry''.] 42. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. {{ISBN|9788120812055}}.</ref>|left]]
-The earliest classical [[Sanskrit]] works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided into eight components (Skt. ''aṅga'').<ref>{{Cite book|title = Suśrutasaṃhitā|publisher = Nirṇayasāgara Press|year = 1945|location = Bombay|pages = 2–3|chapter-url = https://archive.org/stream/sushrutasamhita/sushruta_samhita_critical#page/n229/mode/2up|editor-last = Ācārya|editor-first = Yādava Trivikramātmaja|chapter = Sūtrasthāna 1.7-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Carakasaṃhitā of Caraka, with the commentary by Cakrapāṇidatta, edited by Yadavaśarman Trivikarama Ācārya|publisher = Nirṇayasāgara Press|year = 1941|location = Bombay|pages = 189|editor-last = Ācārya|editor-first = Yādava Trivikramātmaja|chapter = Sūtrasthāna 30.28|chapter-url = https://archive.org/stream/TheCarakasahitOrCharakasamhitaOfCarakaEditedByYadavaarman/Carakasamhita-Trikamji1941#page/n253/mode/2up}}</ref> This characterization of the physician's art, "the medicine that has eight components" (Skt. ''cikitsāyām aṣṭāṅgāyāṃ'' चिकित्सायामष्टाङ्गायाम्), is first found in the Sanskrit epic the [[Mahabharata|''Mahābhārata'']], c. 4th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|last = Wujastyk|first = Dominik|publisher = Blackwell|year = 2003b|isbn = 978-1-4051-3251-0|location = Oxford|pages = 394|editor-last = Flood|editor-first = Gavin|chapter = Indian Medicine}}</ref> The components are:<ref>{{Cite book|title = Suśruta-Samhitā With English Translation of text…|last = Sharma|first = Priya Vrat|publisher = Chaukhambha Visvabharati|year = 1999|location = Varanasi|pages = 7–11|volume = 1}}{{Request quotation|date=November 2015}}</ref><ref name="GregoryFields"/><ref>{{Cite book|title = An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit Text|last = Bhishagratna|first = Kaviraj Kunja Lal|publisher = The Author|year = 1907|location = Calcutta|pages = 2–6|url = https://archive.org/stream/englishtranslati01susruoft#page/2/mode/2up|volume = 1}}</ref>
+The earliest classical [[Sanskrit]] works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided into eight components (Skt. ''aṅga'').<ref>{{Cite book|title = Suśrutasaṃhitā|publisher = Nirṇayasāgara Press|year = 1945|location = Bombay|pages = 2–3|chapter-url = https://archive.org/stream/sushrutasamhita/sushruta_samhita_critical#page/n229/mode/2up|editor-last = Ācārya|editor-first = Yādava Trivikramātmaja|chapter = Sūtrasthāna 1.7–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Carakasaṃhitā of Caraka, with the commentary by Cakrapāṇidatta, edited by Yadavaśarman Trivikarama Ācārya|publisher = Nirṇayasāgara Press|year = 1941|location = Bombay|pages = 189|editor-last = Ācārya|editor-first = Yādava Trivikramātmaja|chapter = Sūtrasthāna 30.28|chapter-url = https://archive.org/stream/TheCarakasahitOrCharakasamhitaOfCarakaEditedByYadavaarman/Carakasamhita-Trikamji1941#page/n253/mode/2up}}</ref> This characterization of the physician's art, "the medicine that has eight components" (Skt. ''cikitsāyām aṣṭāṅgāyāṃ'' चिकित्सायामष्टाङ्गायाम्), is first found in the Sanskrit epic the [[Mahabharata|''Mahābhārata'']], c. 4th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|last = Wujastyk|first = Dominik|publisher = Blackwell|year = 2003b|isbn = 978-1-4051-3251-0|location = Oxford|pages = 394|editor-last = Flood|editor-first = Gavin|chapter = Indian Medicine}}</ref> The components are:<ref>{{Cite book|title = Suśruta-Samhitā With English Translation of text…|last = Sharma|first = Priya Vrat|publisher = Chaukhambha Visvabharati|year = 1999|location = Varanasi|pages = 7–11|volume = 1}}{{Request quotation|date=November 2015}}</ref><ref name="GregoryFields"/><ref>{{Cite book|title = An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit Text|last = Bhishagratna|first = Kaviraj Kunja Lal|publisher = The Author|year = 1907|location = Calcutta|pages = 2–6|url = https://archive.org/stream/englishtranslati01susruoft#page/2/mode/2up|volume = 1}}</ref>
 * ''Kāyachikitsā'': general medicine, medicine of the body
 * ''Kaumāra-bhṛtya'' (Pediatrics): Discussions about prenatal and postnatal care of baby and mother; methods of conception; choosing the child's sex, intelligence, and constitution; childhood diseases; and midwifery<ref>{{Cite book| title = The Ãyurveda Encyclopedia: Natural Secrets to Healing, Prevention & Longevity| last = Swami Sadashiva Tirtha| isbn = 0-9658042-2-4| year = 1998| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/ayurvedaencyclop00tirt}}</ref>
@@ Line 31: / Line 31: @@
 * ''Bhūtavidyā'': pacification of possessing spirits, and the people whose minds are affected by such possession
 * ''[[Agada]]tantra''/''Vishagara-vairodh Tantra'' (Toxicology): includes epidemics; toxins in animals, vegetables and minerals; and keys for recognizing those anomalies and their antidotes
-* ''Rasāyantantra'': [[Rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenation]] and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength
+* ''Rasāyantantra'': [[rejuvenation]] and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength
 * ''Vājīkaraṇatantra'': [[aphrodisiacs]]; treatments for increasing the volume and viability of semen and sexual pleasure; infertility problems; and spiritual development (transmutation of sexual energy into spiritual energy)
 ==Principles and terminology==
-{{further|Mahābhūta}}The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda show parallels with [[Sāṅkhya]] and [[Vaiśeṣika]] philosophies, as well as with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Comba |first=Antonella |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xDvbumli2i0C |title=Studies on Indian Medical History |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |isbn=9788120817685 |editor-last=Meulenbeld |editor-first=Gerrit Jan |location=Delhi |pages=39–55 |chapter=Carakasaṃhitā, Śārīrasthāna~I and Vaiśeṣika Philosophy |editor-last2=Wujastyk |editor-first2=Dominik}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Basham |first=A. L. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520322295-005/html |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |location=Berkeley |pages=18–43 |chapter=The Practice of Medicine in Ancient and Medieval India|doi=10.1525/9780520322295-005 |isbn=9780520322295 }}</ref> Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> For example, to suppress sneezing is said to potentially give rise to shoulder pain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Namyata |last2=Raut |first2=Ashwinikumar |last3=Vaidya |first3=Ashok |date=2008-10-01 |title=Acute cervical pain syndrome resulting from suppressed sneezing |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23670923 |journal=The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India |volume=56 |pages=728–9}}</ref> However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure when following nature's urges.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake,<ref name="Chopra75">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=75}}</ref> sleep, and sexual intercourse.<ref name="WujastykXVIII">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=xviii}}</ref>
+{{further|Mahābhūta}}
+The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda show parallels with [[Samkhya]] and [[Vaisheshika]] philosophies, as well as with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Comba |first=Antonella |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xDvbumli2i0C |title=Studies on Indian Medical History |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |isbn=9788120817685 |editor-last=Meulenbeld |editor-first=Gerrit Jan |location=Delhi |pages=39–55 |chapter=Carakasaṃhitā, Śārīrasthāna~I and Vaiśeṣika Philosophy |editor-last2=Wujastyk |editor-first2=Dominik}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Basham |first=A. L. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520322295-005/html |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |location=Berkeley |pages=18–43 |chapter=The Practice of Medicine in Ancient and Medieval India|doi=10.1525/9780520322295-005 |isbn=9780520322295 }}</ref> Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> For example, to suppress sneezing is said to potentially give rise to shoulder pain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Namyata |last2=Raut |first2=Ashwinikumar |last3=Vaidya |first3=Ashok |date=2008-10-01 |title=Acute cervical pain syndrome resulting from suppressed sneezing |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23670923 |journal=The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India |volume=56 |pages=728–9}}</ref> However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure when following nature's urges.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake,<ref name="Chopra75">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=75}}</ref> sleep, and sexual intercourse.<ref name="WujastykXVIII">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=xviii}}</ref>
-[[File:Ayurveda humors.svg|thumb|The three [[Dosha]]s and the five elements from which they are composed.]]According to ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (''[[Dhatu (Ayurveda)|dhatus]]''), waste (''malas''), and humoral biomaterials (''[[dosha]]s'').<ref name="Mishra" /> The seven ''dhatus'' are chyle (''rasa''), blood (''rakta''), muscles (''māmsa''), fat (''meda''), bone (''asthi''), [[Bone marrow|marrow]] (''majja''), and semen (''shukra''). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, the classic treatises of Ayurveda divided bodily substances into five [[Classical element#Classical elements in Hinduism|classical elements]], (Sanskrit) ''[[panchamahabhuta]]'', viz. [[Prithvi|earth]], [[Ap (water)|water]], [[Agni|fire]], [[Vayu|air]] and [[ether (classical element)|ether]].<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> There are also twenty [[guna]]s (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.<ref name="Chopra76">{{harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=76}}, citing Sushrutasamhita 25.36.</ref>
+[[File:Ayurveda humors.svg|thumb|The three [[Dosha]]s and the five elements from which they are composed.]]According to Ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (''[[Dhatu (Ayurveda)|dhatus]]''), waste (''malas''), and humoral biomaterials (''[[dosha]]s'').<ref name="Mishra" /> The seven ''dhatus'' are chyle (''rasa''), blood (''rakta''), muscles (''māmsa''), fat (''meda''), bone (''asthi''), [[Bone marrow|marrow]] (''majja''), and semen (''shukra''). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, the classic treatises of Ayurveda divided bodily substances into five [[Classical element#Classical elements in Hinduism|classical elements]] (''[[panchamahabhuta]]'') ''viz.'' [[Prithvi|earth]], [[Ap (water)|water]], [[Agni|fire]], [[Vayu|air]] and [[ether (classical element)|ether]].<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> There are also twenty [[guna]]s (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.<ref name="Chopra76">{{harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=76}}, citing Sushrutasamhita 25.36.</ref>
-The three postulated elemental bodily humors, the ''[[dosha]]s'' or ''tridosha'', are ''vata'' (air, which some modern authors equate with the nervous system), ''pitta'' (bile, fire, equated by some with enzymes), and ''kapha'' (phlegm, or earth and water, equated by some with mucus). Contemporary critics assert that doshas are not real, but are a fictional concept.<ref name=sn>{{cite web |publisher=[[Science-Based Medicine]] |vauthors=Novella S |title=Ayurvedic practitioners push for licensing in Colorado |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/ayurvedic-practitioners-push-licensing-in-colorado/ |date=21 November 2019}}</ref>  The humours (''doshas'') may also affect mental health. Each ''dosha'' has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more ''doshas'' thus explains a person's physical constitution (''prakriti'') and personality.<ref name="Mishra">{{cite journal |last1=Mishra |first1=Lakshmi-chandra |last2=Singh |first2=Betsy B. |last3=Dagenais |first3=Simon |date=March 2001 |title=Ayurveda: a historical perspective and principles of the traditional healthcare system in India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12079939 |journal=Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=36–42 |pmid=11253415}}</ref><ref name="Payya">{{cite journal|title=Exploring Ayurvedic Knowledge on Food and Health for Providing Innovative Solutions to Contemporary Healthcare|first1=Unnikrishnan|last1=Payyappallimana|first2=Padma|last2=Venkatasubramanian|date=31 March 2016|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|volume=4|issue=57|page=57|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2016.00057|pmid=27066472|pmc=4815005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Understanding personality from Ayurvedic perspective for psychological assessment: A case|first1=S|last1=Shilpa|first2=C.G.|last2=Venkatesha Murthy|date=January 2011|journal=Ayu|publisher=Institute for Post Graduate Teaching & Research in Ayurveda|volume=32|issue=1|pages=12–19|doi=10.4103/0974-8520.85716|pmid=22131752|pmc=3215408}}</ref> Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental ''doshas'' is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the ''doshas'' are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the ''doshas'' which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the ''doshas'' and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental ''dosha'' makeup, as certain ''prakriti'' are said to predispose one to particular diseases.<ref name="mental" /><ref name="Mishra" /> For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced [[Adam's apple]], and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely ''vata prakriti'' and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism.<ref name="Mishra" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of Ayurvedic Medicine|last=Bhagwan Dash|first=Vaidya|year=1995|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=978-81-220-0117-4}}</ref> Deranged ''vata'' is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess ''vayu'' (gas), although the Ayurvedic text ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' also attributes "insanity" (''unmada'') to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (''brahmarakshasa'').<ref name="Mishra" /><ref name="mental">{{cite journal|title=Manovikara (mental disorders) in Ayurveda|first1=M.G.|last1=Ramu|first2=B.S.|last2=Venkataram|date=January 1985|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=4|issue=3|pages=165–73|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications|pmid=22557473|pmc=3331508}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ayurvedic & Western approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia|website=ayurvedacollege.com|date=21 September 2009|url=https://www.ayurvedacollege.com/blog/schizophrenia/#Types_of_insanity_unmada|access-date=6 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Charaka samhita. Commentary of Chakrapani|last=Acharya|first=YT|date=1941|publisher=Nirnayasagar Press|location=Bombay}}</ref>
+The three postulated elemental bodily humors, the ''doshas'' or ''tridosha'', are ''vata'' (air, which some modern authors equate with the nervous system), ''pitta'' (bile, fire, equated by some with enzymes), and ''kapha'' (phlegm, or earth and water, equated by some with mucus). Contemporary critics assert that ''doshas'' are not real, but are a fictional concept.<ref name=sn>{{cite web |publisher=[[Science-Based Medicine]] |vauthors=Novella S |title=Ayurvedic practitioners push for licensing in Colorado |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/ayurvedic-practitioners-push-licensing-in-colorado/ |date=21 November 2019}}</ref>  The humours (''doshas'') may also affect mental health. Each ''dosha'' has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more ''doshas'' thus explains a person's physical constitution (''prakriti'') and personality.<ref name="Mishra">{{cite journal |last1=Mishra |first1=Lakshmi-chandra |last2=Singh |first2=Betsy B. |last3=Dagenais |first3=Simon |date=March 2001 |title=Ayurveda: a historical perspective and principles of the traditional healthcare system in India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12079939 |journal=Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=36–42 |pmid=11253415}}</ref><ref name="Payya">{{cite journal|title=Exploring Ayurvedic Knowledge on Food and Health for Providing Innovative Solutions to Contemporary Healthcare|first1=Unnikrishnan|last1=Payyappallimana|first2=Padma|last2=Venkatasubramanian|date=31 March 2016|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|volume=4|issue=57|page=57|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2016.00057|pmid=27066472|pmc=4815005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Understanding personality from Ayurvedic perspective for psychological assessment: A case|first1=S|last1=Shilpa|first2=C.G.|last2=Venkatesha Murthy|date=January 2011|journal=Ayu|publisher=Institute for Post Graduate Teaching & Research in Ayurveda|volume=32|issue=1|pages=12–19|doi=10.4103/0974-8520.85716|pmid=22131752|pmc=3215408}}</ref> Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental ''doshas'' is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the ''doshas'' are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the ''doshas'' which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the ''doshas'' and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental ''dosha'' makeup, as certain ''prakriti'' are said to predispose one to particular diseases.<ref name="mental" /><ref name="Mishra" /> For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced [[Adam's apple]], and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely ''vata prakriti'' and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism.<ref name="Mishra" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of Ayurvedic Medicine|last=Bhagwan Dash|first=Vaidya|year=1995|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=978-81-220-0117-4}}</ref> Deranged ''vata'' is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess ''vayu'' (gas), although the Ayurvedic text ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' also attributes "insanity" (''unmada'') to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (''[[brahmarakshasa]]'').<ref name="Mishra" /><ref name="mental">{{cite journal|title=Manovikara (mental disorders) in Ayurveda|first1=M.G.|last1=Ramu|first2=B.S.|last2=Venkataram|date=January 1985|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=4|issue=3|pages=165–73|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications|pmid=22557473|pmc=3331508}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ayurvedic & Western approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia|website=ayurvedacollege.com|date=21 September 2009|url=https://www.ayurvedacollege.com/blog/schizophrenia/#Types_of_insanity_unmada|access-date=6 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Charaka samhita. Commentary of Chakrapani|last=Acharya|first=YT|date=1941|publisher=Nirnayasagar Press|location=Bombay}}</ref>
-Ama (a [[Sanskrit]] word meaning "uncooked" or "undigested" ) is used to refer to the concept of anything that exists in a state of incomplete transformation. With regards to [[oral hygiene]], it is claimed to be a toxic byproduct generated by improper or incomplete [[digestion]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kacera |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0aQmGnxBmioC&q=Ayurvedic+Tongue+Diagnosis |title=Ayurvedic Tongue Diagnosis |publisher=Lotus Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-940985-77-3 |pages=159–176 |chapter=Ama and Disease}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Dentistry and Ayurveda – IV: Classification and management of common oral diseases|first=Sunita|last=Amruthesh|date=1 January 2008|journal=Indian Journal of Dental Research|volume=19|issue=1|pages=52–61|doi=10.4103/0970-9290.38933|pmid=18245925|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amruthesh |first1=Sunita |title=Dentistry and Ayurveda-III (basics - ama, immunity, ojas, rasas, etiopathogenesis and prevention) |journal=Indian Journal of Dental Research |date=2007 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=112–9 |doi=10.4103/0970-9290.33786 |pmid=17687173 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The concept has no equivalent in [[standard medicine]].
+Ama (a Sanskrit word meaning "uncooked" or "undigested") is used to refer to the concept of anything that exists in a state of incomplete transformation. With regards to [[oral hygiene]], it is claimed to be a toxic byproduct generated by improper or incomplete [[digestion]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kacera |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0aQmGnxBmioC&q=Ayurvedic+Tongue+Diagnosis |title=Ayurvedic Tongue Diagnosis |publisher=Lotus Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-940985-77-3 |pages=159–176 |chapter=Ama and Disease}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Dentistry and Ayurveda – IV: Classification and management of common oral diseases|first=Sunita|last=Amruthesh|date=1 January 2008|journal=Indian Journal of Dental Research|volume=19|issue=1|pages=52–61|doi=10.4103/0970-9290.38933|pmid=18245925|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amruthesh |first1=Sunita |title=Dentistry and Ayurveda-III (basics - ama, immunity, ojas, rasas, etiopathogenesis and prevention) |journal=Indian Journal of Dental Research |date=2007 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=112–9 |doi=10.4103/0970-9290.33786 |pmid=17687173 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The concept has no equivalent in [[standard medicine]].
 In medieval taxonomies of the Sanskrit knowledge systems, Ayurveda is assigned a place as a subsidiary [[Veda]] ([[upaveda]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Madhusūdanasarasvatī|title=प्रस्थानभेदः श्रीमधुसूदनसरस्वत्या विरचितः|date=1912|publisher=श्रीवाणिविलासमुद्रायन्त्रालय|location=श्रीरङ्गम्|page=14|url=https://archive.org/stream/Prasthanabheda.by.Madhusudana.Sarasvati#page/n15/mode/2up|access-date=16 October 2015|language=sa}}</ref> Some medicinal plant names from the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' and other Vedas can be found in subsequent Ayurveda literature.<ref name="zysk-veda">{{cite book |last1=Zysk |first1=Kenneth G. |title=Medicine in the Veda: Religious Healing in the Veda with Translations and Annotations of Medical Hymns from the Rgveda and the Atharvaveda and Renderings from the Corresponding Ritual Texts |date=2010 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1401-1 |location=New Delhi}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> Some other school of thoughts considers 'Ayurveda' as the '[[Fifth Veda]]'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sengupta|first=Pradip Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNc9QvzCfLYC&pg=PA486|title=History of Science and Philosophy of Science: A Philosophical Perspective of the Logic of Ideas in Science|date=2012|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-81-317-1931-2|pages=486|language=en|quote=Sometimes Ayurveda is also considered as the fifth Veda or Pañcama Veda.}}</ref> The earliest recorded theoretical statements about the canonical models of disease in Ayurveda occur in the earliest [[Buddhist Canon]].<ref name="zysk-asce">{{cite book |last1=Zysk |first1=Kenneth G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAFndFpP4oUC&pg=PP9 |title=Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1507-0 |series=Indian Medical Tradition |volume=2 |location=Delhi |access-date=February 28, 2022}}</ref>
@@ Line 47: / Line 48: @@
 ==Practice==
 [[File:Physician taking pulse.jpg|thumb|Physician taking pulse, Delhi, c. 1825|left]]
-Ayurvedic practitioners regard physical existence, mental existence, and personality as their own unique units, with each element being able to influence the others.{{clarify|date=January 2015}} This is a [[Holism#Medicine|holistic]] approach used during diagnosis and therapy, and is a fundamental aspect of Ayurveda. Another part of Ayurvedic treatment says that there are channels (''srotas'') which transport fluids, and that the channels can be opened up by massage treatment using oils and [[Swedana]] (fomentation). Unhealthy, or blocked, channels are thought to cause disease.<ref name="WujastykXIX-XX">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|pages=XIX–XX}}</ref>
+Ayurvedic practitioners regard physical existence, mental existence, and personality as three separate elements of a whole person with each element being able to influence the others.<ref>{{Cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |editor-last1=Cornelissen |editor-first1=R. M. Matthijs |editor-last2=Misra |editor-first2= Girishwar |editor-last3=Varma |editor-first3=Suneet |date=2013 |chapter=The blending of healing and pedagogy in Āyurveda |title=Foundations and Applications of Indian Psychology |language=en |edition=2nd |publication-place=New Delhi, India |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=9789332537460 |oclc=987023188 |quote=Central to Āyurvedic healing is the notion of the human persona as a three-dimensional composite of body, mind and self. Āyurveda aims to empower the body to invigorate the mind and, consequently, to use the invigorated mind to generate self-awareness. }}</ref> This [[Holism#Medicine|holistic]] approach used during diagnosis and healing is a fundamental aspect of Ayurveda. Another part of Ayurvedic treatment says that there are channels (''srotas'') which transport fluids, and that the channels can be opened up by massage treatment using oils and [[Swedana]] (fomentation). Unhealthy, or blocked, channels are thought to cause disease.<ref name="WujastykXIX-XX">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|pages=XIX–XX}}</ref>
 === Diagnosis ===
@@ Line 53: / Line 54: @@
 Ayurveda has eight ways to diagnose illness, called [[Nadi (yoga)|Nadi]] (pulse), Mootra (urine), [[Malas (Ayurveda)|Mala]] (stool), Jihva (tongue), Shabda (speech), Sparsha (touch), Druk (vision), and Aakruti (appearance).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mishra |first1=Lakshmi-chandra |last2=Singh |first2=Betsy B. |last3=Dagenais |first3=Simon |year=2001 |title=Healthcare and disease management in Ayurveda |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12079940 |journal=Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=44–50 |pmid=11253416}}</ref> Ayurvedic practitioners approach diagnosis by using the five senses.<ref name="Chopra79">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=79}}</ref> For example, hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> The study of the lethal points or ''marman marma'' is of special importance.<ref name="Chopra76" />
 [[File:Ayurvedic treatment procedures.svg|left|thumb|upright=2|Treatment procedures]]
-{{clear}}
 === Treatment and prevention ===
-Two of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda deal with surgery (''Śalya-cikitsā'' and ''Śālākya-tantra''), but contemporary Ayurveda tends to stress attaining vitality by building a healthy [[metabolism|metabolic system]] and maintaining good [[digestion]] and [[excretion]].<ref name="Chopra76" /> Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, [[yoga]], and [[meditation]].<ref name="encarta-ayurveda">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=[[Encarta]]|year=2008|url= http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761596196/Ayurveda.html |publisher=[[Microsoft]]|location=Redmond, WA|title=Ayurveda|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028105549/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761596196/Ayurveda.html|archive-date=28 October 2009}}</ref> One type of prescription is a [[Sattvic diet]].
+Two of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda deal with surgery (''Śalya-cikitsā'' and ''Śālākya-tantra''), but contemporary Ayurveda tends to stress attaining vitality by building a healthy [[metabolism|metabolic system]] and maintaining good digestion and [[excretion]].<ref name="Chopra76" /> Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, [[yoga]], and [[meditation]].<ref name="encarta-ayurveda">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=[[Encarta]]|year=2008|url= http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761596196/Ayurveda.html |publisher=[[Microsoft]]|location=Redmond, WA|title=Ayurveda|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028105549/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761596196/Ayurveda.html|archive-date=28 October 2009}}</ref> One type of prescription is a [[Sattvic diet]].
 Ayurveda follows the concept of [[Dinacharya]], which says that natural cycles (waking, sleeping, working, meditation etc.) are important for health. Hygiene, including regular bathing, cleaning of teeth, [[oil pulling]], [[tongue scraping]], skin care, and eye washing, is also a central practice.<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" />
@@ Line 63: / Line 62: @@
 ===Substances used===
 {{See also|Medical ethnobotany of India}}
-[[File:Contemporary Ayurveda (156350019).jpeg|thumb|Ayurvedic preparations displayed in [[Delhi|Dehli]] in 2016]]
+[[File:Contemporary Ayurveda (156350019).jpeg|thumb|Ayurvedic preparations displayed in Delhi in 2016]]
-The vast majority (90%) of Ayurvedic remedies are plant based.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Syal |last2=Dobos |first2=Gustav J. |last3=Rampp |first3=Thomas |date=July 2017 |title=The Significance of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants |journal=Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=494–501 |doi=10.1177/2156587216671392 |issn=2156-5872 |pmc=5871155 |pmid=27707902}}</ref> Plant-based treatments in Ayurveda may be derived from roots, leaves, fruits, bark, or seeds; some examples of plant-based substances include [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]]. In the 19th century, William Dymock and co-authors summarized hundreds of plant-derived medicines along with the uses, microscopic structure, chemical composition, toxicology, prevalent myths and stories, and relation to commerce in [[British Raj|British India]].<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/36345#page/1/mode/1up Pharmacographia Indica], A history of principal drugs of vegetable origin in British India - Volume 1, William Dymock et al. (1890), London</ref> [[Triphala]], an herbal formulation of three fruits, [[Amalaki]], [[Bibhitaki]], and [[Haritaki]], is one of the most commonly used<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'mathuna |first=Donal |date=April 12, 2011 |title=Does it work? Can triphala act as an antimicrobial? |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/health/does-it-work-can-triphala-act-as-an-antimicrobial-1.570237 |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref> Ayurvedic remedies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Berry |first=Jennifer |date=2019-10-03 |others=Medically reviewed by Zara Risoldi Cochrane |title=What are the benefits of triphala? Uses, evidence, and risks |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326547 |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Christine Tara |last2=Denniston |first2=Kate |last3=Chopra |first3=Deepak |date=2017-08-01 |title=Therapeutic Uses of Triphala in Ayurvedic Medicine |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=607–614 |doi=10.1089/acm.2017.0083 |issn=1075-5535 |pmc=5567597 |pmid=28696777}}</ref> The herbs ''[[Withania somnifera]]'' (Ashwagandha)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldman |first=Rena |date=September 29, 2020 |others=Medically reviewed by Debra Rose Wilson |title=What are the benefits of ashwagandha? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318407 |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> and ''[[Ocimum tenuiflorum]]'' (Tulsi)<ref name=":7" /> are also routinely used in Ayurveda.
+The vast majority (90%) of Ayurvedic remedies are plant based.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Syal |last2=Dobos |first2=Gustav J. |last3=Rampp |first3=Thomas |date=July 2017 |title=The Significance of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants |journal=Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=494–501 |doi=10.1177/2156587216671392 |issn=2156-5872 |pmc=5871155 |pmid=27707902}}</ref> Plant-based treatments in Ayurveda may be derived from roots, leaves, fruits, bark, or seeds; some examples of plant-based substances include [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]]. In the 19th century, William Dymock and co-authors summarized hundreds of plant-derived medicines along with the uses, microscopic structure, chemical composition, toxicology, prevalent myths and stories, and relation to commerce in [[British Raj|British India]].<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/36345#page/1/mode/1up Pharmacographia Indica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705180847/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/36345#page/1/mode/1up |date=5 July 2017 }}, A history of principal drugs of vegetable origin in British India – Volume 1, William Dymock et al. (1890), London</ref> [[Triphala]], an herbal formulation of three fruits, [[Amalaki]], [[Bibhitaki]], and [[Haritaki]], is one of the most commonly used<ref>{{Cite news |last=O'mathuna |first=Donal |date=April 12, 2011 |title=Does it work? Can triphala act as an antimicrobial? |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/health/does-it-work-can-triphala-act-as-an-antimicrobial-1.570237 |access-date=2022-03-01 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref> Ayurvedic remedies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Berry |first=Jennifer |date=2019-10-03 |others=Medically reviewed by Zara Risoldi Cochrane |title=What are the benefits of triphala? Uses, evidence, and risks |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326547 |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Christine Tara |last2=Denniston |first2=Kate |last3=Chopra |first3=Deepak |date=2017-08-01 |title=Therapeutic Uses of Triphala in Ayurvedic Medicine |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=607–614 |doi=10.1089/acm.2017.0083 |issn=1075-5535 |pmc=5567597 |pmid=28696777}}</ref> The herbs ''[[Withania somnifera]]'' (Ashwagandha)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldman |first=Rena |date=September 29, 2020 |others=Medically reviewed by Debra Rose Wilson |title=What are the benefits of ashwagandha? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318407 |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> and ''[[Ocimum tenuiflorum]]'' (Tulsi)<ref name=":7" /> are also routinely used in Ayurveda.
 [[File:Tulsi-flower.JPG|thumb|Tulsi-flower ([[holy basil]]), an Ayurvedic herb|left|220x220px]]
-Animal products used in Ayurveda include milk, bones, and [[gallstone]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last=Ng | first=P.K.L. | last2=Corlett | first2=R. | last3=Tan | first3=H.T.W. | author4=Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research | title=Singapore Biodiversity: An Encyclopedia of the Natural Environment and Sustainable Development | publisher=Editions Didier Millet | year=2011 | isbn=978-981-4260-08-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1oW0EquxDAC  | page=164}}</ref> In addition, fats are prescribed both for consumption and for external use. Consumption of minerals, including [[sulphur]], [[arsenic]], lead, [[copper sulfate]] and gold, are also prescribed.<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> The addition of minerals to herbal medicine is called ''[[rasashastra]]''.
+Animal products used in Ayurveda include milk, bones, and [[gallstone]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Ng | first1=P.K.L. | last2=Corlett | first2=R. | last3=Tan | first3=H.T.W. | author4=Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research | title=Singapore Biodiversity: An Encyclopedia of the Natural Environment and Sustainable Development | publisher=Editions Didier Millet | year=2011 | isbn=978-981-4260-08-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1oW0EquxDAC  | page=164}}</ref> In addition, fats are prescribed both for consumption and for external use. Consumption of minerals, including [[sulphur]], [[arsenic]], lead, [[copper sulfate]] and gold, are also prescribed.<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> The addition of minerals to herbal medicine is called ''[[rasashastra]]''.
-Ayurveda uses alcoholic beverages called ''Madya'',<ref name="IJTNJAN07">{{Cite journal|author=Sekar, S. |year=2007|title=Traditional alcoholic beverages from Ayurveda and their role on human health |journal=Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge |volume=6|issue=1|pages=144–149 |url=http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/ResearchJournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearch/2007/January%202007/IJTK-Vol%206%281%29-January%202007-pp%20144-149.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218110751/http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/ResearchJournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearch/2007/January%202007/IJTK-Vol%206%281%29-January%202007-pp%20144-149.htm |archive-date=18 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> which are said to adjust the doshas by increasing Pitta and reducing Vatta and Kapha.<ref name="IJTNJAN07" /> Madya are classified by the raw material and fermentation process, and the categories include: sugar-based, fruit-based, cereal-based, cereal-based with herbs, fermentated with vinegar, and tonic wines. The intended outcomes can include causing purgation, improving digestion or taste, creating dryness, or loosening joints. Ayurvedic texts describe Madya as non-viscid and fast-acting, and say that it enters and cleans minute pores in the body.<ref name="IJTNJAN07" />
+Ayurveda uses alcoholic beverages called ''Madya'',<ref name="IJTNJAN07">{{Cite journal|author=Sekar, S. |year=2007|title=Traditional alcoholic beverages from Ayurveda and their role on human health |journal=Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge |volume=6|issue=1|pages=144–149 |url=http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/ResearchJournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearch/2007/January%202007/IJTK-Vol%206%281%29-January%202007-pp%20144-149.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218110751/http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/ResearchJournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearch/2007/January%202007/IJTK-Vol%206%281%29-January%202007-pp%20144-149.htm |archive-date=18 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> which are said to adjust the ''doshas'' by increasing ''pitta'' and reducing ''vatta'' and ''kapha''.<ref name="IJTNJAN07" /> Madya are classified by the raw material and fermentation process, and the categories include: sugar-based, fruit-based, cereal-based, cereal-based with herbs, fermentated with vinegar, and tonic wines. The intended outcomes can include causing purgation, improving digestion or taste, creating dryness, or loosening joints. Ayurvedic texts describe Madya as non-viscid and fast-acting, and say that it enters and cleans minute pores in the body.<ref name="IJTNJAN07" />
-Purified [[opium]]<ref name="ISHS1036">{{Cite journal|author1=Mani, Dayanandan  |author2=Dhawan, Sunita S. |year=2011|url=http://www.actahort.org/books/1036/1036_20.htm|title=Scientific basis of therapeutic uses of opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'') in Ayurveda|journal=Acta Horticulturae (International Symposium on Papaver) |issue=1036 |pages=175–180|access-date=7 December 2014|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is used in eight Ayurvedic preparations<ref name="UNODC">{{cite web |author1=Ram Nath Chopra |author2=I. C. Chopra |date=January 1, 1955 |title=UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1955 Issue 3 - 001 |url=https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1955-01-01_3_page002.html |access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> and is said to balance the Vata and Kapha doshas and increase the Pitta dosha.<ref name="ISHS1036"/> It is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery, for increasing the sexual and muscular ability, and for affecting the brain. The sedative and pain-relieving properties of opium are considered in Ayurveda. The use of opium is found in the ancient Ayurvedic texts, and is first mentioned in the ''Sarngadhara Samhita'' (1300-1400 CE), a book on pharmacy used in [[Rajasthan]] in Western India, as an ingredient of an aphrodisiac to delay male ejaculation.<ref name="IJHS051981">{{cite web|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af3_31.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-10-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028125555/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af3_31.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2014 }}</ref> It is possible that opium was brought to India along with or before [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquests]].<ref name="UNODC" /><ref name="Chopra80">{{harvnb|Chopra|2003|p = 80}}</ref> The book ''Yoga Ratnakara'' (1700-1800 CE, unknown author), which is popular in [[Maharashtra]], uses opium in a herbal-mineral composition prescribed for diarrhea.<ref name="IJHS051981" /> In the ''Bhaisajya Ratnavali'', opium and camphor are used for acute gastroenteritis. In this drug, the respiratory depressant action of opium is counteracted by the respiratory stimulant property of Camphor.<ref name="IJHS051981" /> Later books have included the narcotic property for use as analgesic pain reliever.<ref name="IJHS051981" />
+Purified [[opium]]<ref name="ISHS1036">{{Cite journal|author1=Mani, Dayanandan  |author2=Dhawan, Sunita S. |year=2011|url=http://www.actahort.org/books/1036/1036_20.htm|title=Scientific basis of therapeutic uses of opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'') in Ayurveda|journal=Acta Horticulturae (International Symposium on Papaver) |issue=1036 |pages=175–180|access-date=7 December 2014|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is used in eight Ayurvedic preparations<ref name="UNODC">{{cite web |author1=Ram Nath Chopra |author2=I. C. Chopra |date=January 1, 1955 |title=UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics – 1955 Issue 3 – 001 |url=https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1955-01-01_3_page002.html |access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> and is said to balance the ''vata'' and ''kapha'' ''doshas'' and increase the ''pitta'' ''dosha''.<ref name="ISHS1036"/> It is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery, for increasing the sexual and muscular ability, and for affecting the brain. The sedative and pain-relieving properties of opium are considered in Ayurveda. The use of opium is found in the ancient Ayurvedic texts, and is first mentioned in the ''Sarngadhara Samhita'' (1300–1400 CE), a book on pharmacy used in [[Rajasthan]] in Western India, as an ingredient of an aphrodisiac to delay male ejaculation.<ref name="IJHS051981">{{cite journal|last1=Chaturvedi|first1=G. N.|last2=Tiwari|first2=S. K.|last3=Rai|first3=N. P.|date=May 1981|title=Medicinal Use of Opium and Cannabis in Medieval India|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=16|number=1|pages=31–35|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af3_31.pdf|access-date=2014-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028125555/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af3_31.pdf|archive-date=2014-10-28}}</ref> It is possible that opium was brought to India along with or before [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquests]].<ref name="UNODC" /><ref name="Chopra80">{{harvnb|Chopra|2003|p = 80}}</ref> The book ''Yoga Ratnakara'' (1700–1800 CE, unknown author), which is popular in [[Maharashtra]], uses opium in a herbal-mineral composition prescribed for diarrhea.<ref name="IJHS051981" /> In the ''Bhaisajya Ratnavali'', opium and [[camphor]] are used for acute gastroenteritis. In this drug, the respiratory depressant action of opium is counteracted by the respiratory stimulant property of camphor.<ref name="IJHS051981" /> Later books have included the narcotic property for use as analgesic pain reliever.<ref name="IJHS051981" />
 ''[[Cannabis indica]]'' is also mentioned in the ancient Ayurveda books, and is first mentioned in the ''Sarngadhara Samhita'' as a treatment for diarrhea.<ref name="IJHS051981" /> In the ''Bhaisajya Ratnavali'' it is named as an ingredient in an aphrodisiac.<ref name="IJHS051981" />
-Ayurveda says that both oil and tar can be used to stop bleeding,<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> and that traumatic bleeding can be stopped by four different methods: [[ligature (medicine)|ligation]] of the [[blood vessel]], [[cauterisation]] by heat, use of preparations to facilitate [[Blood clot|clotting]], and use of preparations to [[Vasoconstriction|constrict]] the blood vessels.
+Ayurveda says that both oil and tar can be used to stop bleeding,<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> and that traumatic bleeding can be stopped by four different methods: [[ligature (medicine)|ligation]] of the [[blood vessel]], [[cauterisation]] by heat, use of preparations to facilitate [[clotting]], and use of preparations to [[Vasoconstriction|constrict]] the blood vessels.
 [[File:Ennappathy ayurveda എണ്ണപ്പാത്തി.jpg|thumb|Ayurvedic treatment set up used for applying oil to patients, [[Kerala]], 2017]]
-Massage with oil is commonly prescribed by Ayurvedic practitioners.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Satake |first=Alison |last2=McDaniel |first2=Andi |title=FRONTLINE World India: A Second Opinion: Ayurveda 101 |url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/india701/interviews/ayurveda101.html |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=PBS}}</ref> Oils are used in a number of ways, including regular consumption, anointing, smearing, head massage, application to affected areas,<ref name="WujastykXX">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=20}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2015}} and [[oil pulling]]. Liquids may also be poured on the patient's forehead, a technique called [[shirodhara]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lockett |first=Eleesha |date=September 30, 2020 |others=Medically reviewed by Dominique Fontaine |title=Shirodhara: Benefits and What to Expect |url=https://www.healthline.com/health/shirodhara |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=Healthline |language=en}}</ref>
+Massage with oil is commonly prescribed by Ayurvedic practitioners.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Satake |first1=Alison |last2=McDaniel |first2=Andi |title=FRONTLINE World India: A Second Opinion: Ayurveda 101 |url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/india701/interviews/ayurveda101.html |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=PBS}}</ref> Oils are used in a number of ways, including regular consumption, anointing, smearing, head massage, application to affected areas,<ref name="WujastykXX">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=20}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2015}} and oil pulling. Liquids may also be poured on the patient's forehead, a technique called shirodhara.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lockett |first=Eleesha |date=September 30, 2020 |others=Medically reviewed by Dominique Fontaine |title=Shirodhara: Benefits and What to Expect |url=https://www.healthline.com/health/shirodhara |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=Healthline |language=en}}</ref>
 === Panchakarma ===
@@ Line 83: / Line 82: @@
 ==Current status==
-Ayurveda is widely practiced in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal<ref name="who01" /> where public institutions offer formal study in the form of a [[Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery]] (BAMS) degree. In certain parts of the world, the legal standing of practitioners is equivalent to that of conventional medicine.<ref name="who01" /> Several scholars have described the contemporary Indian application of Ayurvedic practice as being "biomedicalized" relative to the more "spiritualized" emphasis to practice found in variants in the West.<ref name="london \2">{{cite journal |last1=Warrier |first1=Maya |date=January 2009 |title=Seekership, Spirituality and Self-Discovery: Ayurveda Trainees in Britain |journal=Asian Medicine |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=423–451 |doi=10.1163/157342009X12526658783691 |issn=1573-420X |pmc=2898496 |pmid=20617123}}</ref><ref name="Sujatha_UniversalGlobal_2020">{{Cite journal |last=Sujatha |first=V. |date=January 2020 |title=The Universal and the Global: Contextualising European Ayurvedic Practices |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2393861719883067 |journal=Society and Culture in South Asia |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=52–73 |doi=10.1177/2393861719883067 |s2cid=213828818 |issn=2393-8617 |via=Sage}}</ref>
+Ayurveda is widely practiced in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal<ref name="who01" /> where public institutions offer formal study in the form of a [[Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery]] (BAMS) degree. In certain parts of the world, the legal standing of practitioners is equivalent to that of conventional medicine.<ref name="who01" /> Several scholars have described the contemporary Indian application of Ayurvedic practice as being "biomedicalized" relative to the more "spiritualized" emphasis to practice found in variants in the West.<ref name="london \2">{{cite journal |last1=Warrier |first1=Maya |date=January 2009 |title=Seekership, Spirituality and Self-Discovery: Ayurveda Trainees in Britain |journal=Asian Medicine |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=423–451 |doi=10.1163/157342009X12526658783691 |issn=1573-420X |pmc=2898496 |pmid=20617123}}</ref><ref name="Sujatha_UniversalGlobal_2020">{{Cite journal |last=Sujatha |first=V. |date=January 2020 |title=The Universal and the Global: Contextualising European Ayurvedic Practices |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2393861719883067 |journal=Society and Culture in South Asia |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=52–73 |doi=10.1177/2393861719883067 |s2cid=213828818 |issn=2393-8617 |via=Sage}}</ref>
-Exposure to European developments in medicine from the nineteenth century onwards, through [[European colonization of India]] and the subsequent institutionalized support for European forms of medicine amongst European heritage settlers in India<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sriram |first1=Veena |last2=Keshri |first2=Vikash R. |last3=Kumbhar |first3=Kiran |date=2021-08-18 |title=The impact of colonial-era policies on health workforce regulation in India: lessons for contemporary reform |journal=Human Resources for Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=100 |doi=10.1186/s12960-021-00640-w |issn=1478-4491 |pmc=8371885 |pmid=34407831 |quote=Traditional practitioners of medicine were at the mercy of the ‘newly’ imposed system of modern medicine that arrived with colonialism. Despite some early efforts to understand the value of traditional medicine and some efforts at exchange between the systems, “British criticisms of indigenous medicine became increasingly strident and intolerant”.}}</ref> were challenging to Ayurveda, with the entire epistemology called into question.  From the twentieth century, Ayurveda became politically, conceptually, and commercially dominated by modern biomedicine, resulting in "Modern Ayurveda" and "Global Ayurveda".<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Modern Ayurveda is geographically located in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and tends towards secularization through minimization of the magic and mythic aspects of Ayurveda.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> Global Ayurveda encompasses multiple forms of practice that developed through dispersal to a wide geographical area outside of India.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Smith and Wujastyk further delineate that Global Ayurveda includes those primarily interested in the Ayurveda [[Pharmacopoeia|pharmacopeia]], and also the practitioners of [[New Age]] Ayurveda (which may link Ayurveda to [[yoga]] and Indian spirituality and/or emphasize preventative practice, mind body medicine, or Maharishi Ayurveda).<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" />
+Exposure to European developments in medicine from the nineteenth century onwards, through [[European colonization of India]] and the subsequent institutionalized support for European forms of medicine amongst European heritage settlers in India<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sriram |first1=Veena |last2=Keshri |first2=Vikash R. |last3=Kumbhar |first3=Kiran |date=2021-08-18 |title=The impact of colonial-era policies on health workforce regulation in India: lessons for contemporary reform |journal=Human Resources for Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=100 |doi=10.1186/s12960-021-00640-w |issn=1478-4491 |pmc=8371885 |pmid=34407831 |quote=Traditional practitioners of medicine were at the mercy of the ‘newly’ imposed system of modern medicine that arrived with colonialism. Despite some early efforts to understand the value of traditional medicine and some efforts at exchange between the systems, “British criticisms of indigenous medicine became increasingly strident and intolerant”.}}</ref> were challenging to Ayurveda, with the entire epistemology called into question.  From the twentieth century, Ayurveda became politically, conceptually, and commercially dominated by modern biomedicine, resulting in "Modern Ayurveda" and "Global Ayurveda".<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Modern Ayurveda is geographically located in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and tends towards secularization through minimization of the magic and mythic aspects of Ayurveda.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> Global Ayurveda encompasses multiple forms of practice that developed through dispersal to a wide geographical area outside of India.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Smith and Wujastyk further delineate that Global Ayurveda includes those primarily interested in the Ayurveda [[Pharmacopoeia|pharmacopeia]], and also the practitioners of [[New Age]] Ayurveda (which may link Ayurveda to yoga and Indian spirituality and/or emphasize preventative practice, mind body medicine, or [[Maharishi Ayurveda]]).<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" />
 Since the 1980s, Ayurveda has also become the subject of interdisciplinary studies in [[ethnomedicine]] which seeks to integrate the biomedical sciences and humanities to improve the pharmacopeia of Ayurveda.<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> According to Industry Research, the global Ayurveda market was worth US$4.5 billion in 2017.<ref name="market">{{cite web |publisher=Industry Research|date=8 April 2019 |title=Global Ayurvedic Market |url=https://www.industryresearch.biz/global-ayurvedic-market-14143828 }}</ref>
@@ Line 94: / Line 93: @@
 ==== India ====
 {{See also|Healthcare in India}}
-It was reported in 2008<ref name="Dargan">{{cite journal|last1=Dargan|first1=Paul I.|last2=Gawarammana|first2=Indika B.|last3=Archer|first3=John R.H.|last4=House|first4=Ivan M.|last5=Shaw|first5=Debbie|last6=Wood|first6=David M.|year=2008|title=Heavy metal poisoning from Ayurvedic traditional medicines: An emerging problem?|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.561.9726&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=International Journal of Environment and Health|volume=2|issue=3/4|pages=463|doi=10.1504/IJENVH.2008.020936|citeseerx=10.1.1.561.9726}}</ref> and again in 2018<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Bhowmick |first=Nilanjana |date=2021-06-02 |title=Indian doctors protest herbal treatments being touted for COVID-19 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/indian-doctors-protest-herbal-treatments-being-touted-for-covid-19 |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref> that 80 percent of people in India used Ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine.<ref name="Dargan" /><ref name=":0" /> A 2014 national health survey found that, in general, forms of the Indian System of Medicine or [[AYUSH]] (Ayurveda, Yoga and naturopathy, Unani, Sidha, and Homeopathy) were used by about 3.5% of patients who were seeking outpatient care over a two week reference period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudra |first1=Shalini |last2=Kalra |first2=Aakshi |last3=Kumar |first3=Abhishek |last4=Joe |first4=William |date=2017 |title=Utilization of alternative systems of medicine as health care services in India: Evidence on AYUSH care from NSS 2014 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12|issue=5 |pages= e0176916 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0176916 |pmid=28472197 |pmc=5417584 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1276916R |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+It was reported in 2008<ref name="Dargan">{{cite journal|last1=Dargan|first1=Paul I.|last2=Gawarammana|first2=Indika B.|last3=Archer|first3=John R.H.|last4=House|first4=Ivan M.|last5=Shaw|first5=Debbie|last6=Wood|first6=David M.|year=2008|title=Heavy metal poisoning from Ayurvedic traditional medicines: An emerging problem?|journal=International Journal of Environment and Health|volume=2|issue=3/4|pages=463|doi=10.1504/IJENVH.2008.020936|citeseerx=10.1.1.561.9726}}</ref> and again in 2018<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Bhowmick |first=Nilanjana |date=2021-06-02 |title=Indian doctors protest herbal treatments being touted for COVID-19 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/indian-doctors-protest-herbal-treatments-being-touted-for-covid-19 |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref> that 80 percent of people in India used Ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine.<ref name="Dargan" /><ref name=":0" /> A 2014 national health survey found that, in general, forms of the Indian System of Medicine or [[AYUSH]] (Ayurveda, Yoga and naturopathy, Unani, Sidha, and Homeopathy) were used by about 3.5% of patients who were seeking outpatient care over a two-week reference period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudra |first1=Shalini |last2=Kalra |first2=Aakshi |last3=Kumar |first3=Abhishek |last4=Joe |first4=William |date=2017 |title=Utilization of alternative systems of medicine as health care services in India: Evidence on AYUSH care from NSS 2014 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12|issue=5 |pages= e0176916 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0176916 |pmid=28472197 |pmc=5417584 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1276916R |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-In 1970, the [[Parliament of India]] passed the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aimed to standardise qualifications for Ayurveda practitioners and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.<ref name="WujastykXXII" /> In 1971, the [[Central Council of Indian Medicine]] (CCIM) was established under the Department of Ayurveda, [[Yoga]] and naturopathy, Unani, [[Siddha medicine]] and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]], to monitor higher education in Ayurveda in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to Central Council of Indian Medicine |publisher=Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) |url=http://ccimindia.org/introduction.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218132643/http://ccimindia.org/introduction.html |archive-date=18 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalise traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.<ref name="WujastykXVI">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=XVI}}</ref> The state-sponsored [[AYUSH|Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences]] (CCRAS) is designed to do research on Ayurveda.<ref>{{cite web|title=Welcome to Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha ( India ) |publisher=Ccras.nic.in |url=http://ccras.nic.in/ |access-date= 21 June 2012}}</ref> Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes.<ref name="WujastykXXII">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=XXII}}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, India had over 180 training centers that offered degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.<ref name="encarta-ayurveda" />
+In 1970, the [[Parliament of India]] passed the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aimed to standardise qualifications for Ayurveda practitioners and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.<ref name="WujastykXXII" /> In 1971, the [[Central Council of Indian Medicine]] (CCIM) was established under the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, [[Siddha medicine]] and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]], to monitor higher education in Ayurveda in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to Central Council of Indian Medicine |publisher=Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) |url=http://ccimindia.org/introduction.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218132643/http://ccimindia.org/introduction.html |archive-date=18 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalise traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.<ref name="WujastykXVI">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=XVI}}</ref> The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is designed to do research on Ayurveda.<ref>{{cite web|title=Welcome to Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (India) |publisher=Ccras.nic.in |url=http://ccras.nic.in/ |access-date= 21 June 2012}}</ref> Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes.<ref name="WujastykXXII">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=XXII}}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, India had over 180 training centers that offered degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.<ref name="encarta-ayurveda" />
-To fight [[biopiracy]] and unethical patents, in 2001 the [[government of India]] set up the [[Traditional Knowledge Digital Library]] in 2001 to serve as a repository for formulations from systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, [[Unani]] and [[Siddha medicine|Siddha]].<ref>{{cite web|title=About TKDL |work=Traditional Knowledge Digital Library |url=http://www.tkdl.res.in/tkdl/LangDefault/Common/Abouttkdl.asp?GL=Eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704022336/http://www.tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/common/Abouttkdl.asp?GL=Eng |archive-date=4 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pt">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=61511|title=Know Instances of Patenting on the UES of Medicinal Plants in India|date=6 May 2010|publisher=PIB, Ministry of Environment and Forests|access-date=22 May 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100510005340/http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=61511| archive-date= 10 May 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The formulations come from over 100 traditional Ayurveda books.<ref>{{cite web |title=Source of Information |work=[[Traditional Knowledge Digital Library]] (Government of India)|url=http://www.tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/common/sourceinfo.asp }}</ref>
+To fight [[biopiracy]] and unethical patents, the [[government of India]] set up the [[Traditional Knowledge Digital Library]] in 2001 to serve as a repository for formulations from systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, [[Unani]] and Siddha medicine.<ref>{{cite web|title=About TKDL |work=Traditional Knowledge Digital Library |url=http://www.tkdl.res.in/tkdl/LangDefault/Common/Abouttkdl.asp?GL=Eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704022336/http://www.tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/common/Abouttkdl.asp?GL=Eng |archive-date=4 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pt">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=61511|title=Know Instances of Patenting on the UES of Medicinal Plants in India|date=6 May 2010|publisher=PIB, Ministry of Environment and Forests|access-date=22 May 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100510005340/http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=61511| archive-date= 10 May 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The formulations come from over 100 traditional Ayurveda books.<ref>{{cite web |title=Source of Information |work=[[Traditional Knowledge Digital Library]] (Government of India)|url=http://www.tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/common/sourceinfo.asp }}</ref>
-An [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] document quoting a 2003-04 report states that India had 432,625 registered medical practitioners, 13,925 dispensaries, 2,253 hospitals and a bed strength of 43,803. 209 under-graduate teaching institutions and 16 post-graduate institutions.<ref name="IAS-20150613">{{cite web|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/academy/dvdocs/ayurvis.pdf|title=Towards Ayurvedic Biology|last=Valiathan|first=M. S.|publisher=[[Indian Academy of Sciences]]|access-date=13 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513230414/http://www.ias.ac.in/academy/dvdocs/ayurvis.pdf|archive-date=13 May 2015}}</ref> In 2012, it was reported that insurance companies covered expenses for Ayurvedic treatments in case of conditions such as spinal cord disorders, bone disorder, arthritis and cancer. Such claims constituted 5-10 percent of the country's health insurance claims.<ref name="Hindu-20120328">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/banking/insurers-stepping-up-cover-for-ayurveda-treatment/article3254964.ece|title=Insurers stepping up cover for ayurveda treatment|last=Roy|first=Shobha|date=2012-03-28|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 June 2015}}</ref>
+An [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] document quoting a 2003–04 report states that India had 432,625 registered medical practitioners, 13,925 dispensaries, 2,253 hospitals and a bed strength of 43,803. 209 undergraduate teaching institutions and 16 postgraduate institutions.<ref name="IAS-20150613">{{cite web|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/academy/dvdocs/ayurvis.pdf|title=Towards Ayurvedic Biology|last=Valiathan|first=M. S.|publisher=[[Indian Academy of Sciences]]|access-date=13 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513230414/http://www.ias.ac.in/academy/dvdocs/ayurvis.pdf|archive-date=13 May 2015}}</ref> In 2012, it was reported that insurance companies covered expenses for Ayurvedic treatments in case of conditions such as spinal cord disorders, bone disorder, arthritis and cancer. Such claims constituted 5–10 percent of the country's health insurance claims.<ref name="Hindu-20120328">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/banking/insurers-stepping-up-cover-for-ayurveda-treatment/article3254964.ece|title=Insurers stepping up cover for ayurveda treatment|last=Roy|first=Shobha|date=2012-03-28|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 June 2015}}</ref>
 [[Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti]], an organisation dedicated to fighting [[superstition in India]], considers Ayurveda to be pseudoscience.<ref name="Quack-2011" />
@@ Line 106: / Line 105: @@
 In 2016, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) published a report titled "The Health Workforce in India" which found that 31 percent of those who claimed to be doctors in India in 2001 were educated only up to the secondary school level and 57 percent went without any medical qualification.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|last=Bansal|first=Samarth|date=2016-07-18|title=WHO report sounds alarm on 'doctors' in India|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/data/WHO-report-sounds-alarm-on-%E2%80%98doctors%E2%80%99-in-India/article14495884.ece|access-date=2022-02-06|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The WHO study found that the situation was worse in rural India with only 18.8 percent of doctors holding a medical qualification.<ref name=":6" /> Overall, the study revealed that nationally the density of all doctors (mainstream, ayurvedic, homeopathic and unani) was 8 doctors per 10,000 people compared to 13 per 10,000 people in China.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Anand|first1=Sudhir|last2=Fan|first2=Victoria|date=2016|title=The Health Workforce in India|url=https://www.who.int/hrh/resources/16058health_workforce_India.pdf|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>
-The [[Indian Medical Association]] (IMA) describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks.<ref name="IMA" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Safi|first=Michael|date=2018-01-02|title=Indian doctors protest against plan to let 'quacks' practise medicine|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/02/indian-doctors-protest-against-plan-to-let-quacks-practice-medicine|access-date=2022-02-06|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> The IMA has protested against the government's relaxation of regulations,<ref name=":9" /> including those which allow Ayurvedic practitioners to perform surgeries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-11|title=IMA strike over 'Ayurveda surgeons': 30,000 from Gujarat join protest, AIIMS doctors wear black band|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/doctors-on-nationwide-strike-today-ima-live-updates-7100914/|access-date=2022-02-06|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
 ==== Nepal ====
-About 75%-80% of the population of Nepal use Ayurveda.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|title=Weeklong programme to observe Health Day |url=http://thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Weeklong+programme+to+observe+Health+Day&NewsID=395245 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323212717/http://thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Weeklong+programme+to+observe+Health+Day&NewsID=395245 |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 March 2017 |access-date=7 January 2015 |agency=The Himalayan Times |work=The Himalayan Times|date=28 October 2013 |quote=In Nepal, 80 per cent of the population receives Ayurvedic medicine as first aid treatment. }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|author=Alam|first=Zulfeequar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5PfzF86mtEC&q=Ayurveda&pg=PA10|title=Herbal Medicines|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-81-313-0358-0|location=New Delhi, India|pages=8–13, 122}}</ref> As of 2009, Ayurveda was considered to be the most common and popular form of medicine in Nepal.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Guneratne |first=Arjun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2qLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Culture and the Environment in the Himalaya |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-77883-1 |series=Routledge contemporary South Asia series, #24 |location=New York |pages=84–85}}</ref>
+About 75% to 80% of the population of Nepal use Ayurveda.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|title=Weeklong programme to observe Health Day |url=http://thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Weeklong+programme+to+observe+Health+Day&NewsID=395245 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323212717/http://thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Weeklong+programme+to+observe+Health+Day&NewsID=395245 |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 March 2017 |access-date=7 January 2015 |agency=The Himalayan Times |work=The Himalayan Times|date=28 October 2013 |quote=In Nepal, 80 per cent of the population receives Ayurvedic medicine as first aid treatment. }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|author=Alam|first=Zulfeequar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5PfzF86mtEC&q=Ayurveda&pg=PA10|title=Herbal Medicines|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-81-313-0358-0|location=New Delhi, India|pages=8–13, 122}}</ref> As of 2009, Ayurveda was considered to be the most common and popular form of medicine in Nepal.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Guneratne |first=Arjun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2qLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Culture and the Environment in the Himalaya |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-77883-1 |series=Routledge contemporary South Asia series, #24 |location=New York |pages=84–85}}</ref>
 ==== Sri Lanka ====
@@ Line 116: / Line 113: @@
 The Sri Lankan tradition of Ayurveda is similar to the Indian tradition. Practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka refer to Sanskrit texts which are common to both countries. However, they do differ in some aspects, particularly in the herbs used.
-In 1980, the Sri Lankan government established a Ministry of Indigenous Medicine to revive and regulate Ayurveda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayurveda.gov.lk/dept.html |title=Ministry of Indigenous Medicine |access-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214094513/http://www.ayurveda.gov.lk/dept.html |archive-date=14 December 2012 }}</ref> The Institute of Indigenous Medicine (affiliated to the [[University of Colombo]]) offers undergraduate, postgraduate, and MD degrees in Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery, and similar degrees in unani medicine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iim.cmb.ac.lk/ |title=Institute of indigenous Medicine |publisher=Iim.cmb.ac.lk |access-date= 21 June 2012}}</ref> The public system has 62 Ayurvedic hospitals and 208 central dispensaries, which served about 3 million people (about 11% of Sri Lanka's population) in 2010. In total, there are about 20,000 registered practitioners of Ayurveda in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics Report |publisher=Sri Lanka Institute of Indigenous Medicine |date=November 2011 |url=http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/Downloads/Statistics%20Report%20Final%202011.%20November.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424031013/http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/Downloads/Statistics%20Report%20Final%202011.%20November.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |publisher=The Ministry of Indigenous Medicine (Sri Lanka) |date=14 February 1980 |url=http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/About_us.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108121932/http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/About_us.html |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 December 2011 }}</ref>
+In 1980, the Sri Lankan government established a [[Ministry of Indigenous Medicine]] to revive and regulate Ayurveda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayurveda.gov.lk/dept.html |title=Ministry of Indigenous Medicine |access-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214094513/http://www.ayurveda.gov.lk/dept.html |archive-date=14 December 2012 }}</ref> The [[Institute of Indigenous Medicine]] (affiliated to the [[University of Colombo]]) offers undergraduate, postgraduate, and MD degrees in Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery, and similar degrees in unani medicine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iim.cmb.ac.lk/ |title=Institute of indigenous Medicine |publisher=Iim.cmb.ac.lk |access-date= 21 June 2012}}</ref> In 2010, the public system had 62 Ayurvedic hospitals and 208 central dispensaries, which served about 3 million people (about 11% of Sri Lanka's population). There are an estimated 20,000 registered practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics Report |publisher=Sri Lanka Institute of Indigenous Medicine |date=November 2011 |url=http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/Downloads/Statistics%20Report%20Final%202011.%20November.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424031013/http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/Downloads/Statistics%20Report%20Final%202011.%20November.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |publisher=The Ministry of Indigenous Medicine (Sri Lanka) |date=14 February 1980 |url=http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/About_us.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108121932/http://www.indigenousmedimini.gov.lk/About_us.html |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 December 2011 }}</ref>
-According to the [[Mahavamsa]], an ancient chronicle of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] royalty from the sixth century C.E., King [[Pandukabhaya of Sri Lanka]] (reigned 437 BCE to 367 BCE) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documented evidence available of institutions dedicated specifically to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Arjuna|last=Aluvihare|title=Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo|journal=Vidhusara Science Magazine |date=November 1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ihsg/publications/pdf/No-42.PDF |title=Resource Mobilization in Sri Lanka's Health Sector |author1=Rannan-Eliya, Ravi P. |author2=De Mel, Nishan  |publisher=[[Harvard School of Public Health]] & Health Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies|date=February 1997|page=19|access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref> [[Mihintale]] Hospital is the oldest in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Müller-Dietz, Heinz E. |year=1975|title=Die Krankenhaus-ruinen in Mihintale (Ceylon) |journal=Historia Hospitalium|volume=10|pages=65–71|pmid=11627253}}</ref>
+According to the [[Mahavamsa]], an ancient chronicle of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] royalty from the sixth century CE, King [[Pandukabhaya]] (reigned 437 BCE to 367 BCE) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documented evidence available of institutions dedicated specifically to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Arjuna|last=Aluvihare|title=Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo|journal=Vidhusara Science Magazine |date=November 1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ihsg/publications/pdf/No-42.PDF |title=Resource Mobilization in Sri Lanka's Health Sector |author1=Rannan-Eliya, Ravi P. |author2=De Mel, Nishan  |publisher=[[Harvard School of Public Health]] & Health Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies|date=February 1997|page=19|access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref> The hospital at [[Mihintale]] is the oldest in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Müller-Dietz, Heinz E. |year=1975|title=Die Krankenhaus-ruinen in Mihintale (Ceylon) |journal=Historia Hospitalium|volume=10|pages=65–71|pmid=11627253}}</ref>
 ===Outside the Indian subcontinent===
-[[File:Aankomst Maharish Makesh Yogi op Schiphol. M. M. Yogi vergezeld van Dramayari Do, Bestanddeelnr 920-6590.jpg|left|thumb|[[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] in [[Amsterdam]] in 1967]]Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine developed during antiquity and the medieval period, and as such is comparable to pre-modern [[traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese]] and [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|European]] systems of medicine. In the 1960s, Ayurveda began to be advertised as [[alternative medicine]] in the Western world. Due to different laws and medical regulations around the globe, the unregulated practice and commercialisation of Ayurveda raised ethical and legal issues. In some instances, Ayurvedic practices and terminology were adapted specifically for Western consumption, notably in the case of "[[Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health|Maharishi Ayurveda]]" in the 1980s. In some cases, this involved active fraud on the part of proponents of Ayurveda in an attempt to falsely represent the system as equal to the standards of modern [[medical research]].<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Skolnick, Andrew A. | year = 1991 | title=The Maharishi Caper: Or How to Hoodwink Top Medical Journals | journal = ScienceWriters: The Newsletter of the National Association of Science Writers | issue = Fall | format = print | url = http://www.aaskolnick.com/naswmav.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080716041551/http://www.aaskolnick.com/naswmav.htm | archive-date=16 July 2008 |author-link=Andrew A. Skolnick| quote = From time to time, even the most prestigious science journals publish erroneous or fraudulent data, unjustified conclusions, and sometimes balderdash. Balderdash was the right word when The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] (JAMA) published the article, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Modern Insights Into Ancient Medicine," in its 22/29 May issue. Discovering that they had been deceived by the article's authors, the editors published a correction in the 14 August issue, which was followed on 2 October by a six-page exposé on the people who had hoodwinked them. | access-date = 23 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Skolnick|first1=Andrew A.|author-link=Andrew A. Skolnick|title=Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's marketing scheme promises the world eternal 'perfect health'|journal=JAMA|volume=266|pages=1741–2, 1744–5, 1749–50|year=1991|doi=10.1001/jama.1991.03470130017003|pmid=1817475|issue=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Policy on Traditional Medicine and Regulation of Herbal Medicines |date=May 2005 |publisher=World Health Organization |url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s7916e/s7916e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927001412/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s7916e/s7916e.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
+[[File:Aankomst Maharish Makesh Yogi op Schiphol. M. M. Yogi vergezeld van Dramayari Do, Bestanddeelnr 920-6590.jpg|left|thumb|[[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] in Amsterdam in 1967]]Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine developed during antiquity and the medieval period, and as such is comparable to pre-modern [[traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese]] and [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|European systems of medicine]]. In the 1960s, Ayurveda began to be advertised as [[alternative medicine]] in the Western world. Due to different laws and medical regulations around the globe, the expanding practice and commercialisation of Ayurveda raised ethical and legal issues.<ref name=":10" /> Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, Ayurveda was adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and by Maharishi Ayurveda in the 1980s.<ref name=":9" /> In some cases, this involved active fraud on the part of proponents of Ayurveda in an attempt to falsely represent the system as equal to the standards of modern [[medical research]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal| author=Skolnick, Andrew A. | year = 1991 | title=The Maharishi Caper: Or How to Hoodwink Top Medical Journals | journal = ScienceWriters: The Newsletter of the National Association of Science Writers | issue = Fall | format = print | url = http://www.aaskolnick.com/naswmav.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080716041551/http://www.aaskolnick.com/naswmav.htm | archive-date=16 July 2008 |author-link=Andrew A. Skolnick| quote = From time to time, even the most prestigious science journals publish erroneous or fraudulent data, unjustified conclusions, and sometimes balderdash. Balderdash was the right word when The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] (JAMA) published the article, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Modern Insights Into Ancient Medicine," in its 22/29 May issue. Discovering that they had been deceived by the article's authors, the editors published a correction in the 14 August issue, which was followed on 2 October by a six-page exposé on the people who had hoodwinked them. | access-date = 23 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Skolnick|first1=Andrew A.|author-link=Andrew A. Skolnick|title=Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's marketing scheme promises the world eternal 'perfect health'|journal=JAMA|volume=266|pages=1741–2, 1744–5, 1749–50|year=1991|doi=10.1001/jama.1991.03470130017003|pmid=1817475|issue=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Policy on Traditional Medicine and Regulation of Herbal Medicines |date=May 2005 |publisher=World Health Organization |url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s7916e/s7916e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927001412/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s7916e/s7916e.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 ==== United States ====
 [[Baba Hari Dass]] was an early proponent who helped bring Ayurveda to the United States in the early 1970s. His teachings led to the establishment of the Mount Madonna Institute.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jones |first=Constance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PP1 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=9780816075645 |editor-last=Melton |editor-first=J. Gordon |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |page=179}}</ref> He invited several notable Ayurvedic teachers, including Vasant Lad, Sarita Shrestha, and [[Ram Harsh Singh]]. The Ayurvedic practitioner Michael Tierra wrote that the "history of Ayurveda in North America will always owe a debt to the selfless contributions of Baba Hari Dass."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Khalsa |first1=Karta Purkh Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOK33vv_29UC&pg=PP1 |title=The Way of Ayurvedic Herbs: The Most Complete Guide to Natural Healing and Health with Traditional Ayurvedic Herbalism |last2=Tierra |first2=Michael |date=2008 |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=978-0-940985-98-8 |pages=x |language=en |quote=Independently, we both first learned Ayurvedic medicine from our respective spiritual mentors – myself with Baba Hari Dass and K.P., with Yogi Bhajan.}}</ref>
-In the United States, the practice of Ayurveda is not licensed or regulated by any state. The [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] says that "Few well-designed clinical trials and systematic research reviews suggest that Ayurvedic approaches are effective", warns against the issue of heavy metal poisoning, and emphasises the use of conventional health providers first.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|date=December 2018|title=Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ayurvedic-medicine-in-depth|access-date=23 August 2020|website=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health}}</ref> As of 2018, the NCCIH reported that 240,000 Americans were using Ayurvedic medicine.<ref name=":5" />
+In the United States, the practice of Ayurveda is not licensed or regulated by any state. The [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] (NCCIH) stated that "Few well-designed clinical trials and systematic research reviews suggest that Ayurvedic approaches are effective". The NCCIH warned against the issue of heavy metal poisoning, and emphasised the use of conventional health providers first.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|date=December 2018|title=Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ayurvedic-medicine-in-depth|access-date=23 August 2020|website=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health}}</ref> As of 2018, the NCCIH reported that 240,000 Americans were using Ayurvedic medicine.<ref name=":5" />
 ==== Europe ====
@@ Line 134: / Line 132: @@
 Ayurvedic medicine is considered [[pseudoscientific]] because its premises are not based on science.<ref name="oxpsych" /><ref name="kaufman" /> Both the lack of scientific soundness in the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda and the quality of research have been criticized.<ref name="oxpsych" /><ref name="Sujatha2011">{{cite journal|last=Sujatha|first=V|date=July 2011|title=What could 'integrative' medicine mean? Social science perspectives on contemporary Ayurveda|journal=Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine|volume=2|issue=3|pages=115–23|doi=10.4103/0975-9476.85549|pmc=3193682|pmid=22022153}}</ref><ref name="Manohar2013">{{cite journal|last=Manohar|first=PR|date=April 2013|title=Uniform standards and quality control of research publications in the field of Ayurveda|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=32|issue=4|pages=185–6|doi=10.4103/0257-7941.131968|pmc=4078466|pmid=24991064}}</ref><ref name="Bausell">{{cite book|last1=Bausell|first1=R. Barker|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313680|title=Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine|date=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-538342-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313680/page/259 259]|author-link=R. Barker Bausell|url-access=registration}}</ref>
-Although laboratory experiments suggest that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.<ref name="ACS2011">{{cite web|date=26 August 2011|title=Ayurveda|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222053347/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|archive-date=22 February 2014|access-date=7 January 2015|publisher=American Cancer Society|quote=The effectiveness of Ayurveda has not been proven in scientific studies, but early research suggests that certain herbs may offer potential therapeutic value... Although Ayurveda has been largely untested by Western researchers, there is a growing interest in integrating some parts of the system into medical practice. In fact, a few of the herbs and substances have been purified into drugs that are used (along with other medicines) to treat cancer. Early studies suggest that other parts of Ayurveda may have potential therapeutic value.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patwardhan|first=Bhushan|date=2014-11-01|title=Bridging Ayurveda with evidence-based scientific approaches in medicine|journal=The EPMA Journal|volume=5|issue=1|pages=19|doi=10.1186/1878-5085-5-19|issn=1878-5077|pmc=4230501|pmid=25395997}}</ref> There is no good evidence that Ayurvedic medicine is effective to treat or cure cancer in people.<ref name="cruk" /> Although Ayurveda may help "improve quality of life" and CRUK also acknowledges that "researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms," the organization warns that some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or may [[drug interaction|interact]] with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.<ref name="cruk">{{cite web |date= |title=Ayurvedic medicine |url=https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/ayurvedic-medicine |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=[[Cancer Research UK]] |quote=There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer. Researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms. It can also improve quality of life.}}</ref>
+Although laboratory experiments suggest that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.<ref name="ACS2011">{{cite web|date=26 August 2011|title=Ayurveda|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222053347/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|archive-date=22 February 2014|access-date=7 January 2015|publisher=American Cancer Society|quote=The effectiveness of Ayurveda has not been proven in scientific studies, but early research suggests that certain herbs may offer potential therapeutic value... Although Ayurveda has been largely untested by Western researchers, there is a growing interest in integrating some parts of the system into medical practice. In fact, a few of the herbs and substances have been purified into drugs that are used (along with other medicines) to treat cancer. Early studies suggest that other parts of Ayurveda may have potential therapeutic value.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patwardhan|first=Bhushan|date=2014-11-01|title=Bridging Ayurveda with evidence-based scientific approaches in medicine|journal=The EPMA Journal|volume=5|issue=1|pages=19|doi=10.1186/1878-5085-5-19|issn=1878-5077|pmc=4230501|pmid=25395997}}</ref> There is no good evidence that Ayurvedic medicine is effective to treat or cure cancer in people.<ref name="cruk" /> Although Ayurveda may help "improve quality of life" and [[Cancer Research UK]] also acknowledges that "researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms," the organization warns that some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or may [[drug interaction|interact]] with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.<ref name="cruk">{{cite web |date= |title=Ayurvedic medicine |url=https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/ayurvedic-medicine |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=[[Cancer Research UK]] |quote=There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer. Researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms. It can also improve quality of life.}}</ref>
-Ethnologist [[Johannes Quack]] writes than although the rationalist movement [[Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti]] officially labels Ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to [[astrology]], these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members.<ref name="Quack-2011">{{cite book|last=Quack|first=Johannes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55wFpydSZ8oC|title=Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-981260-8|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TNbxUwhS5RUC&pg=PA213 213], [https://books.google.com/books?id=TNbxUwhS5RUC&pg=PA3 3]|quote=ordinary members told me how they practice some of these pseudosciences, either privately or as certified doctors themselves, most often Ayurveda.}}</ref>
+Ethnologist [[Johannes Quack]] writes that although the rationalist movement Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti officially labels Ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to [[astrology]], these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members.<ref name="Quack-2011">{{cite book |last=Quack |first=Johannes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55wFpydSZ8oC |title=Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-981260-8 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TNbxUwhS5RUC&pg=PA213 213], [https://books.google.com/books?id=TNbxUwhS5RUC&pg=PA3 3] |quote=ordinary members told me how they practice some of these pseudosciences, either privately or as certified doctors themselves, most often Ayurveda. |author-link=Johannes Quack}}</ref>
 A review of the use of Ayurveda for [[cardiovascular disease]] concluded that the evidence is not convincing for the use of any Ayurvedic herbal treatment for heart disease or hypertension, but that many herbs used by Ayurvedic practitioners could be appropriate for further research.<ref name="Mamtani2005">{{cite journal |last=Mamtani|first=R.|author2=Mamtani, R. |title=Ayurveda and Yoga in Cardiovascular Diseases |journal= Cardiology in Review|volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=155–162 |year=2005 |pmid=15834238 |doi= 10.1097/01.crd.0000128730.31658.36|s2cid=27195105}}</ref>
@@ Line 142: / Line 140: @@
 ===Research===
-In India, research in Ayurveda is undertaken by the [[Ministry of AYUSH]], an abbreviation for the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy, through a national network of research institutes.<ref name="ccras">{{cite web|title=Research in Ayurveda - About CCRAS|publisher=Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare|work=Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha|url=http://ccras.nic.in/about_ccras/about_research_in_ayurveda.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530011813/http://ccras.nic.in/about_ccras/about_research_in_ayurveda.htm|archive-date=30 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+In India, research in Ayurveda is undertaken by the Ministry of AYUSH through a national network of research institutes.<ref name="ccras">{{cite web|title=Research in Ayurveda - About CCRAS|publisher=Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare|work=Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha|url=http://ccras.nic.in/about_ccras/about_research_in_ayurveda.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530011813/http://ccras.nic.in/about_ccras/about_research_in_ayurveda.htm|archive-date=30 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 In Nepal, the National Ayurvedic Training and Research Centre (NATRC) researches medicinal herbs in the country.<ref>{{cite news|title=China hands over Ayurveda research centre to govt|url=http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2011/04/03/nation/china-hands-over-ayurveda-research-centre-to-govt/220180.html|access-date=7 January 2015|agency=The Kathmandu Post|publisher=Kantipur Publications|quote=The centre will play a positive role in promotion and utilisation of Ayurveda in the country, by conducting research on medicinal herbs available here.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121053833/http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2011/04/03/nation/china-hands-over-ayurveda-research-centre-to-govt/220180.html|archive-date=21 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
@@ Line 149: / Line 147: @@
 ====Use of toxic metals====
-Rasa shastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbal preparations, may include toxic [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]]s such as lead, [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and arsenic.<ref name="Saper2008" /> The public health implications of metals in ''rasashastra'' in India is unknown.<ref name="Saper2008" /> Adverse reactions to herbs are described in traditional Ayurvedic texts, but practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and that reliable information on herbal toxicity is not readily available. There is a communication gap between practitioners of medicine and Ayurveda.<ref name="Urmila2008">{{cite journal | author1=Urmila, T. |author2=Supriya, B. |year=2008 |title=Pharmacovigilance of ayurvedic medicines in India | journal=Indian Journal of Pharmacology | volume=40 | issue=S1 |pages =10–12 |url = http://www.bioline.org.br/request?ph08015}}</ref>
+''Rasashastra'', the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbal preparations, may include [[toxic heavy metal]]s such as lead, [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and arsenic.<ref name="Saper2008" /> The public health implications of metals in ''rasashastra'' in India is unknown.<ref name="Saper2008" /> Adverse reactions to herbs are described in traditional Ayurvedic texts, but practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and that reliable information on herbal toxicity is not readily available. There is a communication gap between practitioners of medicine and Ayurveda.<ref name="Urmila2008">{{cite journal | author1=Urmila, T. |author2=Supriya, B. |year=2008 |title=Pharmacovigilance of ayurvedic medicines in India | journal=Indian Journal of Pharmacology | volume=40 | issue=S1 |pages =10–12 |url = http://www.bioline.org.br/request?ph08015}}</ref>
-Some traditional Indian herbal medicinal products contain harmful levels of heavy metals, including lead.<ref name="Ernst2002" /> For example, ghasard, a product commonly given to infants for digestive issues, has been found to have up to 1.6% lead concentration by weight, leading to [[lead encephalopathy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Karri|first1=Surya K.|last2=Saper|first2=Robert B.|last3=Kales|first3=Stefanos N.|date=January 2008|title=Lead Encephalopathy Due to Traditional Medicines|journal=Current Drug Safety|volume=3|issue=1|pages=54–59|doi=10.2174/157488608783333907|issn=1574-8863|pmc=2538609|pmid=18690981}}</ref> A 1990 study on Ayurvedic medicines in India found that 41% of the products tested contained arsenic, and that 64% contained lead and mercury.<ref name="Dargan" /> A 2004 study found toxic levels of heavy metals in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations made in South Asia and sold in the Boston area, and concluded that Ayurvedic products posed serious health risks and should be tested for heavy-metal contamination.<ref name="pmid15598918">{{cite journal |last=Saper|first=R. B. |title=Heavy metal content of ayurveda herbal medicine products |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=292 |issue=23 |pages= 2868–73|year=2004 |pmid=15598918 |doi=10.1001/jama.292.23.2868 |author2=Kales SN |last3=Paquin |first3=J |last4=Burns |first4=MJ |last5=Eisenberg |first5=DM |last6=Davis |first6=RB |last7=Phillips |first7=RS |s2cid=9914911 |display-authors=3 }}</ref> A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of ''rasashastra'' medicines) purchased over the Internet from U.S. and Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic.<ref name="Saper2008" /><ref name="NewYorkTimes2008-09-17">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/18/fashion/18skin.html | title=Skin deep: ancient, but how safe? |work=[[The New York Times]] |last=Ellin |first=Abby |date=17 September 2008| access-date=19 September 2008 |quote=A report in the August 27 [2008] issue of ''[[JAMA (journal)|The Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' found that nearly 21 percent of 193 ayurvedic herbal supplements bought online, produced in both India and the United States, contained lead, mercury or arsenic.| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430050703/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/18/fashion/18skin.html|archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Szabo">{{cite news|last=Szabo |first=Liz |title=Study finds toxins in some herbal medicines |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=26 August 2008 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-08-26-ayurvedic-medicines_N.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008031004/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-08-26-ayurvedic-medicines_N.htm |archive-date= 8 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2015 study of users in the United States found elevated blood lead levels in 40% of those tested, leading physician and former [[Flight surgeon|U.S. Air Force flight surgeon]] [[Harriet A. Hall|Harriet Hall]] to say that "Ayurveda is basically superstition mixed with a soupçon of practical health advice. And it can be dangerous."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hall|first1=Harriet|author-link = Harriet Hall|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Superstition, Not Ancient Wisdom|url=https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/ayurveda_ancient_superstition_not_ancient_wisdom|website=Skeptical Inquirer|access-date=1 February 2018|date=14 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Breeher L, Mikulski MA, Czeczok T, Leinenkugel K, Fuortes LJ|title=A cluster of lead poisoning among consumers of Ayurvedic medicine.|journal=International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health|date=6 Apr 2015|volume=21|issue=4|pages=303–307|doi=10.1179/2049396715Y.0000000009|pmid=25843124|pmc=4727589}}</ref>
+Some traditional Indian herbal medicinal products contain harmful levels of heavy metals, including lead.<ref name="Ernst2002" /> For example, ghasard, a product commonly given to infants for digestive issues, has been found to have up to 1.6% lead concentration by weight, leading to [[lead encephalopathy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Karri|first1=Surya K.|last2=Saper|first2=Robert B.|last3=Kales|first3=Stefanos N.|date=January 2008|title=Lead Encephalopathy Due to Traditional Medicines|journal=Current Drug Safety|volume=3|issue=1|pages=54–59|doi=10.2174/157488608783333907|issn=1574-8863|pmc=2538609|pmid=18690981}}</ref> A 1990 study on Ayurvedic medicines in India found that 41% of the products tested contained arsenic, and that 64% contained lead and mercury.<ref name="Dargan" /> A 2004 study found toxic levels of heavy metals in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations made in South Asia and sold in the Boston area, and concluded that Ayurvedic products posed serious health risks and should be tested for heavy-metal contamination.<ref name="pmid15598918">{{cite journal |last=Saper|first=R. B. |title=Heavy metal content of ayurveda herbal medicine products |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=292 |issue=23 |pages= 2868–73|year=2004 |pmid=15598918 |doi=10.1001/jama.292.23.2868 |author2=Kales SN |last3=Paquin |first3=J |last4=Burns |first4=MJ |last5=Eisenberg |first5=DM |last6=Davis |first6=RB |last7=Phillips |first7=RS |s2cid=9914911 |display-authors=3 }}</ref> A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of ''rasashastra'' medicines) purchased over the Internet from U.S. and Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic.<ref name="Saper2008" /><ref name="NewYorkTimes2008-09-17">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/18/fashion/18skin.html | title=Skin deep: ancient, but how safe? |work=[[The New York Times]] |last=Ellin |first=Abby |date=17 September 2008| access-date=19 September 2008 |quote=A report in the August 27 [2008] issue of ''[[JAMA (journal)|The Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' found that nearly 21 percent of 193 ayurvedic herbal supplements bought online, produced in both India and the United States, contained lead, mercury or arsenic.| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430050703/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/18/fashion/18skin.html|archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Szabo">{{cite news|last=Szabo |first=Liz |title=Study finds toxins in some herbal medicines |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=26 August 2008 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-08-26-ayurvedic-medicines_N.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008031004/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-08-26-ayurvedic-medicines_N.htm |archive-date= 8 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2015 study of users in the United States found elevated blood lead levels in 40% of those tested, leading physician and former U.S. Air Force [[flight surgeon]] [[Harriet A. Hall|Harriet Hall]] to say that "Ayurveda is basically superstition mixed with a soupçon of practical health advice. And it can be dangerous."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hall|first1=Harriet|author-link = Harriet Hall|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Superstition, Not Ancient Wisdom|url=https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/ayurveda_ancient_superstition_not_ancient_wisdom|website=Skeptical Inquirer|access-date=1 February 2018|date=14 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Breeher L, Mikulski MA, Czeczok T, Leinenkugel K, Fuortes LJ|title=A cluster of lead poisoning among consumers of Ayurvedic medicine.|journal=International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health|date=6 Apr 2015|volume=21|issue=4|pages=303–307|doi=10.1179/2049396715Y.0000000009|pmid=25843124|pmc=4727589}}</ref>
 Heavy metals are thought of as active ingredients by advocates of Indian herbal medicinal products.<ref name="Ernst2002">{{cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=Edzard |year=2002 |title=Heavy metals in traditional Indian remedies |journal=European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=891–896 |doi=10.1007/s00228-001-0400-y |issn=0031-6970 |pmid=11936709 |s2cid=1698767}}</ref> According to ancient Ayurvedic texts, certain physico-chemical purification processes such as ''[[Samskara (ayurvedic)|samskaras]]'' or ''[[shodhana]]s'' (for metals) 'detoxify' the heavy metals in it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=CCRAS|title=Guidelines for toxicity / safety profile evaluation of Ayurveda & Siddha plant drugs|url=http://www.ccras.nic.in/pdf/Guidelinesfortoxicity.doc|journal=CCRAS Guidelines|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311194713/http://ccras.nic.in/pdf/Guidelinesfortoxicity.doc|archive-date=11 March 2013}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last= Katiyar|first=C. K.|year=2006|title=Safety Aspects of Ayurveda|url=http://www.yieldopedia.com/paneladmin/reports/ddd5b6c170eb4b6f1e956edf7e6b7904.pdf|journal=Ranbaxy Research Laboratories}}</ref> These are similar to the Chinese ''[[pao zhi]]'', although the Ayurvedic techniques are more complex and may involve physical pharmacy techniques as well as [[mantra]]s. However, these products have nonetheless caused severe [[lead poisoning]] and other toxic effects.<ref name="NewYorkTimes2008-09-17" /> Between 1978 and 2008, "more than 80 cases of lead poisoning associated with Ayurvedic medicine use [were] reported worldwide".<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite journal |author1=Saper RB |author2=Phillips RS |author3=Sehgal A |title=Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured ayurvedic medicines sold via the internet |journal=JAMA |volume=300 |issue=8 |pages=915–923 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18728265 |doi=10.1001/jama.300.8.915 |pmc=2755247}}</ref> In 2012, the [[US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) linked Ayurvedic drugs to lead poisoning, based on cases where toxic materials were found in the blood of pregnant women who had taken Ayurvedic drugs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ayurveda linked to lead poisoning in US women |newspaper=The Financial Express |edition=Washington |date=24 August 2012 |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/ayurveda-linked-to-lead-poisoning-in-us-women/992558/0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209174803/http://archive.financialexpress.com/news/ayurveda-linked-to-lead-poisoning-in-us-women/992558/0 |archive-date=9 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
@@ Line 163: / Line 161: @@
 {{third-party|section|date=April 2018}}
-Some scholars assert that the concepts of traditional Ayurvedic medicine have existed since the times of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]<ref name="Svoboda1992">{{cite book|last=Svoboda|first=Robert|title=Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lD-8u-KtJgC|year=1992|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-019322-0|pages=9–10}}</ref> but since the [[Indus script]] has not been deciphered, such assertions are moot.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" />{{rp|p=535-536|quote= ... nothing definite can be said about the religion of the Indus Valley civilization due to the absence of intelligible written sources. ... All attempts to decipher these symbols consistently have failed so far. ... Although this can hardly be disputed with historical arguments, we find the anachronistic claim in some currents of modern Ayurveda that Ayurveda originated in the peak period of the Indus Valley civilization.}} The [[Atharvaveda]] contains hymns and prayers aimed at curing disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, such as that it was received by [[Dhanvantari]] (or [[Divodasa]]) from [[Brahma]].<ref name="britannica" /><ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage [[Agnivesa]].<ref name="Thakara">{{cite book|first=Vināyaka Jayānanda|last=Ṭhākara|year=1989|title=Methodology of Research in Ayurveda|page=7|publisher=[[Gujarat Ayurved University]] Press|location=Jamnagar, India}}</ref>
+Some scholars assert that the concepts of traditional Ayurvedic medicine have existed since the times of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]]<ref name="Svoboda1992">{{cite book|last=Svoboda|first=Robert|title=Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lD-8u-KtJgC|year=1992|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-019322-0|pages=9–10}}</ref> but since the [[Indus script]] has not been deciphered, such assertions are moot.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" />{{rp|p=535–536|quote= ... nothing definite can be said about the religion of the Indus Valley civilization due to the absence of intelligible written sources. ... All attempts to decipher these symbols consistently have failed so far. ... Although this can hardly be disputed with historical arguments, we find the anachronistic claim in some currents of modern Ayurveda that Ayurveda originated in the peak period of the Indus Valley civilization.}} The Atharvaveda contains hymns and prayers aimed at curing disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, such as that it was received by Dhanvantari (or [[Divodasa]]) from [[Brahma]].<ref name="britannica" /><ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage [[Agnivesha]].<ref name="Thakara">{{cite book|first=Vināyaka Jayānanda|last=Ṭhākara|year=1989|title=Methodology of Research in Ayurveda|page=7|publisher=[[Gujarat Ayurved University]] Press|location=Jamnagar, India}}</ref>
+Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in modern times.<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Frederick M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC&pg=PP1 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |last2=Wujastyk |first2=Dagmar |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7816-5 |editor-last1=Smith |editor-first1=Frederick M. |location=New York, NY |pages=1–28 |chapter=Introduction |oclc=244771011 |editor-last2=Wujastyk |editor-first2=Dagmar}}</ref> As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDo1Xxj4XUC&pg=PP1 |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-520-03511-9 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |location=Berkeley |pages=passim |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDo1Xxj4XUC |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1977 |isbn=9780520035119 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |pages=285–292 |chapter=The Place of Indigenous Medical Practitioners in the Modernization of Health Services |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref> Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (''śuddha'' "pure" Ayurveda) and those who thought Ayurveda should modernize and syncretize (''aśuddha'' "impure, tainted" Ayurveda).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leslie |first=Charles |url=https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520322295-022 |title=The Ambiguites of Medical Revivalism in Modern India |chapter=The Ambiguities of Medical Revivalism in Modern India |work=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |pages=356–367 |doi=10.1525/9780520322295-022 |isbn=9780520322295 |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Ayurvedic Medicine: Past and Present|last = Sharma|first = Shiv|publisher = Dabur (S. K. Burman)|year = 1975|location = Calcutta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Rachel |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137315908 |title=Ayurveda made modern : political histories of indigenous medicine in North India, 1900–1955 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-230-28455-5 |location=New York, NY|doi=10.1057/9781137315908 }}</ref> The political debate about the place of Ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present, both in the public arena and in government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dominik |url=https://doi.org/10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780791474907 |pages=43–76 |chapter=The Evolution of Indian Government Policy on Ayurveda in the Twentieth Century |doi=10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73 |ref=smit-mode}}</ref> Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues today.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1066/1/submission-article.pdf|title = Policy Formation and Debate Concerning the Government Regulation of Ayurveda in Great Britain in the 21st Century|last = Wujastyk|first = Dominik|date = 2005|journal = Asian Medicine|doi = 10.1163/157342105777996719|pages = 162–184|volume = 1| s2cid=71229532 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Redy |first=Sita |date=2002 |title=Asian Medicine in America: The Ayurvedic Case |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249666385 |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=583 |pages=97–121 |doi=10.1177/000271620258300107 |jstor=1049691 |s2cid=145626093}}</ref>
-Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in modern times.<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Frederick M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC&pg=PP1 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |last2=Wujastyk |first2=Dagmar |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7816-5 |editor-last1=Smith |editor-first1=Frederick M. |location=New York, NY |pages=1–28 |chapter=Introduction |oclc=244771011 |editor-last2=Wujastyk |editor-first2=Dagmar}}</ref> As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDo1Xxj4XUC&pg=PP1 |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-520-03511-9 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |location=Berkeley |pages=passim |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDo1Xxj4XUC |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1977 |isbn=9780520035119 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |pages=285–292 |chapter=The Place of Indigenous Medical Practitioners in the Modernization of Health Services |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref> Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (''śuddha'' "pure" ayurveda) and those who thought ayurveda should modernise and syncretize (''aśuddha'' "impure, tainted" ayurveda).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leslie |first=Charles |url=https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520322295-022 |title=The Ambiguites of Medical Revivalism in Modern India |chapter=The Ambiguities of Medical Revivalism in Modern India |work=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |pages=356–367 |doi=10.1525/9780520322295-022 |isbn=9780520322295 |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Ayurvedic Medicine: Past and Present|last = Sharma|first = Shiv|publisher = Dabur (S. K. Burman)|year = 1975|location = Calcutta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Rachel |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137315908 |title=Ayurveda made modern : political histories of indigenous medicine in North India, 1900-1955 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-230-28455-5 |location=New York, NY|doi=10.1057/9781137315908 }}</ref> The political debate about the place of ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present (2015), both in the public arena and in government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dominik |url=https://doi.org/10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780791474907 |pages=43–76 |chapter=The Evolution of Indian Government Policy on Ayurveda in the Twentieth Century |doi=10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73 |ref=smit-mode}}</ref> Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues today (2015).<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1066/1/submission-article.pdf|title = Policy Formation and Debate Concerning the Government Regulation of Ayurveda in Great Britain in the 21st Century|last = Wujastyk|first = Dominik|date = 2005|journal = Asian Medicine|doi = 10.1163/157342105777996719|pages = 162–184|volume = 1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Redy |first=Sita |date=2002 |title=Asian Medicine in America: The Ayurvedic Case |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249666385 |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=583 |pages=97–121 |doi=10.1177/000271620258300107 |jstor=1049691 |s2cid=145626093}}</ref>
 ===Main texts===
-Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meulenbeld|first=G. Jan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42207455|title=A history of Indian medical literature|date=1999–2000|isbn=90-6980-124-8|volume=IA|location=Groningen|pages=689–699|oclc=42207455}}</ref> but manuscripts of three three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day.  These works are the [[Charaka Samhita]], the [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors.  All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref name="HIML-intro" /> After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'', Meulenbeld stated (IA, 348), <blockquote>"The ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors."</blockquote> The dating of this work to 600 BCE was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoernle|first=A. F. Rudolf|title=Osteology or the bones of the human body.|date=1907|publisher=Clarendon P.|location=Oxford|language=en|oclc=28563136}}</ref> but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" /> The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar [[Nagarjuna]] in the 2nd century CE<ref>{{cite book|title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods|author1=J. N. Roy |author2=Braja Bihārī Kumāra |page=103|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref> has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" />
+Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meulenbeld|first=G. Jan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42207455|title=A history of Indian medical literature|date=1999–2000|isbn=90-6980-124-8|volume=IA|location=Groningen|pages=689–699|oclc=42207455}}</ref> but manuscripts of three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day.  These works are the Charaka Samhita, the [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the [[Bhela Samhita]]. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors.  All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref name="HIML-intro" /> After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'', Meulenbeld stated (IA, 348), <blockquote>The ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors.</blockquote> The dating of this work to 600 BCE was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoernle|first=A. F. Rudolf|title=Osteology or the bones of the human body.|date=1907|publisher=Clarendon P.|location=Oxford|language=en|oclc=28563136}}</ref> but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" /> The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar [[Nagarjuna]] in the 2nd century CE<ref>{{cite book|title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods|author1=J. N. Roy |author2=Braja Bihārī Kumāra |page=103|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref> has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" />
-Similar arguments apply to the Charaka Samhita, written by [[Charaka]], and the Bhela Samhita, attributed to [[Atreya|Atreya Punarvasu]], that are also dated to the 6th century BCE by non-specialist scholars<ref>{{cite book|title=Spirit Versus Scalpel: Traditional Healing and Modern Psychotherapy|page=76|author1=Leonore Loeb Adler |author2=B. Runi Mukherji |publisher=Greenwood}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Development of Plant-Based Medicines: Conservation, Efficacy and Safety|first=Praveen K.|last=Saxena|publisher=Springer|page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v56tj2EPZ-YC&pg=PA116|page=116|author1=Mohammad Ali Jazayery |first2=Werner |last2=Winter |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1988|title=Languages and Cultures: Studies in Honor of Edgar C. Polomé|isbn=978-3-11-010204-8}}</ref> but are in fact, in their present form, datable to a period between the second and fifth centuries CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" />{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003a}} The [[Charaka Samhita#Contents|Charaka Samhita]] was also updated by [[Dridhabala]] during the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref>{{cite book|author=Glucklich, Ariel|year=2008|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZNoX09XNAC&pg=PA141&dq=samhita 141]|isbn=978-0-19-531405-2}}</ref>[[File:Charak.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Charaka]], ancient Indian physician, in [[Haridwar]], India]]
+Similar arguments apply to the Charaka Samhita, written by [[Charaka]], and the Bhela Samhita, attributed to [[Atreya|Atreya Punarvasu]], that are also dated to the 6th century BCE by non-specialist scholars<ref>{{cite book|title=Spirit Versus Scalpel: Traditional Healing and Modern Psychotherapy|page=76|author1=Leonore Loeb Adler |author2=B. Runi Mukherji |publisher=Greenwood}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Development of Plant-Based Medicines: Conservation, Efficacy and Safety|first=Praveen K.|last=Saxena|publisher=Springer|page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v56tj2EPZ-YC&pg=PA116|page=116|author1=Mohammad Ali Jazayery |first2=Werner |last2=Winter |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1988|title=Languages and Cultures: Studies in Honor of Edgar C. Polomé|isbn=978-3-11-010204-8}}</ref> but are in fact, in their present form, datable to a period between the second and fifth centuries CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" />{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003a}} The [[Charaka Samhita#Contents|Charaka Samhita]] was also updated by [[Dridhabala]] during the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref>{{cite book|author=Glucklich, Ariel|year=2008|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZNoX09XNAC&dq=samhita&pg=PA141 141]|isbn=978-0-19-531405-2}}</ref>[[File:Charak.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Charaka]], ancient Indian physician, in [[Haridwar]], India]]
-The [[Bower Manuscript]] (dated to the early 6th century CE<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sander |first=Lore |title="Origin and Date of the {Bower Manuscript}, a New Approach" in Investigating Indian Art: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Development of Early Buddhist and Hindu Iconography Held at the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin, in May 1986 |publisher=Museum Fuer Indische Kunst |year=1987 |location=Berlin |pages=313-323}}</ref>)  includes of excerpts from the ''Bheda Samhita''<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Science and Technology in Ancient India: Formation of the theoretical fundamentals of natural science|page=153|first=Debiprasad|last=Chattopadhyaya|year=1991}}</ref> and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (c. 337–422 AD) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=Charaka+hospital&pg=PA543|first=Upinder|last=Singh|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0}}</ref>
+The [[Bower Manuscript]] (dated to the early 6th century CE<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sander |first=Lore |title="Origin and Date of the {Bower Manuscript}, a New Approach" in Investigating Indian Art: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Development of Early Buddhist and Hindu Iconography Held at the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin, in May 1986 |publisher=Museum Fuer Indische Kunst |year=1987 |location=Berlin |pages=313–323}}</ref>)  includes of excerpts from the ''Bheda Samhita''<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Science and Technology in Ancient India: Formation of the theoretical fundamentals of natural science|page=153|first=Debiprasad|last=Chattopadhyaya|year=1991}}</ref> and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (c. 337–422 CE) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=Charaka+hospital&pg=PA543|first=Upinder|last=Singh|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0}}</ref>
-Some dictionaries of materia medica include ''Astanga nighantu'' (8th Century) by Vagbhata, ''Paryaya ratnamala'' (9th century) by Madhava, ''Siddhasara nighantu'' (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, ''Dravyavali ''(10th Century), and ''Dravyaguna sangraha'' (11th century) by [[Chakrapani Datta]], among others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Materia Medica of Ayurveda: Based on: Madanapala's Nighantu|page=14|author=Vaidya Bhagwan Dash|publisher=B. Jain Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AYUSH |title=e-Nighantu |url=https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/e-Nighantu/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Some dictionaries of materia medica include ''Astanga nighantu'' (8th century) by Vagbhata, ''Paryaya ratnamala'' (9th century) by Madhava, ''Siddhasara nighantu'' (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, ''Dravyavali ''(10th century), and ''Dravyaguna sangraha'' (11th century) by [[Chakrapani Datta]], among others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Materia Medica of Ayurveda: Based on: Madanapala's Nighantu|page=14|author=Vaidya Bhagwan Dash|publisher=B. Jain Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AYUSH |title=e-Nighantu |url=https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/e-Nighantu/ }}</ref>
 ===Illnesses portrayed===
@@ Line 184: / Line 183: @@
 British physicians traveled to India to observe [[rhinoplasty]] being performed using Indian methods, and reports on their rhinoplasty methods were published in the ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' in 1794.<ref name="Lock651">{{harvnb|Lock|2001|page=651}}</ref> Instruments described in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' were further modified in Europe.<ref name="Lock652">{{harvnb|Lock|2001|page=652}}</ref> [[Joseph Constantine Carpue]] studied plastic surgery methods in India for 20 years and, in 1815, was able to perform the first major rhinoplasty surgery in the western world, using the "Indian" method of nose reconstruction.<ref name="Lock651/2">{{harvnb|Lock|2001|pages=651–652}}</ref> In 1840 Brett published an article about this technique.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brett, F. H. |year=1840 |title=A practical essay on some of the principal surgical diseases of India|location=Calcutta, India|publisher=W. Thacker & Company|page=458|url=https://archive.org/stream/practicalessayon00bretuoft#page/458/mode/2up |access-date=6 January 2015}}</ref>
-The British had shown some interest in understanding local medicinal practices in the early nineteenth century. A Native Medical Institution was setup in 1822 where both indigenous and European medicine were taught. After the [[English Education Act 1835]], their policy changed to champion European medicine and disparage local practices.<ref name="Hardiman2009" /> After Indian independence, there was more focus on Ayurveda and other traditional medical systems. Ayurveda became a part of the Indian National healthcare system, with state hospitals for Ayurveda established across the country. However, the treatments of traditional medicines were not always integrated with others.<ref name="who01">{{cite web |last=Xiaorui Zhang |date=2001 |title=Legal Status of Traditional Medicine and Complementary/Alternative Medicine: A Worldwide Review |url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh2943e/8.4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831034622/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh2943e/8.4.html |archive-date=31 August 2009 |access-date=24 June 2014 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |page=}}</ref>
+The British had shown some interest in understanding local medicinal practices in the early nineteenth century. A Native Medical Institution was setup in 1822 where both indigenous and European medicine were taught. After the [[English Education Act 1835]], their policy changed to champion European medicine and disparage local practices.<ref name="Hardiman2009">{{cite journal |last1=Hardiman |first1=David |title=Indian Medical Indigeneity: From Nationalist Assertion to the Global Market |journal=Social History |date=2009 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=263–283 |doi=10.1080/03071020902975131 |jstor=25594366 |s2cid=144288544 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25594366 |issn=0307-1022 |quote=On the whole, such courses provided a back door into a career of improvised and only half-understood biomedical practice. Indeed, for biomedical practitioners, such self-titled 'doctors' are no more than quacks.}}</ref> After Indian independence, there was more focus on Ayurveda and other traditional medical systems. Ayurveda became a part of the Indian National healthcare system, with state hospitals for Ayurveda established across the country. However, the treatments of traditional medicines were not always integrated with others.<ref name="who01">{{cite web |last=Xiaorui Zhang |date=2001 |title=Legal Status of Traditional Medicine and Complementary/Alternative Medicine: A Worldwide Review |url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh2943e/8.4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831034622/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh2943e/8.4.html |archive-date=31 August 2009 |access-date=24 June 2014 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |page=}}</ref>
 ==See also==
 {{Div col|small=yes}}
 * [[Acupuncture]]
-* [[Aśvins]]
+* [[Ashvins]]
 * [[Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery]]
 * [[Bhaisajyaguru]]
@@ Line 195: / Line 194: @@
 * [[History of alternative medicine]]
 * [[Homeopathy]]
-* [[List of ineffective cancer treatments]]
+* [[List of ayurveda colleges]]
+* [[List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments]]
 * [[Ramuan]]
-*[[Medical Ethnobotany of India]]
+* [[Medical ethnobotany of India]]
 {{div col end}}
@@ Line 221: / Line 221: @@
 * {{cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/36345#page/1/mode/1up |title=Pharmacographia Indica A history of principal drugs of vegetable origin in British India | volume =1|first=William|last=Dymock |year=1890 |location=London, Bombat, Calcutta|display-authors=etal|publisher=[[Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co]], Education Society Press, Byculla, Thacker, Spink and Co}}
 * {{cite book|last=Hoernle |first=Rudolf August Friedrich |title=Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Part I: Osteology |url=https://archive.org/stream/studiesinmedicin01hoeruoft#page/n3/mode/2up|year=1907|publisher=Clarendon Press, Oxford }}
-* Pattathu, Anthony George (2018). Ayurveda and Discursive Formations between Religion, Medicine and Embodiment: A Case Study from Germany. In: Lüddeckens, D., & Schrimpf, M. (2018). [https://www.transcript-verlag.de/en/detail/index/sArticle/4316 Medicine - religion - spirituality: Global perspectives on traditional, complementary, and alternative healing]. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3-8376-4582-8}}, pp.&nbsp;133–166.
+* Pattathu, Anthony George (2018). Ayurveda and Discursive Formations between Religion, Medicine and Embodiment: A Case Study from Germany. In: Lüddeckens, D., & Schrimpf, M. (2018). [https://www.transcript-verlag.de/en/detail/index/sArticle/4316 Medicine – religion – spirituality: Global perspectives on traditional, complementary, and alternative healing]. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3-8376-4582-8}}, pp.&nbsp;133–166.
 * {{cite book |last=Patwardhan|first=Kishore|year=2008|title=Concepts of Human Physiology in Ayurveda|work=Sowarigpa and Ayurveda |publisher=Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies|location=Sarnath, Varanasi|series=Samyak Vak Series-14|editor=Pabitra Kumar Roy|pages=53–73|isbn=978-81-87127-76-5 |url=http://cogprints.org/7033/1/Chapter_in_sowarigpa_and_ayurveda.pdf }}
 * {{cite book |title=Commentary on the Hindu System of Medicine|first=Thomas T.|last=Wise|publisher=Thacker & Co.|location=Calcutta |year=1845|url=https://archive.org/stream/commentaryonhind00wise#page/n3/mode/2up }}
 * {{Cite journal|last1=Wujastyk|first1=Dominik|title=Indian Medicine|url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0035.xml|website=Oxford Bibliographies|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0035|year=2011}}. A bibliographical survey of the history of Indian medicine.
 * [https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43034 WHO guidelines on safety monitoring of herbal medicines in pharmacovigilance systems]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20191001140942/https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/use-caution-ayurvedic-products Use Caution With Ayurvedic Products] - [[US Food and Drug Administration]].
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20191001140942/https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/use-caution-ayurvedic-products Use Caution With Ayurvedic Products] – [[US Food and Drug Administration]].
 ==External links==