Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests

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Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests
  • Rao Jodha formed an alliance with several Rajput clans including the Deora's and Bhati's and attacked the Delhi army, he succeeded in capturing Merta, Phalodi, Pokran, Bhadrajun, Sojat, Jaitaran, Siwana, Nagaur and Godwar from the Delhi Sultanate. These areas were permanently captured from Delhi and became a part of Marwar. The most powerful Kingdom in Rajputana.

    Rao Jodha formed an alliance with several Rajput clans including the Deora's and Bhati's and attacked the Delhi army, he succeeded in permanently capturing several territories from Delhi.[6][7][8]

  • Rana Kumbha was the vanguard of the fifteenth century Rajput resurgence. He expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat. He founded the fort of Kumbhalgarh and built a number of forts.[9]:116–117

    Rana Kumbha was the vanguard of the fifteenth century Rajput resurgence. He expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat. He founded the fort of Kumbhalgarh and built a number of forts.[9]:116–117

  • Rana Sanga, a sixteenth century king of Chittor who defeated several Muslim kingdom of North-Western India and turned the state of Mewar into the greatest power of Northern India in the first quarter of sixteenth century.

    Rana Sanga, a sixteenth century king of Chittor who defeated several Muslim kingdom of North-Western India and turned the state of Mewar into the greatest power of Northern India.[10]

  • Maharana Pratap of Mewar, a 16th-century Rajput ruler who became a part of folk culture in India because of his fierce resistance against the Mughal Empire.

    Maharana Pratap of Mewar, a 16th-century Rajput ruler who became a part of folk culture in India because of his fierce resistance against the Mughal Empire.

  • Maldev Rathore fought as a young prince in the Battle of Bayana and Battle of Khanwa with Rana Sanga. He was a Rathore king of Marwar. Frishta calls him the most capable king of India.

    Maldev Rathore, the ruler of Marwar fought as a young prince under Rana Sanga. Frishta called him the most capable king of India.[12]

  • Chandrasen Rathore of Marwar, he defended his kingdom for nearly two decades against relentless attacks from the Mughal Empire.

    Chandrasen Rathore of Marwar, he defended his kingdom for nearly two decades against relentless attacks from the Mughal Empire.

Rajput Kingdoms in Northern and Western Indian subcontinent have offered military resistance against the Islamic Invasion of India starting from the Umayyad campaigns from Middle East and the Ghaznavid Turks from Ghazni. Before the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, much of northern and western India was being ruled by Rajput dynasties, who were a collection of martial Hindu families.[20] The Rajput kingdoms contended with the rising and expansionist empires of the Muslim world including the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Mamluks, Khiljis, Tuglaks, Sayyids, Lodis, Suris and Mughals.

Background[edit]

The Gurjara-Pratihara empire formed in the sixth century in the region called Gurjaradesa in modern-day Rajasthan after the Hunnic Invasions of North India and the death of Harshavardhan. Its origins are debated but it could have formed out of the fusion of the Hunas and the native Indian tribes.[21][22][23] The Pratihara ruled till the mid-eleventh century and was ended by the Ghaznavids.[24] From the Pratiharas and beyond, Rajputs rose to political prominence after the large empires of ancient India broke into smaller ones.[25][26] The Pratihara kingdom ruled with their centre at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.[27] After the fall of the dynasty, several petty Rajput kingdoms became prominent in the region like the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Guhilas of Ahar and Nagada, the Paramaras, Chandelas of Jejakabhuti, Gahadavalas of Varanasi and the Tomaras of Anangpur who were later conquered by the Chahamanas.[28][29][30][31]

Umayyad Arab invasions[edit]

The Arabs, under the influence of the newly formed religion of Islam, began their political expansion during the life of Muhammad, the founder of Islam. By the seventh century, the Islamic State under Khalifas (Caliphs) spread all over Arabia, West Asia, North Africa and eastern Europe. They had conquered the ancient civilization of Persians and Egypt and had reached up to South Spain. In 711 A.D, Muhammad ibn Qasim, an Arab military commander of the Umayyad Caliphate defeated and executed Raja Dahir in the battle fought near Aror. The Arabs thus successfully conquered Sindh and Multan. There were several battles fought between the Arabs and the Rajputs. The one Rajput dynasty that came most in conflict with and repeatedly defeated the Arabs was that of the (Pratihara dynasty) . Under Nagabhata I, the Rajputs fought off an Arab invasion from Sindh, probably led by Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri or Al Hakam ibn Awana.[32][failed verification] Mewar under Bappa Rawal and later Khoman-II also fought off several Arab invasions.[1] [33]

Rajput Resistance to early invasions[edit]

Bappa Rawal as the head of the Rajput confederacy defeated the Arab invasion as he led an army with representation from almost all of the dynasties of northern India, The Chauhan's of Ajmer, The Tomar's of Delhi, Tak of Ahor, Chandel's of Kalinjir, Guhil forces of Nagda (Udaipur), Chittorgarh forces of Maan Mori, Solanki of Patan, Bhati of Bhatner (Punjab), Katoch of Jammu, Chavda of Gujarat - all sent their forces towards this force under Bappa Rawal. Similar confederacy were later made multiple times - importantly under Khoman of Mewar in the 8th century and under Jaipal Tuar of Delhi in the 9th century. The infighting amongst Rajputs eventually made north India very weak in the 10th century.

Ghaznavid invasion[edit]

Somnath Temple ransacked and plundered by Mahmud during his invasion in 1025

After the ninth century, the Turks, newly converted to Islam, had grown to become more powerful than the Arabs. The Ghaznavids under Mahmud Ghaznavi began their expansion in the Indian frontier. In the wake of collapse of the Gurjara Pratiharas, he raided India seventeen times, demolishing several temples and massacring civilians. Mahmud conquer Punjab after defeating Kabul Shahis and undertook three expeditions into the Ganga Valley. The sole purpose of these raids were to loot wealth for his further Central Asian campaigns. By the end of 1015, Mahmud aided by his feudatory rulers crossed the foothills of Himalayas and defeated a local Rajput king at Baran in modern western Uttar Pradesh, Moving towards Mathura, he was opposed by Kalachuri ruler Kokkala-II, one of the major Rajput rulers of the area. The battle was hotly contested however Mahmud won the day and further plunders down several temples in Mathura. Mahmud conquered Kanauj in 1021 AD by defeating Kanauj King Chandella Gauda. Afterwards, Mahmud ransacked over wealthy Kanauj, then capital of Pratiharas. By the early 1020s the Rajput rulers at Gwalior and Kalinjar were able to hold off assaults by Maḥmūd, although the two cities did pay him heavy tribute.[34]

In 1025 A.D, he demolished and looted the Somnath Temple and its Rajput ruler Bhimdev Solanki fled his capital Anahilapataka [35] The Rajput king Paramar Bhoj of Malwa assembled an army to attack him. However, Mahmud avoided the confrontation and never returned to India again.

Mahmmud during this campaigns successfully captured the Punjab region and thus became first Islamic invader to capture North-Western India. Over the next 160 years, the Turks did not invade India and did not expand their domain beyond the Punjab region. In later half of the twelfth century, Ghaznavids power declined rapidly and they lost their control over Central and West Asian territories. Despite the fact, The Rajputs never showed strategic insights and did not present a unified singular attack to recapture Punjab and North West frontier from Ghanzavids who ruled this area had become weak and it was from them that Shihabuddin Ghori captured Punjab and then invaded domain of Rajputs in 1191.[36]

Ghorid invasion[edit]

The last stan of Rajputs against Ghorids at Taraori in 1192 A.D

By the end of twelfth century, Ghorids under Shihabuddin Ghori defeated and executed the last of Ghaznavid rulers and captured their region along with plundering Ghazna, the capital of Ghaznavids.

The Ghorids, led by Shihabuddin Ghori, first attacked India in 1178, where he was defeated by the Rajput Confederation led by Mularaja Solanki and Naiki Devi in Battle of Kasahrada fought near Gujarat. He then came in conflict with the Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi. By the end of 1190, Shihabuddin Ghori captured Bathinda, which formed a part of Chauhan's territory. In 1191, the Rajput king of Ajmer and Delhi, Prithviraj Chauhan, unified several Rajput states and decisively defeated the invading army of Shihabuddin Ghori near Taraori in the First Battle of Tarain. Shihabuddin returned,[37] and in spite of being outnumbered, decisively defeated the Rajput Confederacy of Prithviraj on the same battlefield in the Second Battle of Tarain. Prithviraj fled the battleground but was captured shortly after and was executed. Malesi, a Kachwaha Rajput of Jaipur, lead the last stand for Rajputs against the Ghorids after Prithviraj's escape.[38] In few years time by 1194, Shihabuddin advanced towards Kannauj and Banaras and defeated Jaichand (another major Rajput king of the time) in Battle of Chandawar despite being outnumbered again, Ghorids plundered down Varanasi (capital of Gahadavals) and destroyed several temples there. By 1198, Ghorids conquered Kannauj too. Shihabuddin left his conquests in India to his able Slave general Qutb ud Din Aibak and returned to Khorasan.[39]

The defeat of Rajputs was an important moment in medieval India's history as it not only shattered Rajput powers in the Indo-Gangetic Plain but also laid the foundation of Turkish rule in Ganga Valley.[39]

Following the battle, the Delhi Sultanate became prominent in the region and the collapse of organised Rajput resistance in northern India led to Muslim control of the region within a generation. However, Rajputs under the brief and able rule of Rana Sanga turned their traditional territory of Mewar into a powerful kingdom of north India.[40]

Delhi Sultanate[edit]

Kirti Stambh
Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six Hill Forts of Rajasthan.
Vijay Stambha

Mamluk Dynasty[edit]

During the reign of Iltutmish, the Rajput states of Kalinjar, Bayana, Gwalior, Ranthambore and Jalore rebelled against the Turkish governors and gained independence. In 1226, Iltutmish led an army to recapture the lost territories. He was successful in capturing Ranthambore, Jalore, Bayana and Gwalior. However, he was unable to conquer Gujarat, Malwa and Baghelkhand. Iltutmish also attempted an attack on Nagda, then capital of Mewar, but was repelled by the combined army of Mewar and Gujarat (under the Chalukyas).[41] After Iltutmish's death, the Rajput states once again rebelled, and the Bhati Rajputs, who were entrenched in Mewat, conquered the areas around Delhi.[42]

Khilji Dynasty[edit]

Sultan Ala ud din Khilji, who ruled between 1296 and 1316, conquered Gujarat in 1297, Malwa in 1305, and captured the fort of Mandu and handed it over to the Songara Chouhans. They captured the fortresses of Ranthambore in 1301, Mewar's capital at Chittorgarh in 1303, and Jalore in 1311, after long sieges with fierce resistance from their Rajput defenders. Khilji also fought the Bhati Rajputs of Jaisalmer and occupied the Golden Fort. He managed to capture three Rajput forts, Chitor, Ranthambore, Siwana and Jaisalmer, but could not hold them for long.[43] Alauddin despatched his generals against Karan Waghela, the Rajput ruler of Gujarat, who fled with his daughter to the court of Rai Ramachandra of Devagiri, where he was received cordially. However, Kamla Devi, the wife of ruler was captured by the invaders and she was married to Alauddin. In a bid to capture Karan Waghela, the army of sultanate attacked Devgiri under the generalship of Malik Kafur, the slave general of Alauddin. Ramchandra, the ruler of Devgiri was defeated and Deval Devi, the daughter of Rajput ruler Karan Waghela, was captured and brought to Delhi. Alauddin married Deval Devi to his son Khizar Khan.[44]

First Conquest of Ma'bar[edit]

less forthcoming . There is clearly a link between the assertion of Muslim paramountcy throughout the greater part of the subcontinent and ' Ala ' al Din's administrative reforms, which enabled the sultan to raise larger numbers of troops on lower pay and which will be examined in a later chapter.139 At times ' Ala ' al - Din's troops also profited from the fact that their Hindu adversaries were bitterly divided, as in Malwa in 705/1305 or - at least after their first unsuccessful attempt - in Ma'bar . It's a Rajput Victory over Delhi Sultanate under Ala ud din Khilji. [45]

Tuglaq Dynasty[edit]

Under Rana Hammir, the Mewar reestablished their supremacy within 20 years of the sack of Chittorgarh. In 1336, Hammir defeated Muhammad Tughlaq in the Battle of Singoli,[46] with the Hindu Charans as his main allies, and captured him. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands for his freedom. Following this, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittorgarh for a few hundred years. The Rajputs reestablished their independence, and Rajput states were established as far as east and north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and the ruler Man Singh Tomar built the fortress which still stands there. Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state, and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[47]

  • Built during the course of the 15th century by Rana Kumbha, the walls of the fort of Kumbhalgarh extend over 38 km, claimed to be the second-longest continuous wall after the Great Wall of China.

    Built during the course of the 15th century by Rana Kumbha, the walls of the fort of Kumbhalgarh extend over 38 km, claimed to be the second-longest continuous wall after the Great Wall of China.

  • City Palace was constructed by Maharana Udai Singh II after shifting his capital to Udaipur due to Muslim invasion.

    City Palace was constructed by Maharana Udai Singh II after shifting his capital to Udaipur due to Muslim invasion.

  • Amer Fort and Jaigarh Fort are connected by subterranean passages, and are known for their artistic Hindu Rajput style elements.

    Amer Fort and Jaigarh Fort are connected by subterranean passages, and are known for their artistic Hindu Rajput style elements.

  • Entrance eastern façade of the Junagarh Fort. Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Mughal prince Kamran Mirza.

    Entrance eastern façade of the Junagarh Fort. Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Mughal prince Kamran Mirza.

Sayyid Dynasty[edit]

The Delhi Sultanate took advantage of Rao Jodha's war with Rana Kumbha and captured several Rathore strongholds, including Nagaur, Jalore and Siwana. A few years later, Rao Jodha formed an alliance with several Rajput clans, including the Deora and Bhati, and attacked the Delhi army. He succeeded in capturing Merta, Phalodi, Pokran, Bhadrajun, Sojat, Jaitaran, Siwana, Nagaur and Godwar from the Delhi Sultanate. These areas were permanently captured from Delhi and became a part of Marwar.[48]

Lodi Dynasty[edit]

Rajputs under Rana Sanga managed to defend and expand their confederation against Sultanates of Malwa, Gujarat and also against Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi. Sanga defeated Ibrahim Lodi in two major battles at Khatoli and Dholpur. The Rana annexed Delhi territory up to Pilia Khar, a river on the outskirts Agra.[49][47]

Gujarat Sultanate[edit]

Gujarat was ruled by Muzaffarid dynasty from 1407 to 1573.[50] on the basis of the work Mirat-i-Sikandari by Shaikh Sikandar Ibn Muhammad who was a contemporary of Gujarat Sultans[51][52] The Kumbalgarh inscription states that Rana Kshetra Singh captured Zafar Khan, the Sultan of Patan (First Independent Sultan of Gujarat) in a battle.[53]

Ahmad Shah II, the sultan of Gujarat, captured Sirohi and attacked Kumbhalmer in reaction to Rana Kumbha's meddling in the affairs of the Nagaur Sultanate. Mahmud Khalji, the Sultan of Malwa and Ahmad Shah II reached an agreement, the treaty of Champaner. Under this, they agreed to attack Mewar and divide the winnings. Ahmad Shah II captured Abu, but was unable to capture Kumbhalmer, and his advance towards Chittor was also blocked. Rana Kumbha allowed the army to approach Nagaur, when he came out, and after a severe engagement, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Gujarat army, annihilating it. Only remnants of it reached Ahmedabad, to carry the news of the disaster to the Sultan.[54]

In a series of battles of Idar from 1514 to 1517, the forces of Rana Sanga of Mewar defeated the forces of Sultan of Gujarat. In 1520, Rana Sanga led a coalition of Rajput forces to invade Gujarat. He defeated the Sultan's army under the command of Nizam Khan and plundered the wealth of the Gujarat Sultanate. Muzaffar Shah II, the Sultan of Gujarat, fled to Champaner.[citation needed]

Rana also defeated the joint forces of Gujarat and Malwa Sultanates in the Siege of Mandsaur and the Battle of Gagron. In 1526, Rana gave protection to the fleeing Gujarat princes.[citation needed]The Sultan of Gujarat demanded their return and after the refusal from the Rana, sent his general Sharza Khan Malik Latif to bring the Rana to terms. In the battle that followed, Latif and 1700 of the Sultan's soldiers were killed, and the rest were forced to retreat to Gujarat.

Malwa Sultanate[edit]

See also: Battle of Mandalgarh and Banas
See also: Battle of Mandavgad

Rana Kshetra Singh increased his fame by defeating the Sultan of Malwa and killing his general Ami Shah.[55]

Sultan Mahmud Khilji sent his army with Sultan of Gujarat against Maharana Kumbha which was defeated by Kumbha at the Battle of Nagaur in 1455.[56] Rana Kumbha further defeated Mahmud in Battle of Sarangpur, Sultan of Malwa was captured and was kept as a prisoner in Chittorgarh for six months. He was released after his assurance of future good behaviour. Rana kept his son as hostage to ensure this.[57]

Rana Sanga defeated the joint forces of Gujarat and Malwa Sultanates in the Siege of Mandsaur and the Battle of Gagron. Sanga's continued invasions in Malwa led to the complete destruction of the Malwa Sultanate and establishment of Rajput rule.[58] Sanga placed Medini Rai as King of Malwa with capital at Chanderi.[59] while Silhaditya Tomar establish himself as master of Raisen and Sarangpur region. According to historian Satish Chandra this events took place between 1518 and 1519.[60]

After the victory and restoring Hindu rule in Malwa, Sanga ordered Rai to remove Jizya tax from Hindus of the region.[61]

Nagaur Sultanate[edit]

Nagaur fort

The ruler of Nagaur, Firuz (Firoz) Khan died around 1453–1454. Shams Khan, his son, initially sought the help of Rana Kumbha against his uncle Mujahid Khan, who had occupied the throne. After Shams Khan became the Sultan of Nagaur with the help of Rana Kumbha, he refused to weaken his defenses as promised to Rana, and sought the help of Ahmad Shah II, the Sultan of Gujarat (Ahmad Shah died in 1442). Angered by this, Kumbha captured Nagaur in 1456, and also Kasili, Khandela and Sakambhari.

Rana Kumbha took away from the treasury of Shams Khan a large store of precious stones, jewels and other valuable things. He also carried away the gates of the fort and an image of Hanuman from Nagaur, which he placed at the principal gate of the fortress of Kumbhalgarh, calling it the Hanuman Pol. Nagaur Sultanate ceased to exist after this disaster.[62]

Jaunpur Sultanate[edit]

See also: Jaunpur-Bhojpur War

In the eastern regions of the subcontinent, the Ujjainiya Rajputs of Bhojpur came into conflict with the Jaunpur Sultanate. After a prolonged struggle, the Ujjainiyas were driven into the forest where they continued to carry out a guerrilla resistance.[63]

Mughal Empire[edit]

Taking advantage of the instability in Punjab, the ambitious Timurid prince, Babur invaded Hindustan and defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526.[64] Rana Sanga rallied a Rajput army to challenge Babur. Babur defeated the Rajputs at the Battle of Khanwa on 16 March 1527, with his superior techniques and military capabilities.[47]

Rajputs at the rise of the Mughals[edit]

Jaipur is one of several major cities founded by Rajput rulers during the Mughal era.

Soon after his defeat in 1527 at the Battle of Khanwa, Rana Sanga died in 1528. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat became a powerful Sultan. He captured Raisen in 1532 and defeated Mewar in 1533. He helped Tatar Khan to capture Bayana, which was under Mughal occupation. Humayun sent Hindal and Askari to fight Tatar Khan. At the battle of Mandrail in 1534, Tatar Khan was defeated and killed. Puranmal, the Raja of Amber, helped the Mughals in this battle. He was killed in this battle. Meanwhile, Bahadur Shah started his campaign against Mewar and led his army against the fort of Chittorgarh, the defense of the fort was led by, Rani Karnavati, widow of Rana Sanga, she started preparing for a siege and smuggled her young children to the safety of Bundi. Mewar was weakened due to constant struggles. After the Siege of Chittorgarh (1535), Rani Karnavati, together with other women, committed Jauhar. The fort was soon re-captured by the Sisodia's. Babur's grandson, Akbar, tried to persuade Mewar to accept Mughal sovereignty, like other Rajputs, but Rana Udai Singh refused. Ultimately Akbar besieged the fort of Chittor leading to the Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–1568). This time, Rana Udai Singh was persuaded by his nobles to leave the fort with his family. Jaimal Rathore of Merta and Fatah Singh of Kelwa were left to take care of the fort. On 23 February 1568, Akbar shot Jaimal Rathore with his musket, when he was looking after the repair work. That same night, the Rajput women committed jauhar (ritual suicide) and the Rajput men, led by the wounded Jaimal and Fateh Singh, fought their last battle. Akbar entered the fort, and at least 30,000 civilians were killed. Later Akbar placed a statue of these two Rajput warriors on the gates of Agra Fort.[47]

Akbar and Rajputs[edit]

See also: Maharana Pratap

Mewar[edit]

Maharana Pratap was known to have wielded a khanda sword.

Akbar won the fort of Chittorgarh, but Rana Udai Singh was ruling Mewar from other places. On 3 March 1572 Udai Singh died, and his son, Maharana Pratap, sat on the throne at Gogunda. He vowed that he would liberate Mewar from the Mughals; until then he would not sleep on a bed, would not live in a palace, and would not have food on a plate (thali). Akbar tried to arrange a treaty with Maharana Pratap, but did not succeed. Finally, he sent an army under Raja Man Singh in 1576. Maharana Pratap was defeated at the Battle of Haldighati in June 1576. However he escaped from the battle and started guerrilla warfare with the Mughals . After years of struggling, Maharana Pratap was able to defeat the Mughals at the Battle of Dewair (not to be confused with the battle of Dewar which was fought by his son Rana Amar Singh). The Badgujars/Sikarwar were the main allies of the Ranas of Mewar. Maharana Pratap died on 19 January 1597, and Rana Amar Singh succeeded him. Akbar sent Salim to attack Mewar in October 1603, but he stopped at Fatehpur Sikri and sought permission from the emperor to go to Allahabad, and went there. In 1605 Salim sat on the throne and took the name of Jahangir.[47]

Marwar[edit]

Chandrasen Rathore, the ruler of Marwar defended his kingdom for nearly two decades against relentless attacks from the Mughal Empire. Mughals were not able to establish their direct rule in Marwar during Chandrasen's lifetime.[65]

Jahangir and Mewar[edit]

Jahangir sent an army under his son Parviz to attack Mewar in 1606 which was defeated in the Battle of Dewar. The Mughal emperor sent Mahabat Khan in 1608. He was recalled in 1609, and Abdulla Khan was sent. Then Raja Basu was sent, and Mirza Ajij Koka was sent. No conclusive victory could be achieved. The disunity among various Rajput clans didn't allow Mewar to be completely liberated. Ultimately Jahangir himself arrived at Ajmer in 1613, and appointed Shazada Khurram to capture Mewar. Khurram devastated the areas of Mewar and cut the supplies to the Rana. With the advice of his nobles and the crown prince, Karan Singh, the Rana sent a peace delegation to Prince Khurram, Jahangir's son. Khurram sought approval of the treaty from his father at Ajmer. Jahangir issued an order authorising Khurram to agree to the treaty. The treaty was agreed between Rana Amar Singh and Prince Khurram in 1615.

  • The Rana of Mewar accepted Mughal suzereignty.
  • Mewar and the fort of Chittorgarh was returned to Rana.
  • The fort of Chittorgarh could not be repaired or renovated by Rana.
  • The Rana of Mewar would not attend the Mughal court personally. The crown prince of Mewar would attend the court and give himself and his army to the Mughals.
  • There would be no matrimonial alliance of Mewar with the Mughals.
  • 1500 Mewari soldiers to be sent under Mughal service whenever needed.

This treaty, considered respectable for mewar, ended the 88-year-long enmity between Mewar and the Mughals.[47]

Aurangzeb and Rajput rebellion[edit]

See also: Rajput War (1679–1707) and Rajput Rebellion 1708-1710

The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (1658–1707), who was far less tolerant of Hinduism than his predecessors, placed a Muslim on the throne of Marwar when the childless Maharaja Jaswant Singh died. This enraged the Rathores, and when Ajit Singh, Jaswant Singh's son, was born after his death, the Marwar nobles asked Aurangzeb to place Ajit on the throne. Aurangzeb refused, and tried to have Ajit assassinated. Durgadas Rathore and the dhaa maa (wet nurse) of Ajit, Goora Dhaa (the Sainik Kshatriya Gehlot Rajputs of Mandore), and others smuggled Ajit out of Delhi to Jaipur, thus starting the thirty-year Rajput rebellion against Aurangzeb. This rebellion united the Rajput clans, and a triple-pronged alliance was formed by the states of Marwar, Mewar, and Jaipur. One of the conditions of this alliance was that the rulers of Jodhpur and Jaipur should regain the privilege of marriage with the ruling Sisodia dynasty of Mewar, on the understanding that the offspring of Sisodia princesses should succeed to the throne over any other offspring.

Chhatrasal and the Bundelas[edit]

The Bundelas of Chhatrasal waged war against the Mughals and after leading a successful rebellion established his own kingdom which extended over most of the Bundelkhand.[9]:187–188

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ram Vallabh Somani 1976, p. 45.
  2. ↑ Krishna Narain Seth 1978, pp. 155-156.
  3. ↑ Krishna Narain Seth 1978, p. 166.
  4. ↑ Sailendra Nath Sen 1999, p. 320.
  5. ↑ Baij Nath Puri (1 January 2003). Comprehensive History of India. Sterling Publishers Pvt., Limited. pp. 16–18, 79. ISBN 978-81-207-2545-4.
  6. ↑ Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian. Cambridgr University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9781107080317.
  7. ↑ Jibraeil: "Position of Jats in Churu Region", The Jats - Vol. II, Ed Dr Vir Singh, Delhi, 2006, p. 223
  8. ↑ G.S.L. Devra, op. cit., 7-8, Cf. Dayaldas ri Khyat, part 2, p. 4-5
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  10. ↑ V.S Bhatnagar (1974). Life and Times of Sawai Jai Singh, 1688-1743. Impex India. p. 6. From 1326, Mewar's grand recovery commenced under Lakha, and later under Kumbha and most notably under Sanga, till it became one of the greatest powers in northern India during the first quarter of sixteenth century.
  11. ↑ Beveridge, H. (1907). "Conquest of the country of Gadha Katanga by the sword of the genius of Khwaja Abdul Majid Asaf Khan". The Akbarnama Of Abul Fazl : Vol. II. p. 323-333. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017.
  12. ↑ Hooja, Rima (2006). A History of Rajasthan. Rupa & Company. p. 561. ISBN 978-81-291-0890-6.
  13. ↑ Sharma, Gopinath. Rajasthan Ka Itihas. Agra. p. 278. ISBN 978-81-930093-9-0.
  14. ↑ Hooja, Rima (1 November 2006). A history of Rajasthan. Rupa & Co. p. 617. ISBN 9788129108906.
  15. ↑ Kishori Saran Lal (1963). Twilight of the Sultanate. Asia Publishing House. OCLC 500687579.
  16. ↑ Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813 pg.106
  17. ↑ Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707-1803) By G.S.Chhabra pg.24
  18. ↑ l. II, Ed Dr Vir Singh, Delhi, 2006, p. 223
  19. ↑ G.S.L. Devra, op. cit., 7-8, Cf. Dayaldas ri Khyat, part 2, p. 4-5
  20. ↑ Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 717. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5. Drawing their name from Rajasthan—the northwestern region of modern India, roughly between Delhi and Pakistan—the Rajputs were a collection of Hindu families whose military and political power dated from preconquest times. Under Mogul rule, Rajasthan remained a tangle of opposition combining the prickliest of resistance with the least rewards.
  21. ↑ Puri, Baij Nath (1957). The history of the Gurjara-Pratihāras. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 2.
  22. ↑ Kim, Hyun Jin (19 November 2015). The Huns. Routledge. pp. 62–64. ISBN 978-1-317-34091-1. Although it is not certain, it also seems likely that the formidable Gurjara Pratihara regime (ruled from the seventh-eleventh centuries AD) of northern India, had a powerful White Hunnic element. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries...
  23. ↑ Wink, André (1991). Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World. BRILL. p. 279. ISBN 978-90-04-09249-5.
  24. ↑ Sircar, Dineschandra (1971). Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 146. ISBN 9788120806900.
  25. ↑ Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 307. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0. The anarchy and confusion which followed Harsha's death is the transitional period of Indian history. This period was marked by the rise of the Rajput clans who begin to play a conspicuous role in the history of northern and western India from the eighth century A.D. onwards
  26. ↑ Alain Danielou (2003). A Brief History of India. Simon and Schuster. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3. The Rajputs The rise of Rajputs in the history of northern and central India is considerable, as they dominated the scene between the death of Harsha and establishment of Mughal empire
  27. ↑ Satish Chandra (2006). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526). Vol. 1. Har-Anand Publications. p. 19. ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5. The middle of the tenth century saw the decay of two of the most powerful Rajput states which had dominated northern and central India during precedding centuries. These were Gurjara Pratihara Empire with their capital at Kannauj the first of the major Rajput kingdom
  28. ↑ Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya (2006). Studying Early India: Archaeology, Texts and Historical Issues. Anthem. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-84331-132-4. The period between the seventh and the twelfth century witnessed gradual rise of a number of new royal-lineages in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, which came to constitute a social-political category known as 'Rajput'. Some of the major lineages were the Pratiharas of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and adjacent areas, the Guhilas and Chahamanas of Rajasthan, the Caulukyas or Solankis of Gujarat and Rajasthan and the Paramaras of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
  29. ↑ Satish Chandra (1996). Historiography, Religion, and State in Medieval India. Har-Anand Publications. p. 115. ISBN 978-81-241-0035-6. "In north India, dominant features of the period between 7th and 12th centuries have been identified as the growing weakness of state; the growth of power of local landed elites and their decentralising authority by acquiring greater administrative, economic and political roles, the decline of towns, the set back to trade,... The period is also noted for the rise of the Rajputs
  30. ↑ Sara R. Farris (5 September 2013). Max Weber's Theory of Personality: Individuation, Politics and Orientalism in the Sociology of Religion. BRILL. p. 145. ISBN 978-90-04-25409-1. "In about the eight century the Rajput thus began to perform the functions that had formerly belonged to the Kshatriya, assuming their social and economic position and substituting them as the new warrior class
  31. ↑ Eugenia Vanina (2012). Medieval Indian Mindscapes: Space, Time, Society, Man. Primus Books. p. 140. ISBN 978-93-80607-19-1. By the period of seventh–eights centuries AD when the first references to the Rajput clans and their chieftains were made
  32. ↑ Baij Nath Puri 1957, p. 37.
  33. ↑ André Wink 1990, p. 208 "The Rajputs repelled Arabs from "Stravani and Valla", probably the area North of Jaisalmer and Jodhpur, and the invasion of Malwa but were ultimately defeated by Bappa Rawal and Nagabhata I in 725 AD near Ujjain. Arab rule was restricted to the west of Thar desert."
  34. ↑ Satish Chandra 2006, pp. 19-24.
  35. ↑ Asoke Kumar Majumdar 1956, p. 44-45.
  36. ↑ Satish Chandra 2006, p. 29.
  37. ↑ Satish Chandra 2006, pp. 25-26.
  38. ↑ Jadunath Sarkar 1960, pp. 37.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Satish Chandra 2006, p. 27.
  40. ↑ V.S Bhatnagar (1974). Life and Times of Sawai Jai Singh, 1688-1743. Impex India. p. 6. From 1326, Mewar's grand recovery commenced under Lakha, and later under Kumbha and most notably under Sanga, till it became one of the greatest powers in northern India during the first quarter of sixteenth century.
  41. ↑ History of Medieval India by Satish Chandra pg.86
  42. ↑ History of Medieval India by Satish Chandra pg.97
  43. ↑ "Rajput". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
  44. ↑ Radhey Shyam Chaurasia (2002). History of Medieval India From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 34–36. ISBN 8126901233.
  45. ↑ Jackson, Peter (16 October 2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 150, An Age Of Conquest. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
  46. ↑ R. C. Majumdar, ed. (1960). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi Sultante (2nd ed.). Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 70.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67-115
  48. ↑ Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian. Cambridgr University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9781107080317. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  49. ↑ Chandra, Satish (2006). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526) 2. Har-Anand Publications.
  50. ↑ * Wink, André (2003). Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries. BRILL. p. 143. ISBN 978-90-04-13561-1. Similarly, Zaffar Khan Muzaffar, the first independent ruler of Gujarat was not a foreign muslim but a Khatri convert, of low subdivision called Tank.
  51. ↑ Kapadia, Aparna (16 May 2018). Gujarat: The Long Fifteenth Century and the Making of a Region. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-107-15331-8. the Gujarati historian Sikandar does narrate the story of their ancestors having once been Hindu 'Tanks', a branch of Khatris
  52. ↑ *
    *Chandra, Satish (2004). Medieval India ( From Sultanat to the Mughals), PART ONE Delhi Sultanat ( 1206-1526). Har-Anand Publications. p. 218. ISBN 9788124110645. Sadharan a Rajput who converted to Islam
    *Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 39. 1989. p. 120. Wajih- al - Mulk was by birth a Hindu Rajput of Tanka
  53. ↑ Sastri, Hirananda (1931). Epigraphia Indica Vol.21. pp. 277–288.
  54. ↑ Sarda, Harbilas (March 2007). Maharana Kumbha: Sovereign, Soldier, Scholar. Read Books. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4067-3264-1.
  55. ↑ Sarda, Har Bilas (1917). Maharana Kumbha: Sovereign, Soldier, Scholar. Scottish Mission Industries Company. p. 4.
  56. ↑ Sarda, Harbilas (March 2007). Maharana Kumbha: Sovereign, Soldier, Scholar. Read Books. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-4067-3264-1.
  57. ↑ Firishtah, Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū Shāh Astarābādī; Briggs, John (1997). History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India: Till the Year A.D. 1612, Vol. 4. Low Price Publications. pp. 262–63. ISBN 978-81-7536-077-8.
  58. ↑ Sharma 1970, p. 27 "The early 16th century marks the rise of Patriotic one eyed chief of Mewar named as Rana Sanga who defeat several of his neighbour kingdom and establish Rajput hold on Malwa first time after fall of Parmara dynasty through series of victories over Malwa, Gujarat and Delhi Sultanate"
  59. ↑ Chaurasia 2002, p. 156.
  60. ↑ Satish Chandra (2003). Essays on Medieval Indian History. Oxford University Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-19-566336-5. Rana Sanga of Mewar came in conflict with Sultanates of Malwa, Gujarat and Delhi and repelled all of their invasions. An ensuring battle was fought in Gagron along with other skirmishes in which Rana came Victorious and Subsequently Eastern and Northern Malwa passed under Control of Rana. These events are placed in 1518-19"
  61. ↑ Chaurasia 2002, pp. 156,155,158-160.
  62. ↑ Sarda, Har Bilas (1917). Maharana Kumbha: Sovereign, Soldier, Scholar. Scottish Mission Industries Company. p. 55.
  63. ↑ Dirk H. A. Kolff (8 August 2002). Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–62. ISBN 978-0-521-52305-9.
  64. ↑ Chandra, Satish. History of Medieval India. Orient Black Swan. p. 204. ISBN 978-93-5287-457-6.
  65. ↑ Bose, Melia Belli (2015). Royal Umbrellas of Stone: Memory, Politics, and Public Identity in Rajput Funerary Art. BRILL. p. 150. ISBN 978-9-00430-056-9.

Bibliography[edit]

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