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{{short description|Nature spirits associated with South Asian and Southeast Asian mythologies}}
{{short description|Nature spirits associated with Asian mythologies}}
{{other uses|Yaksha (disambiguation)}}
{{other uses|Yaksha (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
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| image2  = Mudgarpani Yaksha, Mathura, 100 BCE.jpg
| image2  = Mudgarpani Yaksha, Mathura, 100 BCE.jpg
| caption2 = "[[Mudgarpani|Mudgarpani Yaksha]]", 100 BCE<ref name="SRQF88"/>
| caption2 = "[[Mudgarpani|Mudgarpani Yaksha]]", 100 BCE<ref name="SRQF88"/>
| footer=<center>Remains of the colossal statues of the [[Parkham Yaksha]] (150 BCE) and the [[Mudgarpani]] ("[[Mace (bludgeon)|Mace]]-holder") Yaksha (100 BCE), [[Mathura]]. These colossal statues stand around two metres tall.<ref name="SRQF88">Dated 100 BCE. {{cite book |last1=Quintanilla |first1=Sonya Rhie |title=History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE |date=2007 |page=368, fig. 88 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004155374 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC&pg=PA368 |language=en}}</ref> The Mudgarpani Yaksha holds a ''[[mudgar]]'' mace in the right hand, and the left hand used to support a small standing devotee or child joining hands in prayer.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quintanilla |first1=Sonya Rhie |title=History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE |date=2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004155374 |page=365, fig. 85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC&pg=PA365 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalal |first1=Roshen |title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6 |page=398 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA398 |language=en}}</ref><br>[[Art of Mathura]], [[Mathura Museum]]</center>
| footer_align = center
| footer=Remains of the colossal statues of the [[Parkham Yaksha]] (150 BCE) and the [[Mudgarpani]] ("[[Mace (bludgeon)|Mace]]-holder") Yaksha (100 BCE), [[Mathura]]. These colossal statues stand around two metres tall.<ref name="SRQF88">Dated 100 BCE. {{cite book |last1=Quintanilla |first1=Sonya Rhie |title=History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE |date=2007 |page=368, fig. 88 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004155374 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC&pg=PA368 |language=en}}</ref> The Mudgarpani Yaksha holds a ''[[mudgar]]'' mace in the right hand, and the left hand used to support a small standing devotee or child joining hands in prayer.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quintanilla |first1=Sonya Rhie |title=History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE |date=2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004155374 |page=365, fig. 85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC&pg=PA365 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalal |first1=Roshen |title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6 |page=398 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA398}}</ref><br />[[Art of Mathura]], [[Mathura Museum]]
}}
}}


The '''yakshas''' ({{lang-sa|यक्ष}} {{lang|sa-Latn|yakṣa}}; {{lang-pi|yakkha|i=yes}}) are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education |location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|page=430}}</ref><ref name="eb">{{Cite web|last=Stefon|first=Matt|title=Yaksha {{!}} Hindu mythology|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/yaksha|url-status=live|access-date=15 July 2007|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en}}</ref> They appear in [[Hindu texts|Hindu]], [[Jainism|Jain]] and [[Buddhist texts]], as well as ancient and medieval era temples of [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] as guardian deities.<ref name=eb/><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard John Richards|title=South-east Asian Ceramics: Thai, Vietnamese, and Khmer: From the Collection of the Art Gallery of South Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0DWAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-967-65-3075-2 |pages=27, 67}}</ref> The feminine form of the word is '''{{IAST|yakṣī}}'''<ref>For {{lang|sa|यक्षी}} as the feminine of {{lang|sa|यक्षः}} see V. S. Apte, ''The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', p. 776.</ref> or '''''[[yakshini]]''''' ({{lang-sa|यक्षिणी}} {{lang|sa-Latn|yakṣiṇī}}; [[Pali]]:Yakkhini).<ref>For yakṣiṇī ({{lang|sa|यक्षिणी}}) as a regular Sanskrit term for a female yakṣa, and yakṣaṇī as a Buddhist variant,  see [[Franklin Edgerton]], ''Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary'', Vol. 2, Motilal Banarsidass, first Ed., 1953, p. 442.</ref>
The '''Yakshas''' ({{langx|sa|यक्ष}}, {{IAST3|Yakṣa}}, {{langx|pi|Yakkha|i=yes}}) are a broad class of [[nature spirit]]s, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education |location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|page=430}}</ref><ref name="eb">{{Cite web|last=Stefon|first=Matt|title=Yaksha {{!}} Hindu mythology|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/yaksha|access-date=15 July 2007|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en|archive-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903053209/https://www.britannica.com/topic/yaksha|url-status=live}}</ref> They appear in [[Hindu texts|Hindu]], [[Jainism|Jain]] and [[Buddhist texts]], as well as ancient and medieval era temples of [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] as guardian deities.<ref name=eb/><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard John Richards|title=South-east Asian Ceramics: Thai, Vietnamese, and Khmer: From the Collection of the Art Gallery of South Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0DWAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-967-65-3075-2 |pages=27, 67}}</ref> The feminine form of the word is {{IAST3|Yakṣī}}<ref>For {{lang|sa|यक्षी}} as the feminine of {{lang|sa|यक्षः}} see V. S. Apte, ''The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', p. 776.</ref> or '''[[Yakshini]]''' ({{langx|sa|यक्षिणी}}, {{IAST3|Yakṣiṇī}}; {{langx|pi|Yakkhini|i=yes}}).<ref>For yakṣiṇī ({{lang|sa|यक्षिणी}}) as a regular Sanskrit term for a female yakṣa, and yakṣaṇī as a Buddhist variant,  see [[Franklin Edgerton]], ''Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary'', Vol. 2, Motilal Banarsidass, first Ed., 1953, p. 442.</ref>


In Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, the {{IAST|yakṣa}} has a dual personality. On the one hand, a {{IAST|yakṣa}} may be an inoffensive nature-[[fairy]], associated with woods and mountains; but there is also a darker version of the {{IAST|yakṣa}}, which is a kind of ghost ([[bhoot (ghost)|bhuta]]) that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travellers, similar to the [[rakshasa|{{IAST|rakṣasas}}]].
In Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, the {{IAST|yakṣa}}s have a dual personality. On the one hand, a {{IAST|yakṣa}} may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains; but there is also a darker version of the {{IAST|yakṣa}}, which is a kind of ([[bhoot (ghost)|bhuta]]) that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travellers, similar to the [[rakshasas|rakṣasas]].
 
A unique cultural dance form related to the Yakshas is [[Yakshagana]]. Yakshagana is a traditional stage performance, found in [[Dakshina Kannada]], [[Udupi]], Kasaragod district and Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikmagalur districts, in the state of Karnataka.


==Early yakshas==
==Early yakshas==
{{multiple image
[[File:CunninghamBharhut.jpg|right|thumb|Yaksi from [[Bharhut]]]]
| align = right|total_width=250
Yakshas appear in [[Hindu texts|Hindu]], [[Jainism|Jain]] and [[Buddhist texts|Buddhist]] texts.<ref name=eb/><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard John Richards|title=South-east Asian Ceramics: Thai, Vietnamese, and Khmer: From the Collection of the Art Gallery of South Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0DWAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-967-65-3075-2 |pages=27, 67}}</ref> Several monumental yakshas are known from the time of the [[Maurya Empire]] period. They are variously dated from around the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. These statues are monumental (usually around 2 metres tall), and often bear inscriptions related to their identification as yakshas. They are considered as the first known monumental stone sculptures in India. Two of these monumental yakshas are known from [[Patna]], one from [[Vidisha]] and one from [[Parkham, Uttar-Pradesh|Parkham]], as well as one yakshini from Vidisha. The {{IAST|yakṣas}} may have originally been the [[tutelary deity]] of a city, district, lake, or well. Their worship, together with popular belief in [[Nāga|nagas]] (serpent deities), feminine fertility deities, and mother goddesses, may have had its origin among the early Hindu people of India. Yaksha worship coexisted with the priest-conducted sacrifices of the Vedic period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=yaksha {{!}} Hindu mythology {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/yaksha |access-date=9 April 2022 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=3 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903053209/https://www.britannica.com/topic/yaksha |url-status=live }}</ref> They were later viewed as the steward deities of the earth and the wealth buried beneath.<ref name="RDeC">{{cite book|title=Haunting the Buddha: Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism|last=DeCaroli|first=Robert|year=2004|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], US| isbn=978-0-19-516838-9}}</ref>
| image1 = CunninghamBharhut.jpg
| alt1 =  
| caption1 =  
| image2 = Dvarapala Yaksha.JPG
| alt2 =  
| caption2 =  
| footer = The ''yaksha'' are nature spirits who are benevolent, sometimes mischievous or capricious. Left: Yaksi from [[Bharhut]]; right: Yaksha from [[Pitalkhora]], c. 2nd century CE.
}}
Several monumental yakshas are known from the time of the [[Maurya Empire]] period. They are variously dated from around the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. These statues are monumental (usually around 2 metres tall), and often bear inscriptions related to their identification as yakshas. They are considered as the first known monumental stone sculptures in India. Two of these monumental yakshas are known from [[Patna]], one from [[Vidisha]] and one from [[Parkham, Uttar-Pradesh|Parkham]], as well as one yakshini from Vidisha. The {{IAST|yakṣas}} may have originally been the [[tutelary deity]] of a city, district, lake, or well. Their worship, together with popular belief in [[Nāga|nagas]] (serpent deities), feminine fertility deities, and mother goddesses, may have had its origin among the early indigenous peoples of India. Yaksha worship coexisted with the priest-conducted sacrifices of the Vedic period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=yaksha {{!}} Hindu mythology {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/yaksha |access-date=9 April 2022 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> They were later viewed as the steward deities of the earth and the wealth buried beneath.<ref name="RDeC">{{cite book|title=Haunting the Buddha: Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism|last=DeCaroli|first=Robert|year=2004|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], US| isbn=978-0-19-516838-9}}</ref>
 
In early Indian art, male {{IAST|yakṣas}} are portrayed either as fearsome [[warrior]]s or as portly, stout and [[dwarfism|dwarf-like]]. {{IAST|Yakṣiṇī}}s are portrayed as beautiful young women with happy round faces and full breasts and hips.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}


===Kubera===
===Kubera===
[[File:Kubera, the God of Riches LACMA M.69.13.8 (1 of 9).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Kubera, the God of Riches, [[LACMA]]]]
[[File:Kubera, the God of Riches LACMA M.69.13.8 (1 of 9).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|left|Kubera, the God of Riches, [[LACMA]]]]
{{Main|Kubera}}
{{Main|Kubera}}
In Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Religion, [[Kubera]], the god of wealth and prosperity, is considered the king of the yakshas. He is regarded as the regent of the North ([[Guardians of the directions|Dikapāla]]) and a protector of the world ([[Lokapala|Lokapāla]]).
In Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Religion, [[Kubera]], wealth and prosperity, is considered the king of the yakshas and protector of the world (''[[Lokapāla]]''). In Buddhism, he is equated with [[Vaiśravaṇa]].
{{clear}}


His many epithets{{For example?|date=August 2019}} extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, carrying a money-pot and a club. His [[vahana]] (vehicle) is the [[Viverrinae|mongoose]]. He is often seen with [[Lakshmi]], the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity.
His many [[epithet]]s extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, carrying a money-pot and a club. His [[vahana]] (vehicle) is the [[Viverrinae|mongoose]]. He is often seen with [[Lakshmi]], the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity.


In Buddhism, he is equated with [[Vaiśravaṇa]].
==In Buddhism==
 
==Yakshas in Buddhism==
{{Buddhist term
{{Buddhist term
| fontsize=100%
| fontsize=100%
| title=Yaksha
| title=Yaksha
|en=  
|en=
|pi=Yakkha
|pi=Yakkha
|pi-Latn=
|pi-Latn=
|my=ယက္ခ
|my=ယက္ခ
|my-Latn=yakkha  
|my-Latn=yakkha
|sa=यक्ष
|sa=यक्ष
|sa-Latn=yakṣa
|sa-Latn=yakṣa
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|si-Latn=yakṣa
|si-Latn=yakṣa
|zh=夜叉
|zh=夜叉
|zh-Latn=yèchà
|zh-Latn=yèchā
|ja={{ruby-ja|夜叉|やしゃ}}
|ja={{ruby-ja|夜叉|やしゃ}}
|ja-Latn=yasha
|ja-Latn=yasha
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|ta=இயக்கர்
|ta=இயக்கர்
|ta-Latn=yākka
|ta-Latn=yākka
|tl=Yakksa
|vi=dạ xoa
|vi=dạ xoa
|bo=གནོད་སྦྱིན་
|bo=གནོད་སྦྱིན་
|bo-Latn=gnod-sbyin
|bo-Latn=gnod sbyin
|km=យក្ស
|km=យក្ស
|km-Latn=yoks
|km-Latn=yoks
}}
}}
[[File:Scroll painting of Atavaka, Unknown Artist, Japan, 14th century.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Painting of [[Āṭavaka]], a yaksha who challenged the Buddha]]
[[File:Scroll painting of Atavaka, Unknown Artist, Japan, 14th century.jpg|thumb|left|Painting of [[Āṭavaka]], a yaksha who challenged the Buddha]]
 
[[File:観音と夜叉 Avalokitasvara and Yaksa.jpg|thumb|right|An illustration from an 1866 Japanese book. A yaksha, who is an incarnation of [[Guanyin|Bodhisattva Kannon]], gives a sermon to folks.]]
[[File:Plaosan Temple Guardian.jpg|thumb|A yaksha as a gate guardian (''dvarapala'') at [[Plaosan]] temple in Indonesia]]
In Buddhist literature, the {{IAST|yakṣa}} are the attendants of [[Vaiśravaṇa]], the guardian of the northern quarter, a beneficent [[deva (Buddhism)|god]] who protects the righteous. The term also refers to the [[Twelve Heavenly Generals]] who guard [[Bhaisajyaguru|{{IAST|Bhaiṣajyaguru}}]], the Medicine Buddha. The yakshas of many Buddhist stories are ugly ogres, reborn in that form because of sins committed during their past lives as humans.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Bhairav|first1=J. Furcifer|title=Ghosts, Monsters, and Demons of India|last2=Khanna|first2=Rakesh|publisher=Blaft Publications Pvt Ltd|year=2020|isbn=9789380636474|location=India|pages=417–418}}</ref>
In Buddhist literature, the {{IAST|yakṣa}} are the attendants of [[Vaiśravaṇa]], the guardian of the northern quarter, a beneficent [[deva (Buddhism)|god]] who protects the righteous. The term also refers to the [[Twelve Heavenly Generals]] who guard [[Bhaisajyaguru|{{IAST|Bhaiṣajyaguru}}]], the Medicine Buddha. The yakshas of many Buddhist stories are ugly ogres, reborn in that form because of sins committed during their past lives as humans.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Bhairav|first1=J. Furcifer|title=Ghosts, Monsters, and Demons of India|last2=Khanna|first2=Rakesh|publisher=Blaft Publications Pvt Ltd|year=2020|isbn=9789380636474|location=India|pages=417–418}}</ref>


One such malevolent yaksha, Silesaloma, appears in the [[Jataka tales]] of the [[Pali]] Buddhist canon. In the story "Prince Five-Weapons and the Sticky-Haired Demon",<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prince Five-Weapons and Sticky-Hair|url=https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bt_5.htm|website=Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education Association & BuddhaNet}}</ref> Silesaloma is described as being the height of a palm tree, with sharp teeth and two yellow tusks, and a coat of thick, matted fur. A [[bodhisattva]] named Prince Panchayudha (Five-Weapons) attempted to kill Silesaloma, but all his attacks, from both his weapons and his bare hands, were thwarted by Silesaloma's sticky hair. Ultimately, Prince Panchayudha impressed Silesaloma with his bravery, and the yaksha decided to let him go. Panchayudha explained that Silesaloma's monstrous state was caused by wicked deeds from his past lives, and he taught the yaksha the [[five precepts]], after which Silesaloma renounced violence and transformed into a friendly forest spirit.<ref name=":0" />
One such malevolent yaksha, Silesaloma, appears in the [[Jataka tales]] of the [[Pali]] Buddhist canon. In the story "Prince Five-Weapons and the Sticky-Haired Demon",<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prince Five-Weapons and Sticky-Hair|url=https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bt_5.htm|website=Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education Association & BuddhaNet|access-date=31 January 2022|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110054922/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bt_5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Silesaloma is described as being the height of a palm tree, with sharp teeth and two yellow tusks, and a coat of thick, matted fur. A [[bodhisattva]] named Prince Panchayudha (Five-Weapons) attempted to kill Silesaloma, but all his attacks, from both his weapons and his bare hands, were thwarted by Silesaloma's sticky hair. Ultimately, Prince Panchayudha impressed Silesaloma with his bravery, and the yaksha decided to let him go. Panchayudha explained that Silesaloma's monstrous state was caused by wicked deeds from his past lives, and he taught the yaksha the [[five precepts]], after which Silesaloma renounced violence and transformed into a friendly forest spirit.<ref name=":0" />


The [[Mahamayuri|Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī]] Sūtra, a text that dates back to fourth century or earlier (translated from the [[Sanskrit]] by [[Kumarajiva]]), gives a large list of yakshas that reside in the classical cities of ancient India<ref>[V. S. Agravala, " Geographical Contents of Mahamayuri JUPHS, Vol. XV, Pt. ii, 1942, p. 28]</ref> who are invoked to seek the protection of the BuddhaDharma:
The [[Mahamayuri|Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī]] Sūtra, a text that dates back to fourth century or earlier (translated from the [[Sanskrit]] by [[Kumarajiva]]), gives a large list of yakshas that reside in the classical cities of ancient India<ref>[V. S. Agravala, " Geographical Contents of Mahamayuri JUPHS, Vol. XV, Pt. ii, 1942, p. 28]</ref> who are invoked for the protection of the [[Buddhist dharma|Buddhist Dharma]]:


<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
<blockquote style="margin-right:3em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 10px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
<poem>
<poem>
"The deity Krakucchanda resides in [[Pataliputra]].
"The deity Krakucchanda resides in [[Pataliputra]].
Line 90: Line 82:
The deity Garuda resides in the Vipula mountain.
The deity Garuda resides in the Vipula mountain.
Citragupta resides in Citemukha.
Citragupta resides in Citemukha.
The yaksha Vakula resides in [[Rajgir|Rajagrha]].
The yaksha Vakula resides in Rajagrha.
...
...
The yaksha king Mahagiri resides in Girinagara.
The yaksha king Mahagiri resides in Girinagara.
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...
...
Vaisravana who resides in the city Alakavati,
Vaisravana who resides in the city Alakavati,
Located along the jewelled stairway of the Buddha’s descent,
Located along the jewelled stairway of the Buddha's descent,
Is surrounded by billions of gods and goddesses.
Is surrounded by billions of gods and goddesses.
Such yakshas command huge and powerful contingents of troops
Such yakshas command huge and powerful contingents of troops
Line 109: Line 101:


These deities of virtues and great yaksha generals are located everywhere in [[Jambudvīpa|Jambudvipa]]. They uphold and protect the Buddhadharma, generating compassion."
These deities of virtues and great yaksha generals are located everywhere in [[Jambudvīpa|Jambudvipa]]. They uphold and protect the Buddhadharma, generating compassion."
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mahamayurividyarajni.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/mahamayuri/|title=The Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra 佛母大孔雀明王經|date=10 June 2012|access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mahamayurividyarajni.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/mahamayuri/|title=The Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra 佛母大孔雀明王經|date=10 June 2012|access-date=31 December 2019|archive-date=21 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021102251/https://mahamayurividyarajni.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/mahamayuri/|url-status=live}}</ref>
</poem>
</poem>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


==Yakshas in Jainism==
==In Jainism==
[[File:Plaosan Temple Guardian.jpg|thumb|A yaksha as a gate guardian (''dvarapala'') at [[Plaosan]] temple in Indonesia]]
[[File:Nswag, india, madhya pradesh, stele con yaksha-yakshini e jinas, XI sec..JPG|thumb|left|Yaksha and yakshini couple Sarvānubhūti and Kuṣmāṇḍinī, with the [[Tirthankaras]]]]
[[File:Nswag, india, madhya pradesh, stele con yaksha-yakshini e jinas, XI sec..JPG|thumb|left|Yaksha and yakshini couple Sarvānubhūti and Kuṣmāṇḍinī, with the [[Tirthankaras]].]]
[[Jainism|Jains]] mainly maintain [[cult image]]s of [[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]]s and [[Tirthankara]]s, who have conquered the inner passions and attained moksha. ''Yakshas'' and ''yakshinis'' are found in pair around the cult images of Jinas, serving as guardian deities. The ''yaksha'' is generally on the right-hand side of the Jina image while the ''yakshini'' is on the left-hand side. They are regarded mainly as devotees of the Jina and have supernatural powers. They are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like the worldly souls, but have supernatural powers.<ref>Pramodaben Chitrabhanu, ''Jain symbols, Ceremonies and Practices''</ref>
[[Jainism|Jains]] mainly maintain [[cult image]]s of [[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]]s and [[Tirthankara]]s, who have conquered the inner passions and attained moksha. ''Yakshas'' and ''yakshinis'' are found in pair around the cult images of Jinas, serving as guardian deities. The ''yaksha'' is generally on the right-hand side of the Jina image while the ''yakshini'' is on the left-hand side. They are regarded mainly as devotees of the Jina and have supernatural powers. They are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like the worldly souls, but have supernatural powers.<ref>Pramodaben Chitrabhanu, ''Jain symbols, Ceremonies and Practices''</ref>


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The Harivamsapurana (783&nbsp;CE) refers to them as Shasandevatas. Initially among the yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas and Bahuputrika yakshini were popular. The yaksha [[Manibhadra]] is worshipped by the Jains affiliated with the Tapa Gachchha. During tenth and thirteenth centuries yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and yakshinis [[Chakreshvari]], [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]], [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]], and [[Jwalamalini]] became so popular that independent temples devoted to them were erected.
The Harivamsapurana (783&nbsp;CE) refers to them as Shasandevatas. Initially among the yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas and Bahuputrika yakshini were popular. The yaksha [[Manibhadra]] is worshipped by the Jains affiliated with the Tapa Gachchha. During tenth and thirteenth centuries yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and yakshinis [[Chakreshvari]], [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]], [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]], and [[Jwalamalini]] became so popular that independent temples devoted to them were erected.


Yakshas and yakshinis are common among the [[Murtipujaka]] [[Śvētāmbara]] and Bispanthi [[Digambara]] Jains. The [[Digambara Terapanth]] movement opposes their worship.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Flügel, Peter |year=2006 |title=Studies in Jaina History and Culture: Disputes and eialogues |publisher=Routledge |page=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Antiquary |date=31 December 1903 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vzNCAQAAMAAJ&q=Gomedha+yaksha&pg=PA496 |access-date=31 December 2019 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbaras, the [[Tristutik Gaccha]] sect (both historical founded by Silagana and Devabhadra, and the modern sect organised by [[Rajendrasuri]]) object to the worship of shruta-devatas.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jain |first=Shalin |year=2012 |title=Divided identities: The Jain sects in medieval India |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=73 |pages=450–460 |jstor=44156237 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156237 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
Yakshas and yakshinis are common among the [[Murtipujaka]] [[Śvētāmbara]] and Bispanthi [[Digambara]] Jains. The [[Digambara Terapanth]] movement opposes their worship.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Flügel, Peter |year=2006 |title=Studies in Jaina History and Culture: Disputes and eialogues |publisher=Routledge |page=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Antiquary |date=31 December 1903 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vzNCAQAAMAAJ&q=Gomedha+yaksha&pg=PA496 |access-date=31 December 2019 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbaras, the [[Tristutik Gaccha]] sect (both historical founded by Silagana and Devabhadra, and the modern sect organised by [[Rajendrasuri]]) object to the worship of shruta-devatas.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jain |first=Shalin |year=2012 |title=Divided identities: The Jain sects in medieval India |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=73 |pages=450–460 |jstor=44156237 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156237 |access-date=27 April 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427004419/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156237 |url-status=live }}</ref>


===Shasan devatas in Jainism===
===Shasan devatas in Jainism===
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* Ishvara or Yakset
* Ishvara or Yakset
* Kumara
* Kumara
* Dandapani  
* Dandapani
* Patala
* Patala
* Kinnara
* Kinnara
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{{clear}}
{{clear}}


==Yakshas in poems==
==In poems==
In [[Kālidāsa]]'s poem ''[[Meghadūta]]'', for instance, the {{IAST|yakṣa}} narrator is a romantic figure, pining with love for his missing beloved. By contrast, in the didactic Hindu dialogue of the [[Yaksha Prashna|{{IAST|Yakṣapraśnāḥ}}]] "Questions of the {{IAST|Yakṣa}}", it is a [[tutelary deity|tutelary spirit]] of a lake that challenges [[Yudhishthira|{{IAST|Yudhiṣṭhira}}]].
In [[Kālidāsa]]'s poem ''[[Meghadūta]]'', for instance, the {{IAST|yakṣa}} narrator is a romantic figure, pining with love for his missing beloved. By contrast, in the didactic Hindu dialogue of the [[Yaksha Prashna|{{IAST|Yakṣapraśnāḥ}}]] "Questions of the {{IAST|Yakṣa}}", it is a [[tutelary deity|tutelary spirit]] of a lake that challenges [[Yudhishthira|{{IAST|Yudhiṣṭhira}}]].


In ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' poem of Sri Lanka, a local population is given the term Yakkhas. [[Prince Vijaya]] encountered the royalty of the yakkhas' queen, [[Kuveni]], in her capital of [[Lanka]] pura and conquered them.
In ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' poem of Sri Lanka, a local population is given the term Yakkhas. [[Prince Vijaya]] encountered the royalty of the yakkhas' queen, [[Kuveni]], in her capital of [[Lanka]] pura and conquered them.


==Yakshas in Thailand==
==In Nepal==
<gallery mode=packed heights=100>
File:Architectural Support with Squatting Dwarf LACMA M.86.247.3.jpg|Architectural Support with Squatting Dwarf, 11th century, [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]
File:Spout of Bhimsen Hiti, Bhaktapur.jpg|Yaksha beneath the spout of Bhimsen Hiti, Bhaktapur
File:Maruhiti-IMG 2665.jpg|Yaksha at Maru hiti, Kathmandu
File:Chysal Dhungedhara spout.jpg|Yakshas beneath a spout of Saraswati Hiti, Chyasal
File:MET DP101030.jpg|Yakshas relief, 8th–9th century, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
</gallery>
In Nepal, squat stone versions of yakshas (sometimes twinned) were used as elements in construction. Their role was that of a [[caryatid]], which supports a part of the building, for example a column.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38307 |title=Yakshas Relief, Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, possibly Deopatan, 8th–9th century |work=Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38475 |title=Yakshas Relief, Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, possibly Deopatan, 8th–9th century |work=Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref> However, they are best known for their appearance under the spouts of ancient [[Dhunge dhara|drinking fountains]], especially fountains built in the [[Licchavis of Nepal|Licchavi era]] (c. 400–750 AD).<ref>{{cite web |last=Vajracharya |first=Gautama V. |date=7 January 2009 |url=https://www.asianart.com/articles/rainrivers/index.html |title=The Creatures of the Rain Rivers, Cloud Lakes: Newars Saw Them, So Did Ancient India |work=asianart.com |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref> [[Bhagiratha]] sculptures are more commonly found under spouts from the [[Malla (Kathmandu Valley)|Malla period]] (c. 1201–1779 AD).<ref name=NepalMandala> Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley by Mary Shepherd Slusser, Vol. 1, Princeton University Press, 1982, p 154-157</ref>
 
==In Thailand==
[[File:Bangkok statue.jpg|thumb|Face of the yakṣa [[Narantaka-Devantaka|Thotsakhirithon]] (ทศคีรีธร) at [[Wat Phra Kaew]], [[Bangkok]]]]
[[File:Bangkok statue.jpg|thumb|Face of the yakṣa [[Narantaka-Devantaka|Thotsakhirithon]] (ทศคีรีธร) at [[Wat Phra Kaew]], [[Bangkok]]]]
Yakshas ({{lang-th|ยักษ์}}, {{RTGS|''Yak''}}) are an important element in [[Thai temple art and architecture]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thaiworldview.com/wat/wat2.htm|title=Thai temples - page 2/7|website=www.thaiworldview.com|access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> They are common as guardians of the gates in Buddhist temples throughout the country since at least the 14th century. [[Ceramic art|Ceramic sculptures]] of guardian yakshas were produced in [[Thailand]], during the [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] and [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya periods]], between the 14th and 16th centuries, at several [[kiln]] complexes in [[northern Thailand]]. They are mostly depicted with a characteristic face, having big round bulging eyes and protruding [[fang]]s, as well as a green complexion. Yakshas and their female counterparts are common in the Buddhist [[Thai literature|literature of Thailand]], such as in [[The Twelve Sisters]] and [[Phra Aphai Mani]]. As [[ogre]]s, giants, and ogresses, yakshas are present as well in [[Thai folklore]].
Yakshas ({{langx|th|ยักษ์}}, {{RTGS|''Yak''}}) are an important element in [[Thai temple art and architecture]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thaiworldview.com/wat/wat2.htm|title=Thai temples - page 2/7|website=www.thaiworldview.com|access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> They are common as guardians of the gates in Buddhist temples throughout the country since at least the 14th century. [[Ceramic art|Ceramic sculptures]] of guardian yakshas were produced in [[Thailand]], during the [[Sukhothai kingdom|Sukhothai]] and [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya periods]], between the 14th and 16th centuries, at several [[kiln]] complexes in [[northern Thailand]]. They are mostly depicted with a characteristic face, having big round bulging eyes and protruding [[fang]]s, as well as a green complexion. Yakshas and their female counterparts are common in the Buddhist [[Thai literature|literature of Thailand]], such as in [[The Twelve Sisters]] and [[Phra Aphai Mani]]. As [[ogre]]s, giants, and ogresses, yakshas are present as well in [[Thai folklore]].


"{{lang|th|ย ยักษ์}}" ({{lang|th-Latn|yo yak}}) is also used as an illustration in order to name the letter ย, the 34th consonant of the [[Thai alphabet]], according to the traditional letter symbols Thai children use to memorise the alphabet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thailandbuddy.com/learning-thai-language/Alphabet-Graffiti-Letters.html|title=Thai Alphabet in Letters|website=www.thailandbuddy.com|access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>
{{lang|th-Latn|yo yak}} "{{lang|th|ย ยักษ์}}" is also used as an illustration in order to name the letter ย, the 34th consonant of the [[Thai alphabet]], according to the traditional letter symbols Thai children use to memorise the alphabet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thailandbuddy.com/learning-thai-language/Alphabet-Graffiti-Letters.html|title=Thai Alphabet in Letters|website=www.thailandbuddy.com|access-date=31 December 2019|archive-date=30 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330171850/http://thailandbuddy.com/learning-thai-language/Alphabet-Graffiti-Letters.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
==In Sri Lanka==
Yakshas are regarded as one of the [[ancient clans of Sri Lanka]]. The word ''"Yagasha"'' has been found in a cave inscription in Tamketiya in Nailgala, Kaltota written in early [[Brahmi script]]. Professor [[Raj Somadeva]] translates the word as 'belonging
to Yakshas' or 'who wrote this inscription are Yakshas'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/14457302|title=Explorations in Sri Lankan Archaeology with Raj Somadeva PART 1|access-date=26 August 2024|archive-date=26 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240826112901/https://www.academia.edu/14457302|url-status=live}}</ref> In Sinhalese, [[Demons of Sri Lanka|Demons]]
are also known as ''yakshayo'' (Singular: ''Yakshaya'').


==Gallery==
==Gallery==
<gallery heights="250">
<gallery mode=packed heights=250>
File:Sanchi 8-17.jpg|Yaksha couple standing on lotus leaves, the male (sic) holding a lotus bud and posed in shalabhanjika
File:Sanchi 8-17.jpg|Yaksha couple standing on lotus leaves, the male (sic) holding a lotus bud and posed in shalabhanjika
File:Dvarapala Yaksha.JPG|Dvarapala Yaksha made of basalt. Statue found in Buddhist cave ([[Pitalkhora]]) and dates to 2nd century CE. On display in the [[Prince of Wales Museum]].
File:Dvarapala Yaksha.JPG|Dvarapala Yaksha made of basalt. Found in Buddhist cave ([[Pitalkhora]]), 2nd century CE. [[Prince of Wales Museum]]
File:Mudgarpani Yaksha - Circa 2nd Century BCE - Bharnakalan - ACCN 87-145 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6146.JPG|Mudgarpani Yaksha, 2nd century BCE, Bharnakalan, [[Mathura Museum]].
File:Mudgarpani Yaksha - Circa 2nd Century BCE - Bharnakalan - ACCN 87-145 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6146.JPG|[[Mudgarpani|Mudgarpani Yaksha]], 2nd century BCE, Bharnakalan, [[Mathura Museum]]
File:Vidisha District Museum Yaksha.jpg|[[Vidisha]] Yaksha, 2nd century BCE, [[Vidisha Museum]].
File:Vidisha District Museum Yaksha.jpg|[[Vidisha]] Yaksha, 2nd century BCE, [[Vidisha Museum]]
File:Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum Dhubela Exhibit Item (5).JPG|Gomedh and [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] at [[Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum]], 11th century
File:Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum Dhubela Exhibit Item (5).JPG|Gomedh and [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]], 11th century, [[Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum]]
File:夜叉鬼.JPG|Carving of a yaksha (夜叉)
</gallery>
</gallery>


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{{div col}}
{{div col}}
* [[Dharanendra]]
* [[Dharanendra]]
* [[Dwarf (mythology)]]
* [[Gnome]]
* [[Jambhala]]
* [[Jambhala]]
* [[Jinn]]
* [[Kubera]]
* [[Kubera]]
* [[List of Yakshas]]
* [[List of Yakshas]]
* [[Manibhadra]]
* [[Manibhadra]]
* [[Nalakuvara]]
* [[Nalakuvara]]
* [[Ogre]]
* [[Pañcika]]
* [[Pañcika]]
* [[Yaksha Kingdom#Sthunakarna|Sthunakarna]]
* [[Pygmy (Greek mythology)]]
* [[Shedim]]
* [[Yaksha kingdom#Sthunakarna|Sthunakarna]]
* [[Suketu]]
* [[Suketu]]
* [[Vaiśravaṇa]]
* [[Vaiśravaṇa]]
* [[Vidyadhara]]
* [[Vajrapani]]
* [[Vajrapani]]
* [[Yaksha Kingdom]]
* [[Yaksha kingdom]]
* [[Yakshini]]
* [[Yakshini]]
* [[Yaksha Prashna]]
* [[Yaksha Prashna]]
* [[Gnome]]
 
* [[Pygmy (Greek mythology)]]
* [[Dwarf (mythology)]]
* [[Goblin]]
* [[Ogre]]
* [[Jinn]]
* [[Shedim]]
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}


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== External links ==
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Yaksha}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Yaksha}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181758/http://www.yakshi.in/concept-of-yakshi Concept of Yakshi] (archived 21 July 2011)


{{HinduMythology}}
{{HinduMythology}}
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[[Category:Yakshas| ]]
[[Category:Yakshas| ]]
[[Category:Buddhist deities]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Harvest deities]]
[[Category:Agricultural deities]]
[[Category:Hindu deities]]
[[Category:Hindu deities]]
[[Category:Indian words and phrases]]
[[Category:Indian words and phrases]]
[[Category:Nature spirits]]
[[Category:Nature spirits]]
[[Category:Non-human races in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Tutelary deities]]
[[Category:Tutelary deities]]
[[Category:Yaksha Kingdom]]
[[Category:Yaksha kingdom]]
[[Category:Jain minor deities]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Indian folklore]]
[[Category:Mythological blood-drinkers]]
[[Category:Forest spirits]]

Latest revision as of 08:36, 19 March 2026


For other uses, see Yaksha (disambiguation).

Yaksha
"Parkham Yaksha" Manibhadra, 150 BCE
"Mudgarpani Yaksha", 100 BCE[1]
Remains of the colossal statues of the Parkham Yaksha (150 BCE) and the Mudgarpani ("Mace-holder") Yaksha (100 BCE), Mathura. These colossal statues stand around two metres tall.[1] The Mudgarpani Yaksha holds a mudgar mace in the right hand, and the left hand used to support a small standing devotee or child joining hands in prayer.[2][3]
Art of Mathura, Mathura Museum

The Yakshas (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., IAST: Yakṣa, Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) are a broad class of nature spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness.[4][5] They appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, as well as ancient and medieval era temples of South Asia and Southeast Asia as guardian deities.[5][6] The feminine form of the word is IAST: Yakṣī[7] or Yakshini (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., IAST: Yakṣiṇī; Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.).[8]

In Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, the yakṣas have a dual personality. On the one hand, a yakṣa may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains; but there is also a darker version of the yakṣa, which is a kind of (bhuta) that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travellers, similar to the rakṣasas.

A unique cultural dance form related to the Yakshas is Yakshagana. Yakshagana is a traditional stage performance, found in Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kasaragod district and Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikmagalur districts, in the state of Karnataka.

Early yakshas[edit | edit source]

Yaksi from Bharhut

Yakshas appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts.[5][9] Several monumental yakshas are known from the time of the Maurya Empire period. They are variously dated from around the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. These statues are monumental (usually around 2 metres tall), and often bear inscriptions related to their identification as yakshas. They are considered as the first known monumental stone sculptures in India. Two of these monumental yakshas are known from Patna, one from Vidisha and one from Parkham, as well as one yakshini from Vidisha. The yakṣas may have originally been the tutelary deity of a city, district, lake, or well. Their worship, together with popular belief in nagas (serpent deities), feminine fertility deities, and mother goddesses, may have had its origin among the early Hindu people of India. Yaksha worship coexisted with the priest-conducted sacrifices of the Vedic period.[10] They were later viewed as the steward deities of the earth and the wealth buried beneath.[11]

Kubera[edit | edit source]

Kubera, the God of Riches, LACMA
Main article: Kubera

In Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Religion, Kubera, wealth and prosperity, is considered the king of the yakshas and protector of the world (Lokapāla). In Buddhism, he is equated with Vaiśravaṇa.

His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, carrying a money-pot and a club. His vahana (vehicle) is the mongoose. He is often seen with Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity.

In Buddhism[edit | edit source]

Translations of
Yaksha
Sanskritयक्ष
(IAST: yakṣa)
PaliYakkha
Burmeseယက္ခ
(MLCTS: yakkha)
Chinese夜叉
(Pinyin: yèchā)
JapaneseTemplate:Ruby-ja
(rōmaji: yasha)
Khmerយក្ស
(UNGEGN: yoks)
Korean야차
(RR: yacha)
Sinhalaයක්ෂ
(yakṣa)
Tibetanགནོད་སྦྱིན་
(gnod sbyin)
Tamilஇயக்கர்
(yākka)
Thaiยักษ์
(RTGS: yak)
Vietnamesedạ xoa
Glossary of Buddhism
Painting of Āṭavaka, a yaksha who challenged the Buddha
An illustration from an 1866 Japanese book. A yaksha, who is an incarnation of Bodhisattva Kannon, gives a sermon to folks.
A yaksha as a gate guardian (dvarapala) at Plaosan temple in Indonesia

In Buddhist literature, the yakṣa are the attendants of Vaiśravaṇa, the guardian of the northern quarter, a beneficent god who protects the righteous. The term also refers to the Twelve Heavenly Generals who guard Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha. The yakshas of many Buddhist stories are ugly ogres, reborn in that form because of sins committed during their past lives as humans.[12]

One such malevolent yaksha, Silesaloma, appears in the Jataka tales of the Pali Buddhist canon. In the story "Prince Five-Weapons and the Sticky-Haired Demon",[13] Silesaloma is described as being the height of a palm tree, with sharp teeth and two yellow tusks, and a coat of thick, matted fur. A bodhisattva named Prince Panchayudha (Five-Weapons) attempted to kill Silesaloma, but all his attacks, from both his weapons and his bare hands, were thwarted by Silesaloma's sticky hair. Ultimately, Prince Panchayudha impressed Silesaloma with his bravery, and the yaksha decided to let him go. Panchayudha explained that Silesaloma's monstrous state was caused by wicked deeds from his past lives, and he taught the yaksha the five precepts, after which Silesaloma renounced violence and transformed into a friendly forest spirit.[12]

The Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī Sūtra, a text that dates back to fourth century or earlier (translated from the Sanskrit by Kumarajiva), gives a large list of yakshas that reside in the classical cities of ancient India[14] who are invoked for the protection of the Buddhist Dharma:

"The deity Krakucchanda resides in Pataliputra.
Aparajita resides in Sthuno.
The great yaksha Bhadra resides in Saila.
The great deity Manava resides in Uttara.
The great sage Vajrapani though lives in Rajagrha
Often dwells in Mount Grdhrakuta.
The deity Garuda resides in the Vipula mountain.
Citragupta resides in Citemukha.
The yaksha Vakula resides in Rajagrha.
...
The yaksha king Mahagiri resides in Girinagara.
The yaksha Vasava resides in Vaidisa.
The yaksha Karttikeya resides in Rohitaka.
This yaksha Kumara is renowned in the great city.
...
Vaisravana who resides in the city Alakavati,
Located along the jewelled stairway of the Buddha's descent,
Is surrounded by billions of gods and goddesses.
Such yakshas command huge and powerful contingents of troops
To subjugate adversaries and enemies,
Conquering all.
They are famous throughout all directions.
Imbued with great dignity and virtue,
They come to aid
In the battles between the heavens and asuras.

These deities of virtues and great yaksha generals are located everywhere in Jambudvipa. They uphold and protect the Buddhadharma, generating compassion."
[15]

In Jainism[edit | edit source]

Yaksha and yakshini couple Sarvānubhūti and Kuṣmāṇḍinī, with the Tirthankaras

Jains mainly maintain cult images of Arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered the inner passions and attained moksha. Yakshas and yakshinis are found in pair around the cult images of Jinas, serving as guardian deities. The yaksha is generally on the right-hand side of the Jina image while the yakshini is on the left-hand side. They are regarded mainly as devotees of the Jina and have supernatural powers. They are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like the worldly souls, but have supernatural powers.[16]

'Digambara Yaksha Sarvahna', Norton Simon Museum, c. 900 CE

The Harivamsapurana (783 CE) refers to them as Shasandevatas. Initially among the yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas and Bahuputrika yakshini were popular. The yaksha Manibhadra is worshipped by the Jains affiliated with the Tapa Gachchha. During tenth and thirteenth centuries yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and yakshinis Chakreshvari, Ambika, Padmavati, and Jwalamalini became so popular that independent temples devoted to them were erected.

Yakshas and yakshinis are common among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbara and Bispanthi Digambara Jains. The Digambara Terapanth movement opposes their worship.[17][18] Among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbaras, the Tristutik Gaccha sect (both historical founded by Silagana and Devabhadra, and the modern sect organised by Rajendrasuri) object to the worship of shruta-devatas.[19]

Shasan devatas in Jainism[edit | edit source]

In Jainism, there are twenty-four yakshas and twenty-four yakshis that serve as śāsanadevatās for the twenty-four tirthankaras:[20] These yakshas are as follows:

  • Gomukha
  • Mahayaksha
  • Trimukha
  • Yaksheshvara or Yakshanayaka
  • Tumbaru
  • Kusuma
  • Varanandi or Matanga
  • Vijaya or Shyama
  • Ajita
  • Brahma or Brahmeshvara
  • Ishvara or Yakset
  • Kumara
  • Dandapani
  • Patala
  • Kinnara
  • Kimpurusha or Garuda
  • Gandharva
  • Kendra or Yakshendra
  • Kubera
  • Varuna
  • Bhrikuti
  • Gomedha or Sarvahna
  • Dharanendra or Parshvayaksha
  • Matanga

In poems[edit | edit source]

In Kālidāsa's poem Meghadūta, for instance, the yakṣa narrator is a romantic figure, pining with love for his missing beloved. By contrast, in the didactic Hindu dialogue of the Yakṣapraśnāḥ "Questions of the Yakṣa", it is a tutelary spirit of a lake that challenges Yudhiṣṭhira.

In Mahavamsa poem of Sri Lanka, a local population is given the term Yakkhas. Prince Vijaya encountered the royalty of the yakkhas' queen, Kuveni, in her capital of Lanka pura and conquered them.

In Nepal[edit | edit source]

In Nepal, squat stone versions of yakshas (sometimes twinned) were used as elements in construction. Their role was that of a caryatid, which supports a part of the building, for example a column.[21][22] However, they are best known for their appearance under the spouts of ancient drinking fountains, especially fountains built in the Licchavi era (c. 400–750 AD).[23] Bhagiratha sculptures are more commonly found under spouts from the Malla period (c. 1201–1779 AD).[24]

In Thailand[edit | edit source]

Face of the yakṣa Thotsakhirithon (ทศคีรีธร) at Wat Phra Kaew, Bangkok

Yakshas (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., RTGS: Yak) are an important element in Thai temple art and architecture.[25] They are common as guardians of the gates in Buddhist temples throughout the country since at least the 14th century. Ceramic sculptures of guardian yakshas were produced in Thailand, during the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods, between the 14th and 16th centuries, at several kiln complexes in northern Thailand. They are mostly depicted with a characteristic face, having big round bulging eyes and protruding fangs, as well as a green complexion. Yakshas and their female counterparts are common in the Buddhist literature of Thailand, such as in The Twelve Sisters and Phra Aphai Mani. As ogres, giants, and ogresses, yakshas are present as well in Thai folklore.

yo yak "ย ยักษ์" is also used as an illustration in order to name the letter ย, the 34th consonant of the Thai alphabet, according to the traditional letter symbols Thai children use to memorise the alphabet.[26]

In Sri Lanka[edit | edit source]

Yakshas are regarded as one of the ancient clans of Sri Lanka. The word "Yagasha" has been found in a cave inscription in Tamketiya in Nailgala, Kaltota written in early Brahmi script. Professor Raj Somadeva translates the word as 'belonging to Yakshas' or 'who wrote this inscription are Yakshas'.[27] In Sinhalese, Demons are also known as yakshayo (Singular: Yakshaya).

Gallery[edit | edit source]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Dated 100 BCE. Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. p. 368, fig. 88. ISBN 9789004155374.
  2. ↑ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. p. 365, fig. 85. ISBN 9789004155374.
  3. ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
  4. ↑ Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 430. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Stefon, Matt. "Yaksha | Hindu mythology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
  6. ↑ Richard John Richards (1995). South-east Asian Ceramics: Thai, Vietnamese, and Khmer: From the Collection of the Art Gallery of South Australia. Oxford University Press. pp. 27, 67. ISBN 978-967-65-3075-2.
  7. ↑ For यक्षी as the feminine of यक्षः see V. S. Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 776.
  8. ↑ For yakṣiṇī (यक्षिणी) as a regular Sanskrit term for a female yakṣa, and yakṣaṇī as a Buddhist variant, see Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, Vol. 2, Motilal Banarsidass, first Ed., 1953, p. 442.
  9. ↑ Richard John Richards (1995). South-east Asian Ceramics: Thai, Vietnamese, and Khmer: From the Collection of the Art Gallery of South Australia. Oxford University Press. pp. 27, 67. ISBN 978-967-65-3075-2.
  10. ↑ "yaksha | Hindu mythology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
  11. ↑ DeCaroli, Robert (2004). Haunting the Buddha: Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 978-0-19-516838-9.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Bhairav, J. Furcifer; Khanna, Rakesh (2020). Ghosts, Monsters, and Demons of India. India: Blaft Publications Pvt Ltd. pp. 417–418. ISBN 9789380636474.
  13. ↑ "Prince Five-Weapons and Sticky-Hair". Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education Association & BuddhaNet. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
  14. ↑ [V. S. Agravala, " Geographical Contents of Mahamayuri JUPHS, Vol. XV, Pt. ii, 1942, p. 28]
  15. ↑ "The Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra 佛母大孔雀明王經". 10 June 2012. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
  16. ↑ Pramodaben Chitrabhanu, Jain symbols, Ceremonies and Practices
  17. ↑ Flügel, Peter, ed. (2006). Studies in Jaina History and Culture: Disputes and eialogues. Routledge. p. 352.
  18. ↑ "Indian Antiquary". Popular Prakashan. 31 December 1903. Retrieved 31 December 2019 – via Google Books.
  19. ↑ Jain, Shalin (2012). "Divided identities: The Jain sects in medieval India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 73: 450–460. JSTOR 44156237. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  20. ↑ "Twenty four Tirthankaras at a glance". jaindharmonline.com. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  21. ↑ "Yakshas Relief, Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, possibly Deopatan, 8th–9th century". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
  22. ↑ "Yakshas Relief, Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, possibly Deopatan, 8th–9th century". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
  23. ↑ Vajracharya, Gautama V. (7 January 2009). "The Creatures of the Rain Rivers, Cloud Lakes: Newars Saw Them, So Did Ancient India". asianart.com. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
  24. ↑ Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley by Mary Shepherd Slusser, Vol. 1, Princeton University Press, 1982, p 154-157
  25. ↑ "Thai temples - page 2/7". www.thaiworldview.com. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
  26. ↑ "Thai Alphabet in Letters". www.thailandbuddy.com. Archived from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
  27. ↑ "Explorations in Sri Lankan Archaeology with Raj Somadeva PART 1". Archived from the original on 26 August 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2024.

Sources[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

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