Islam in India: Difference between revisions

| group      = Indian Muslims<br />{{Nq|ہندوستانی مسلمان}}

| population = {{Circa|'''172.2 million'''|lk=yes}}<ref name="2011census-Religion-pca"/> (14.2%) ([[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]]) {{increase}}

'''Liturgical'''<br>{{Hlist| [[Quranic Arabic]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |date= 30 May 2011|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004177024 |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030}}</ref>}}

*'''Common'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why the 30% Muslim vote share is crucial in Bengal, explains Robin Roy|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/analysis/why-the-30-muslim-vote-share-is-crucial-in-bengal-explains-robin-roy|access-date=2021-11-08|website=Free Press Journal|language=en}}</ref> [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Hindi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Maharashtrian Konkani]], [[Nawayathi dialect|Nawayathi]], [[Beary language|Beary]], [[Malvani Konkani]], [[Meitei language|Pangon]], and other [[languages of India]]}}

* '''Traditional'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Arwi]], [[Arabi ]]}}

Islam is India's [[India#Demographics, languages, and religion|second-largest religion]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/jammu-and-kashmir-the-view-from-india-29991|title=Jammu and Kashmir: The view from India|website=Jammu and Kashmir: The view from India|language=en|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref> with 14.2% of the country's population, approximately 172.2 million people identifying as adherents of [[Islam]] in 2011 Census.<ref name="2011census-Religion-pca">{{Cite web|title=Religion PCA – India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_pca/RL-0000.xlsx|access-date=26 October 2021 |work=[[2011 Census of India]]}}<br />{{Cite web|title=Religion PCA |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_PCA.html|access-date=1 September 2021 |work=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref> [[India]] is also the country with the [[Islam by country|third-largest]] number of [[Muslims]] in the world.<ref name="pewresearch.org-2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/|title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&q=what+percent+of+muslims+live+in+south+asia&pg=PA193 |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415448512 |page=193}}</ref> The majority of India's Muslims are [[Sunni]], with [[Shia]] making up 13% of the Muslim population.<ref name="USSD-IRFR" />

[[Muhammad bin Qasim]] (672 CE) at the age of 17 was the first Muslim general to invade the Indian subcontinent, managing to reach [[Sindh]]. In the first half of the 8th century CE, a series of battles took place between the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and the Indian kingdoms; resulted in [[Umayyad campaigns in India]] checked and contained to Sindh.<ref name=Crawford>{{cite book |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |first=Peter |last=Crawford |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |location=Barnsley, Great Britain |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84884-612-8 |page=216}}</ref>{{efn|"India" in this page refers to the territory of present-day [[India]].}} Around the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic empire, the [[Ghaznavids]], under [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] (971–1030 CE), was the second, much more ferocious invader, using [[courser (horse)|swift-horse]] cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains. Eventually, under the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid]]s, the Muslim army broke into the North Indian Plains, which lead to the establishment of the Islamic [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 by the slaves of the Ghurid dynasty.<ref>{{citation|last=Ludden|first=D.|date=13 June 2002|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|publisher=[[One World Media|One World]]|isbn=978-1-85168-237-9|page=68}}</ref> The sultanate was to control much of [[North India]] and to make many forays into South India. However, internal squabbling resulted in the decline of the sultanate, and new Muslim sultanates such as the [[Bengal Sultanate]] in the east breaking off,<ref>Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd Edition, Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-15482-0}}, pp 187–190</ref> while in the Deccan the [[Urdu-speaking people|Urdu-speaking]] colonists from Delhi, who carried the [[Urdu language]] to the Deccan, founded the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanid Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/The_Sufis_of_Bijapur_1300_1700/j2F9BgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=colonists+dakhni&pg=PA42&printsec=frontcover |title=The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700 |date=2015 |author=Richard Maxwell Eaton |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=41 }}</ref>  In 1339, [[Shah Mir]] became the first [[Muslim]] ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the ''Salatin-i-Kashmir'' or [[Shah Mir dynasty]].<ref name=imp-gazet-history>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.</ref>

 

Under the [[Delhi Sultanate]], there was a synthesis of [[Indian civilization]] with that of [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]], and the integration of the Indian subcontinent with a growing world system and wider international networks spanning large parts of [[Afro-Eurasia]], which had a significant impact on [[Indian culture]] and society.<ref name="asher-50-52">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|pages=50–52|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC|page=50}}}}</ref> The time period of their rule included the earliest forms of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]],<ref>A. Welch, "Architectural Patronage and the Past: The Tughluq Sultans of India," Muqarnas 10, 1993, Brill Publishers, pp 311-322</ref><ref>J. A. Page, [https://archive.org/stream/guidetothequtbde031434mbp#page/n15/mode/2up/search/temple Guide to the Qutb], Delhi, Calcutta, 1927, page 2-7</ref> increased growth rates in [[Demographics of India|India's population]] and [[Economic history of India|economy]],<ref name="maddison379">{{cite book|last=Madison|first=Angus|title=Contours of the world economy, 1–2030 AD: essays in macro-economic history|date=6 December 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-922720-4|page=379}}</ref> and the emergence of the [[Hindustani language]].<ref name="brown2008">{{Citation | title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |author1=Keith Brown |author2=Sarah Ogilvie | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 | publisher=Elsevier | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC | quote=... Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi ...}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate was also responsible for repelling the [[Mongol Empire]]'s potentially devastating [[Mongol invasions of India|invasions of India]] in the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref name="asher-50-51">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19|pages=19, 50–51}}</ref> The period coincided with a greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. From the 13th century onwards, India began widely adopting mechanical technologies from the [[Islamic world]], including [[Water wheel|water-raising wheels]] with [[gear]]s and [[pulley]]s, machines with [[cam]]s and [[Crank (mechanism)|cranks]],<ref name="Pacey">{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace | url-access = registration | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/26 26]–29}}</ref> [[papermaking]] technology,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Habib |first1=Irfan |author-link1=Irfan Habib |title=Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500 |date=2011 |publisher=[[Pearson Education India]] |isbn=9788131727911 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA96}}</ref> and the [[spinning wheel]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace | url-access = registration | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/23 23]–24}}</ref>

[[File:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] with [[Gandhi]] in 1930. Also known as ''Frontier Gandhi'', Khan led the non-violent opposition against the British Raj and strongly opposed the [[partition of India]].]]

With around 204&nbsp;million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is about the [[Islam by country|world's third-largest]]<ref name=globenewswire-29Aug21>{{citation |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/08/30/2288000/0/en/MRHB-DeFi-and-Coinsbit-India-Partner-to-Bring-Halal-Crypto-to-India-s-200-Million-Muslims.html |title=MRHB DeFi and Coinsbit India Partner to Bring Halal Crypto to India's 200 Million Muslims |date=29 August 2021 |access-date=21 October 2021 |work=[[GlobeNewswire]] |agency=MRHB DeFi}}</ref><ref name="MuslimPopulation2020" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bangladesh-wants-indias-entry-in-oic-as-observer/articleshow/64044678.cms |title=Make India observer in forum of Islamic nations: Bangladesh |date=6 May 2018 |first1=Indrani |last1= Bagchi |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> and the world's largest Muslim-minority population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/minorities/South-Asia/Muslims-of-India.html|title=Muslims of India – World Directory of Minorities|website=faqs.org|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population.<ref name=globenewswire-29Aug21/><ref name="pewforum-17Nov17">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/chart/interactive-data-table-world-muslim-population-by-country/|title=World Muslim Population by Country|date=17 November 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> According to Pew Research Center, there can be 213 million Muslims in 2020, India's 15.5% population.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-04-02|title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/|access-date=2021-06-26|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US}}</ref> Indian Muslim have a fertility rate of 2.36, the highest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/total-fertility-rate-down-across-all-communities/articleshow/91407169.cms | title=Total fertility rate down across all communities &#124; India News - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=8 May 2022 }}</ref>

'''Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020<ref name="MuslimPopulation2020">{{cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/muslim-population-by-country/|title=Muslim Population By Country by Population 2020}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html|title=Muslim Population in India - Muslims in Indian States|website=www.indiaonlinepages.com|access-date=2017-10-04|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908034112/http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html|archive-date=8 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=globenewswire-29Aug21/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://go.id/agamadanstatistik/umat |title=Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut |date=15 May 2018 |work=Sensus Penduduk 2018 |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik |location=Jakarta, Indonesia |trans-title=Population by Region and Religion |access-date=3 September 2020 |quote=Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions.}} Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03),Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-05-24|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files//population_census/sailent_feature_%20census_2017.pdf |title=Salient Features of Final Results Census-2017 |work=[[2017 Census of Pakistan]] |publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref>

After India's independence and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the Muslim population in India declined from 42,400,000 in 1941 to 35,400,000 in the 1951 census,<ref name=indiaspend-27Aug15/> due to the [[Partition of India]].

Muslims in India have a much higher [[total fertility rate]] (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/nation/fertility-rate-indian-muslim-women-beat-others.html|title=Fertility rate: Indian Muslim women beat others|last=Pioneer|first=The|work=The Pioneer|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref> Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 9.8% in 1951 to 14.2% by 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2021/09/21/population-growth-and-religious-composition/ |title = Population growth and religious composition in India {{!}} Pew Research Center|date = 21 September 2021}}</ref> However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2009/karimpolicyseminar.aspx|title=Changes in Fertility Rates Among Muslims in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh|website=prb.org|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The [[Sachar Committee|Sachar Committee Report]] shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Muslim-population-may-decline-Sachar-report/articleshow/672785.cms|title=Muslim population may decline: Sachar report|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/705283/five-charts-that-puncture-the-bogey-of-muslim-population-growth |title=Five charts that puncture the bogey of Muslim population growth |last=Daniyal |first=Shoaib |work=[[Scroll.in]] |date=8 April 2015 |access-date=28 July 2017|language=en}}</ref> [[Pew Research Center]] have projected that India will have 310 million Muslims by 2050, out of total 1.668 billion people, thus constituting 18.4% of the country's population.<ref>https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/</ref><ref>https://www.outlookindia.com/national/explained-india-will-surpass-china-s-population-but-data-shows-decreasing-fertility-rate-news-237568</ref><ref>https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-to-have-largest-muslim-population-by-2050-report-4552015/</ref><ref>https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-will-have-biggest-muslim-population-by-2050-islam-could-catch-up-with-christianity/story-UniNU5x0cTOXcNhVHMRwHN.html</ref><ref>https://www.firstpost.com/india/india-will-be-home-to-worlds-largest-muslim-population-by-2050-but-is-the-country-ready-for-the-change-3313660.html</ref><ref>https://m.economictimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/by-2050-india-will-have-most-muslims-in-world-said-the-pew-research-center/articleshow/57433909.cms</ref><ref>https://www.indiatoday.in/fact-check/story/fact-check-viral-post-muslim-population-india-1733926-2020-10-21</ref> [[United Nations]] have projected India's future population. It will rise to 170.53 crore by 2050, and then it will decline to 165.97 crore by 2100 year respectively. Muslim population will rise to minimum 282.14 million (forming 17% of the country's population) to maximum 348.53 million (forming 21% of the country's population) by 2100.<ref>https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/5bsICkXvl4t4hXSewk8bkN/Four-out-of-five-Indians-will-still-be-Hindu-even-when-Musli.html</ref><ref>https://telanganatoday.com/muslims-will-not-outnumber-hindus</ref><ref>https://www.dawn.com/news/1203166</ref><ref>https://thehindustangazette.com/national/is-muslim-population-going-to-surpass-hindus-in-india-4659</ref><ref>https://scroll.in/article/694975/with-current-trends-it-will-take-220-years-for-indias-muslim-population-to-equal-hindu-numbers</ref><ref>https://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/the-population-myth-1502985744.html</ref>

  |isbn = 978-81-261-1427-6  }}</ref> The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims.According to a district wise fertility study by Saswata Ghosh, muslim TFR (total fertility rate) is closer to that of  the Hindu community in most southern states. Also TFR  tends to be high for both communities in Norhern states such as [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]]. This study was based on the last census of the country from 2011.<ref>Ghosh, S. (2018). Hindu–Muslim fertility differentials in India: indirect estimation at the district level from Census 2011. Indian Journal of Human Development, 12(1), 37-51.</ref>

There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch of Islam while a substantial minority (over 13%) belong to the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] branch.<ref name="USSD-IRFR">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208640.pdf |title=India 2012 International Religious Freedom Report |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |at=Section I. Religious Demography |date=13 May 2013 |access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> There are also tiny minorities of [[Ahmadiyya]] and [[Quranism|Quranists]] across the country. Many Indian Muslim communities, both [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]], are also considered to be Sufis.

Ahmaddiya have been identified as sects of Islam in [[2011 Census of India]] apart from Sunnis, Shias, Bohras and Agakhanis.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/ahmadiyyas-islam-sects-islam-ahmadiyyas-sect-ahmadiyyas-islam-islamic-sects-islam-india-ahmadiyya-legal-status-2011-census-india-population-india-news-2952701/ |title=Sunnis, Shias, Bohras, Agakhanis and Ahmadiyyas were identified as sects of Islam |date=4 August 2016 |work=[[The Indian Express]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Protest-against-inclusion-of-Ahmediyyas-in-Muslim-census/articleshow/53645457.cms |title=Protest against inclusion of Ahmediyyas in Muslim census |date=11 August 2016 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/ahmadiyya-community-census-india-muslims-2954285/ |title=Minority in a minority |date=5 August 2016 |work=[[The Indian Express]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/in-their-search-for-pure-islam-many-muslim-sects-consider-others-insufficient-or-infidels-2941564.html |title=We need to curb the everyday Jihadism of Indian Muslims in their search for pure Islam |first1=Tufail |last1=Ahmad |date=8 August 2016 |work=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref> India has a significant Ahmadiyya population.<ref name="Number of Ahmadis in India">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,464db4f52,47f237db2,3ae6ad202c,0.html |title=Number of Ahmadis in India |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |date=1 November 1991|access-date=9 March 2009}}</ref> Most of them live in Rajasthan, [[Odisha]], Haryana, Bihar, Delhi, [[Uttar Pradesh]], and a few in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in the area of Qadian. In India, Ahmadis are considered to be Muslims by the Government of India (unlike in neighbouring Pakistan). This recognition is supported by a court verdict (Shihabuddin Koya vs. Ahammed Koya, A.I.R. 1971 Ker 206).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1400223/|title=Shihabuddin Imbichi Koya Thangal vs K.P. Ahammed Koya on 8 December, 1970 Kerala High Court}}</ref><ref name=hoque>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/03/03/index.htm|title=On right to freedom of religion and the plight of Ahmadiyas|author=Hoque, Ridwanul|newspaper=The Daily Star|date=21 March 2004}}</ref> There is no legislation that declares Ahmadis non-Muslims or limits their activities,<ref name="hoque"/> but they are not allowed to sit on the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]], a body of religious leaders India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.<ref name="Naqvi, Jawed">{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/weekly/jawed/20080109.htm|title=Religious violence hastens India's leap into deeper obscurantism|work=Dawn|author=Naqvi, Jawed|date=1 September 2008|access-date=23 December 2009}}</ref> Ahmadiyya are estimated to be from 60,000 to 1&nbsp;million in [[India]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/article/wretched-of-the-land/265665 |title=Wretched of the Land |date=14 June 2010 |first1=Amir |last1=Mir |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621185739/https://www.outlookindia.com/article/wretched-of-the-land/265665 |archive-date=21 June 2015}}</ref>

Historians such as [[Will Durant]] described Islamic invasions of India as "The bloodiest story in history.<ref>{{cite book|last=Durant|first=Will|author-link=Will Durant|title=The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage |page= 459}}</ref><ref name=willdurant>Will Durant (1976), The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0671548001}}, pp. 458–472, Quote: "The Mohammedan conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. It is a discouraging tale, for its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing, whose delicate complex of order and liberty, culture and peace may at any time be overthrown by barbarians invading from without or multiplying within. The Hindus had allowed their strength to be wasted in internal division and war; they had adopted religions like Buddhism and Jainism, which unnerved them for the tasks of life; they had failed to organize their forces for the protection of their frontiers and their capitals."</ref> [[Jadunath Sarkar]] contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic [[jihad]] against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects".<ref>{{cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Jadunath|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |title=How the Muslims forcibly converted the Hindus of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to Islam}}</ref> Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the [[Caste system among South Asian Muslims|Muslim Caste System]] in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the ''Fatawa-i Jahandari'',<ref name="Sikand" /> where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes.<ref name="one">{{cite book|last=Aggarwal|first=Patrap|title=Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India|publisher=Manohar|year=1978}}</ref> Others argue that, during the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]], Indian-origin religions experienced persecution from various Muslim conquerors<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tv-4tyO9u_QC&pg=PA248|title=Beyond Orientalism: The Work of Wilhelm Halbfass and Its Impact on Indian and Cross-cultural Studies|author=Eli Franco, Karin Preisendanz|page=248|publisher=Motlilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120831100|year=2007}}</ref> who massacred Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, attacked temples and monasteries, and forced conversions on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19mPVOBZ_9YC&pg=PA16|title=The Making of Terrorism in Pakistan: Historical and Social Roots of Extremism|author=Eamon Murphy|page=16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415565264|year=2013}}</ref>

In spite of the fact that there have been relatively fewer conflicts between Muslims and Christians in India in comparison to those between Muslims and Hindus, or Muslims and Sikhs, the relationship between Muslims and Christians has also been occasionally turbulent. With the advent of European colonialism in India with the demise of the Mughal empire beginning in the 18th century, Christians were persecuted in some Muslim-ruled princely states in India.

 

Perhaps the most infamous acts of anti-Christian persecution by Muslims were committed by [[Tipu Sultan]], the ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], against the [[Mangalorean Catholics]]. Tipu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. The [[Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam|captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Srirangapatna]], which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.<ref name="dajser">{{cite web

|title=Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)

|access-date=29 February 2008

}}</ref>

Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include [[Dilip Kumar|Yusuf Khan]] (stage name Dilip Kumar),<ref>Tanuja Chandra (3 March 2004) [http://sify.com/entertainment/movies/bollywood/celebcolumns/fullstory.php?id=13418077 Dilip Kumar: Silent Revolutionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428030606/http://sify.com/entertainment/movies/bollywood/celebcolumns/fullstory.php?id=13418077 |date=28 April 2004 }} Sify Movies. Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Shah Rukh Khan]],<ref>Zubair Ahmed (23 September 2005) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4274774.stm Who's the real Shah Rukh Khan?] BBC News Retrieved on 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Salman Khan]], [[Aamir Khan]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/interview/6383.html |title=Aamir speaks out on alienation as a Muslim |work=IndiaGlitz |date=5 August 2005 |access-date=30 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130191313/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/interview/6383.html |archive-date=30 November 2005}}</ref> [[Saif Ali Khan]],<ref name=sak>{{cite news |first1=Deepa |last1=Gahlot |date=July 1998 |url=http://www.sabrang.com/cc/comold/august98/saif.htm |title='Religion played a major role in my upbringing' |work=Communalism Combat |publisher=[[Sabrang Communications]] |access-date=3 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-21/news-interviews/27923991_1_saif-muslim-societies |first1=Subhash K |last1=Jha |date=21 August 2008 |archive-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509215025/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-21/news-interviews/27923991_1_saif-muslim-societies |title='I went to a Muslim builder,' says Saif |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=30 March 2009}}</ref> [[Madhubala]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.topnews.in/interesting-facts-and-figures-madhubala-2140744 |title=Interesting Facts and Figures : Madhubala |work=TopNews (India) |first1=Mohit |last1=Joshi |date=17 March 2009 |access-date=30 March 2009}}</ref> [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]],<ref>PTI (24 April 2017) [http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/04/24/watch-nawazuddin-siddiqui-explains-that-he-isnt-just-a-muslim_a_22052880/ Watch: Nawazuddin Siddiqui Explains That He Isn't Just A Muslim, But A Bit Of All Religions] ''HuffPost''. Retrieved 24 April 2017.</ref> [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Johnny Walker (actor)|Johnny Walker]], [[Shabana Azmi]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130509215016/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-17/india/27919758_1_indian-democracy-shabana-azmi-muslims Indian democracy unfair to Muslims: Shabana Azmi] ''The Times of India''. 17 August 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2009.</ref> [[Waheeda Rehman]],<ref>[http://www.bollywood501.com/classic_f/waheeda_rehman/ Waheeda Rehman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905115303/http://www.bollywood501.com/classic_f/waheeda_rehman/ |date=5 September 2010 }} Bollywood501. Retrieved 4 March 2009.</ref> [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]], [[Parveen Babi]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Meena Kumari]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Mammootty]], [[Dulquer Salmaan]], [[Nargis]], [[Irrfan Khan]], [[Farida Jalal]], [[Arshad Warsi]], [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]], [[Zeenat Aman]], [[Farooq Sheikh]] and [[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]].

Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include [[Mehboob Khan]], [[Khwaja Ahmad Abbas]], [[Kamal Amrohi]], [[K. Asif]] and the [[Abbas–Mustan]] duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. [[M. F. Husain]] is one of India's best known contemporary artists. [[Academy Awards]] winners [[Resul Pookutty]] and [[A. R. Rahman]], [[Naushad]], [[Salim–Sulaiman]] and Nadeem Akhtar of the [[Nadeem–Shravan]] duo are some of India's celebrated musicians. [[Abrar Alvi]] penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include [[Shakeel Badayuni]], [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] and [[Majrooh Sultanpuri]]. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith include [[Mohammed Rafi]], [[Anu Malik]], [[Lucky Ali]], [[Talat Mahmood]] and [[Shamshad Begum]]. Another famous personality is the [[tabla]] maestro [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Zakir Hussian]].