Vedas: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Ancient scriptures of Hinduism}}

{{redirect-multi|2|Veda|Vedic}}

| language = [[Vedic Sanskrit]]

| caption  = Four Vedas

| verses  = 20,379 mantras<ref>{{cite web |title=Construction of the Vedas |website=VedicGranth.Org |url=https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true |access-date=3 July 2020 |archive-date=17 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717035126/https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''[[Atharvaveda]]''.]]

The '''Vedas''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə|z}},<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/veda "Veda"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{IAST3|veda}}, {{Lang-sa|वेदः|lit=knowledge}}) are a large body of [[religious texts]] originating in [[ancient India]]. Composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the texts constitute the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit literature]] and the oldest [[Hindu texts|scriptures]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=68}}; {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}.</ref><ref>''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>Sanujit Ghose (2011). "[http://www.worldhistory.org/article/230/ Religious Developments in Ancient India]" in ''World History Encyclopedia''.</ref>

Vedas are ''{{IAST|[[śruti]]}}'' ("what is heard"),{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=887}} distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ''{{IAST|[[smṛti]]}}'' ("what is remembered"). Hindus consider the Vedas to be ''[[apauruṣeya]]'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"{{sfn|Apte|1965|loc="apauruSeya"}} and "impersonal, authorless,"{{sfn|Sharma|2011|pp=196–197}}{{sfn|Westerhoff|2009|p=290}}{{sfn|Todd|2013|p=128}} revelations of sacred sounds and texts heard by ancient [[sage (philosophy)|sages]] after intense meditation.{{sfn|Pollock|2011|pp=41–58}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=13–14}}

==Etymology and usage==

The Sanskrit term ''{{IAST|veda}}'' as a common noun means "knowledge".{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1048.html p. 1015]}} The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1050.html p. 1017 (2nd Column)]}} while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or for [[Homa (ritual)|ritual fire]].{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1050.html p. 1017 (3rd Column)]}}

==Vedic texts==

===Vedic Sanskrit corpus===

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:

# Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"<ref>according to [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]], [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/tradition/1105.htm Hindu Sacred Texts], "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)."</ref>

The corpus of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] texts includes:

* The [[Brahmana]]s are prose texts that comment and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|pp=67–69}}<ref name="ebri"/> The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=mw>[[Michael Witzel]], "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</ref><ref name=bcp>Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-34354-1}}, pp. 42–43</ref> The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.

* The [[Aranyaka]]s, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.<ref name="jago"/> It is frequently read in secondary literature.

* The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later [[Upanishads]] and the [[Sūtra|Sutra literature]], such as [[Shrauta Sutras]] and [[Kalpa (Vedanga)#Gryhasutras|Gryha Sutras]], which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.<ref name="Flood 2003 69"/>{{refn|group=note|For a table of all Vedic texts see {{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|pp=100–101}}.}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in ''[[A Vedic Word Concordance]]'' (''{{IAST|Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa}}'') prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935–1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973–1976.}}

===Śruti and smriti ===

===Authorship===

According to tradition, ''[[Vyasa]]'' is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of ''mantras'' into four ''Samhitas'' (Collections).{{sfn|Holdrege|2012|pp=249, 250}}{{sfn|Dalal|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}}

===Chronology===

===Transmission===

The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in the [[Vedic period]] for several millennia.<ref name="Witzel2003"/>{{sfn|Wood|2007}}{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|p=344}} The authoritative transmission{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}} of the Vedas is by an [[oral tradition]] in a ''[[sampradaya]]'' from father to son or from teacher (''guru'') to student (''shishya''),{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|p=344}}{{sfn|Broo|2016|p=92}}{{sfn|Hexam|2011|p=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Pruthi|2004|p=286}}{{sfn|Wood|2007}} believed to be initiated by the Vedic ''[[rishis]]'' who heard the [[Nāda yoga|primordial sounds]].{{sfn|Holdrege|2012|p=165}} Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronunciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the "dead and entombed manuscript" cannot do.{{sfn|Broo|2016|p=92}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Broo|2016|p=92}} quotes Harold G. Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja.}} As Leela Prasad states, "According to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], the "correct tradition" (''sampradaya'') has as much authority as the written Shastra," explaining that the tradition "bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge."{{sfn|Prasad|2007|p=125}}

While according to Mookerji [[Nirukta|understanding the meaning]] (''vedarthajnana''{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|p=328}} or ''[[artha]]-[[Buddhi|bodha]]''{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=35}}{{refn|group=note|name="artha"}}) of the words of the Vedas was part of the [[Vedanga|Vedic learning]],{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=35}} Holdrege and other Indologists{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}} have noted that in the transmission of the ''Samhitas'' the emphasis is on the phonology of the sounds (''[[śabda]]'') and not on the meaning (''[[artha]]'') of the mantras.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}{{sfn|Broo|2016|p=92}} Already at the end of the Vedic period their original meaning had become obscure for "ordinary people,"{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}{{refn|group=note|name="Kautas"|{{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the ''[[Nirukta]]'' by ''[[Yāska]]'' (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."<br /><br />The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.<ref name=pauldeussen112>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pages 80-84</ref>}} and ''[[nirukta]]s'', etymological compendia, were developed to preserve and clarify the original meaning of many Sanskrit words.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}{{sfn|Jackson|2016|p="Sayana, Vidyaranya’s brother"}} According to Staal, as referenced by Holdrege, though the mantras may have a discursive meaning, when the mantras are recited in the Vedic rituals "they are disengaged from their original context and are employed in ways that have little or nothing to do with their meaning."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}}{{refn|group=note|According to Holdrege, ''srotriyas'' (a  group of male Brahmin reciters who are masters of ''sruti''{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}}) "frequently do not understand what they recite" when reciting the ''Samhitas'', merely preserving the sound of the text.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}}}} The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346–347}} and "do not constitute [[Speech act|linguistic utterances]]."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become [[Magic (supernatural)|magical]] sounds, "means to an end."{{refn|group=note|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified [[Speech act|speech-act]]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes {{harvnb|Deshpande|1990|p=4}}.}} Holdrege notes that there are scarce commentaries on the meaning of the mantras, in contrast to the number of commentaries on the Brahmanas and Upanishads, but states that the lack of emphasis on the "discursive meaning does not necessarily imply that they are meaningless."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346,347}} In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the ''mantras'' will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}}{{refn|group=note|name="Coward2008_mimamsa"|{{harvnb|Coward|2008|p=114}}: "For the [[Mimamsa]] the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."}} Frazier further notes that "later Vedic texts sought deeper understanding of the reasons the rituals worked," which indicates that the Brahmin communities considered study to be a "process of understanding."{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}

The Vedas were written down only after 500 BCE,<ref name=":0">{{Harvnb|Avari|2007|pp=69–70, 76}}</ref><ref name="Witzel2003"/>{{sfn|Wood|2007}} but only the orally transmitted texts are regarded as authoritative, given the emphasis on the exact pronunciation of the sounds.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}} Witzel suggests that attempts to write down the Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE were unsuccessful, resulting in ''smriti'' rules explicitly forbidding the writing down of the Vedas.<ref name="Witzel2003"/> Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.<ref>{{Citation | last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref> The [[Sampurnanand Sanskrit University]] has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie W.|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel P.|title=The Rigveda – The Earliest Religious Poetry of India, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972078-1|page=18}}</ref> however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in [[Nepal]] that are dated from the 11th century onwards.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cultural Heritage of Nepal|url=http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html|website=Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project|publisher=[[University of Hamburg]]|access-date=4 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918022828/http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html|archive-date=18 September 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

{{Main|Svādhyāya}}

Yaska and Sayana, reflecting an ancient understanding, state that the Veda can be interpreted in three ways, giving "the truth about [[Rigvedic deities|gods]], ''[[Dharma#History|dharma]]'' and [[parabrahman]]."{{sfn|Coward|Raja|Potter|1990|p=106}}{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=34}}{{refn|group=note|Sayana repeats Yaska; see [[Nirukta#Ancient|interpretation of the Vedas]].}} The ''pūrva-kāņda'' (or ''karma-kanda''), the part of the Veda dealing with ritual, gives knowledge of ''dharma'', "which brings us satisfaction." The ''uttara-kanda'' (or ''[[Upanishads|jnana-kanda]]''),{{refn|group=note|The ''Upanishads''.{{sfn|Nakamura|1983|p=409}}}} the part of the Veda dealing with the knowledge of the absolute, gives knowledge of ''Parabrahma'', "which fulfills all of our desires."{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=30}} According to Holdrege, for the exponents of ''karma-kandha'' the Veda is to be "inscribed in the minds and hearts of men" by memorization and recitation, while for the exponents of the ''jnana-kanda'' and meditation the Vedas express a transcendental reality which can be approached with mystical means.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=355, 356–357}}

Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.<ref name=":1">{{Harvnb|Staal|1986}}</ref> For example, memorization of the sacred ''Vedas'' included up to eleven [[Vedic chant|forms of recitation]] of the same text.  The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions.  Forms of recitation included the ''{{IAST|jaṭā-pāṭha}}'' (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.<ref name=filliozat-p139>{{Harvnb|Filliozat|2004|p=139}}</ref> That these methods have been effective, is attested to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the ''[[Rigveda]]'', as [[Redaction|redacted]] into a single text during the ''Brahmana'' period, without any variant readings within that school.<ref name=filliozat-p139/>

==Four Vedas==

# [[Atharvaveda]]  (AV)

Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<ref name="gflood"/><ref name="A Bhattacharya 2006 pp. 8–14"/><ref name="Jan Gonda 1975"/> The [[Upasana]]s (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|pp=8–14}}{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|pp=351–357}} as the fifth part. [[Michael Witzel|Witzel]] notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.<ref>Jamison and Witzel (1992), [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf Vedic Hinduism], Harvard University, p. 21</ref>

The [[Rigveda|Rigveda Samhita]] is the oldest extant [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] text.<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=77}}.</ref>  It is a collection of 1,028 [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[hymn]]s and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: ''mandalas'').<ref>For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=77}}.</ref> The hymns are dedicated to [[Rigvedic deities]].<ref>For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=77}}.</ref>

The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, [[Soma (deity)|Soma]] and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.<ref name=witzelthreefour>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]", Harvard University, in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=261–264}}</ref>

There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.<ref>Michael Witzel, [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Witzel2002.pdf The Rigvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents], in The Vedas – Texts, Language and Ritual, Editors: Griffiths and Houben (2004), Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-6980-149-0}}, pp. 581–627</ref>

===Yajurveda===

{{Main article|Yajurveda}}

[[File:Taittiriya Samhita Vedas, Devanagari script, Sanskrit pliv.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A page from the ''Taittiriya Samhita'', a layer of text within the ''Yajurveda'']]

The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda [[samhita]] includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in [[Rigveda]].<ref>Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, {{ISBN|978-0-595-26925-9}}, pp. 273–274</ref> Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose, and they are different from earlier Vedic texts linguistically.<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=270–271}}</ref> The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=272–274}}</ref>

===Atharvaveda===

====Brahmanas====

The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|pp=67–69}} They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|pp=67–69}}<ref name=ebri>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref> Each regional Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.<ref name=winter>Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pp. 175–176</ref> A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the [[Rigveda]], six with the [[Yajurveda]], ten with the [[Samaveda]] and one with the [[Atharvaveda]]. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=mw/><ref name=bcp/> According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=67}}

====Aranyakas and Upanishads====

The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|pp=351–357}}<ref name=jago>[[Jan Gonda]] (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}, pp. 424–426</ref>

===Vedanga===

{{Main article|Vedanga}}

The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics ([[Shiksha|{{IAST|Śikṣā}}]]), poetic meter ([[Sanskrit prosody|{{IAST|Chandas}}]]), grammar ([[Vyakarana|{{IAST|Vyākaraṇa}}]]), etymology and linguistics ([[Nirukta]]), rituals and rites of passage ([[Kalpa (Vedanga)|{{IAST|Kalpa}}]]), time keeping and astronomy ([[Jyotisha|{{IAST|Jyotiṣa}}]]).<ref name=jameslochtefeldvedanga>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pp. 744–745</ref>{{Sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|pp=391–394 with footnotes, 416–419}}{{Sfn|Coward|Raja|Potter|1990|pp=105–110}}

===Parisista===

''{{IAST|Pariśiṣṭa}}''  "supplement, appendix"  is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the [[Samhita]]s, [[Brahmana]]s, [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Sutras]].  Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas.  However, only the literature associated with the [[Atharvaveda]] is extensive.

* The ''{{IAST|Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa}}'' is a very late text associated with the [[Rigveda]] canon.

Some post-Vedic texts, including the [[Mahabharata]], the [[Natya Shastra|Natyasastra]]<ref>Paul Kuritz (1988), The Making of Theatre History, Prentice Hall, {{ISBN|978-0-13-547861-5}}, p. 68</ref> and certain [[Puranas]], refer to themselves as the "[[fifth Veda]]".{{sfn|Sullivan|1994|p=385}} The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] in hymn 7.1.2.<ref>Sanskrit original: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_४ Chandogya Upanishad], Wikisource;<br />{{*}}English translation: [https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n383/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 7.1.2], G Jha (Translator), Oriental Book Agency, p. 368</ref>

Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. Thus, from all the Vedas, [[Brahma]] framed the Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment.

|First chapter of ''Nātyaśāstra''|Abhinaya Darpana <ref>{{Cite web|title=Natyashastra|publisher = Sanskrit Documents| url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/natya01.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Mirror of Gesture|author=Coormaraswamy and Duggirala|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1917|pages=2–4|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924012568535#page/n5/mode/2up}}</ref>}}

"[[Divya Prabandha]]", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.<ref name="John Carman 1989 pp. 259–261"/><ref name="Vasudha Narayanan 1994 pp. 43, 117"/>

| first = Satsvarupa

| last = Goswami

==Authority of the Vedas==

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"{{sfn|Lipner|2012|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), ''The sacred tread'', p.5.}} and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<ref>Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism: ''Past and Present'', Princeton University Press, p.18; see also Julius Lipner (2012), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, p.77; and Brian K. Smith (2008), ''Hinduism'', p.101, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers.</ref> Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2012|pp=15–17}}

==Western Indology==

{{further|Sanskrit studies}}

Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in [[UNESCO]]'s [[Memory of the World Programme|Memory of the World]] [[Memory of the World Register – Asia and the Pacific|Register]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.htm|title=Rig Veda in UNESCO Memory of the World Register}}</ref>

==Notes==

{{reflist|group=note|refs=

* [[Max Müller]]: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."{{sfn|Müller|1892}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Freschi_2012"|Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not [[Deontological ethics|deontic]] authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological [[epistemology|epistemic]] authority by a Hindu orthodox school."{{harvnb|Freschi|2012|p=62}} This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.}}

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;Journals

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==External links==

{{Commons category|Vedas}}