Islam: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}

{{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}}

{{pp-semi-indef}}

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{{Infobox religion

|name=Islam

|native_name={{nobold|{{Script/Arabic|الإسلام}}<br/>''al-’Islām''}}

|native_name_lang=<!-- ar -->

|image=Kaaba Mirror like.jpg

|imagewidth=250px|caption=The [[Kaaba]] at [[Masjid al-Haram]] in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[Holiest sites in Islam|holiest Islamic site]]

|type=[[Universal religion]]

|main_classification=[[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]]

|scripture=[[Quran]]

|theology=[[Monotheism]]

|language=[[Classical Arabic]]

|territory=[[Muslim world]]

|founder=[[Muhammad]]

|founded_place=[[Jabal al-Nour]]<!-- Beginnings are understood to be where Muhammad is said to have received his first ever revelation, which was inside a cave in this mountain -->, near [[Mecca]], [[Hejaz]], [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]

|members={{circa|[[Islam by country|2 billion]]}} (referred to as [[Muslims]], who make up the ''[[ummah]]'')|separations = [[Bábism]],<ref name="browne">{{cite book |url=http://bahai-library.com/browne_babism |title=Bábism |first=Edward G. |last=Browne |author-link=E.G. Browne |year=1889}}</ref> [[Druze|Druzism]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies| first=Shireen|last= Hunter|year=2010| isbn=9780253345493| page = 33|publisher=University of Michigan Press|quote= Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634| page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is consider distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze do not  identify as Muslims..}}</ref>

'''Islam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}};{{efn|1=There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is {{IPAc-en|z}} or {{IPAc-en|s}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} or (when the stress is on the first syllable) {{IPAc-en|ə}} (''[[Merriam Webster]]''). The most common are {{IPAc-en|ɪ|15=ˈ|26=ə|25=l|24=s|23=ɪ|22=ˈ|21=,_|20=m|19=ə|18=l|17=z|16=ɪ|14=,_|z|13=m|12=ɑː|11=l|10='|9=s|8=ɪ|7=,_|6=m|5=ɑː|4=l|ˈ|27=m}} (''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}} (''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'').}} {{lang-ar| الإسلام|al-’Islām}} {{IPA-ar|ɪsˈlaːm||ar-islam.ogg|}}, {{Translation|"Submission [to [[God in Islam|God]]]"}})<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam {{!}} Religion, Beliefs, Practices, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |title=Islam |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Islam {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en}}</ref> is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[Monotheism#Islam|monotheistic religion]] centred primarily<!-- "Primarily" leads into the value of Muhammad's teachings and practices as the second-most important aspect of observance. --> around the [[Quran]], a religious text that is considered by [[Muslims]]<ref>"[https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim Muslim]." ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''. UK: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2020.</ref> to be the direct word of [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]] (or ''[[Allah]]'') as it was revealed to [[Muhammad]], the [[Muhammad in Islam|main and final Islamic prophet]].<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 quick reference].) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref name="OEIW-allah2">Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 quick reference].) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"</ref> It is the [[Major religious groups|world's second-largest religion]] behind [[Christianity]], with more than two billion followers comprising around 25 percent of the global population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country |title=Muslim Population By Country 2021 |website=World Population Review |access-date=22 July 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Pew2">{{cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615053333/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> Islam teaches that God is [[Mercy in Islam|merciful]], [[Omnipotence|all-powerful]], and [[Tawhid|unique]],{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}} and has guided humanity through [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|various prophets]], [[Islamic holy books|revealed scriptures]], and [[Āyah|natural signs]], with the Quran serving as the final, universal revelation and Muhammad serving as the "[[Seal of the Prophets]]" (the last prophet of God).<ref name="OEIW-allah2" /><ref>[[İbrahim Özdemir|Özdemir, İbrahim]]. 2014. "Environment." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam''}}, edited by [[İbrahim Kalın|I. Kalin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-981257-8}}. "When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment.... The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator."</ref> The teachings and practices of Muhammad (''[[sunnah]]'') documented in traditional collected accounts (''[[hadith]]'') provide a secondary constitutional model for Muslims to follow after the Quran.<ref>Goldman, Elizabeth. 1995. ''Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-508240-1}}. p. 63.</ref>

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a [[Fitra|primordial faith]] that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=177}}</ref> these earlier revelations are attributed to [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], which are regarded in Islam as [[People of the Book|spiritual predecessor faiths]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Connections . Religion {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> They also consider the Quran, when preserved in [[Classical Arabic]], to be the unaltered and final revelation of God to humanity.{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}} Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches a [[Last Judgment|Final Judgement]] wherein the righteous will be rewarded in [[paradise]] (''[[Jannah]]'') and the unrighteous will be punished in [[hell]] (''[[Jahannam]]'').<ref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Eschatology |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are considered to be obligatory acts of worship, as well as following Islamic law (''[[sharia]]''), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society from [[Islamic banking and finance|banking and finance]] and [[Zakat|welfare]] to [[Women in Islam|women's roles]] and the [[Islamic ethics#Environmentalism|environment]].{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}}<ref name=":15">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Noel James |last=Coulson |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shariah |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}} (See also: "[https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia sharia]" via ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''.)</ref> The cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], and [[Jerusalem]] are home to the [[holiest sites in Islam|three holiest sites in Islam]], in descending order: [[Masjid al-Haram]], [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]], and [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]].<ref>[[Yaroslav Trofimov|Trofimov, Yaroslav]]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. [[Knopf]]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>

From a historical point of view, [[Muhammad's first revelation|Islam originated]] in the early 7th&nbsp;century&nbsp;CE in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], near Mecca.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=AQUZ6BGyohQC|page=5}} |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5}}</ref> Through various [[caliphate]]s, the religion later [[Spread of Islam|spread outside of Arabia]] shortly after Muhammad's death, and by the 8th&nbsp;century, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] had imposed Islamic rule from the [[Al-Andalus|Iberian Peninsula]] in the west to the [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Indus Valley]] in the east. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th&nbsp;century to the 13th&nbsp;century, during the reign of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], when much of the [[Muslim world]] was experiencing a [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|scientific]], [[History of Islamic economics#Classical Muslim commerce|economic]], and [[Islamic culture|cultural flourishing]].<ref>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: [[New York University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: [[Ibn Khaldun International Institute of Advanced Research|International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization]]. Archived from the [http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html original] on 2 April 2015.</ref> The expansion of the Muslim world involved [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|various states and caliphates]] such as the [[Ottoman Empire]], extensive trade, and religious conversion as a result of [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionary activities]] (''[[dawah]]'').<ref>[[Thomas Walker Arnold|Arnold, Thomas Walker]]. ''The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.'' pp. 125–258.</ref>

Most of the world's Muslims belong to two notable [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic denominations]]: [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85–90 percent)<ref name="Denny">Denny, Frederick. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3 ''Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide'']. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."</ref> or [[Shia Islam|Shia]] (10–15 percent);<ref name="CIA Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Field Listing :: Religions |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="berkleycenter-sunni">{{cite web |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=24 May 2020 |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} combined, they make up a majority of the population in [[Islam by country|49 countries]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref><ref>[[Pew Forum|The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]]. December 2012. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010]." DC: Pew Research Center. [https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ Article].</ref> [[Shia–Sunni relations|Sunni–Shia differences]] arose from disagreements over the [[succession to Muhammad]] and acquired broader political significance as well as [[Schools of Islamic theology|theological]] and [[Fiqh|juridical]] dimensions.<ref name="EMMENA">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> About 12&nbsp;percent of Muslims live in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], the most populous Muslim-majority country;<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "[https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050]" (projections table). [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}&nbsp;percent live in [[Islam in South Asia|South Asia]];<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kaubzRxh-U0C}} |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193]}}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 315/1571 round 0}}&nbsp;percent live in the [[MENA#Religion|Middle East–North Africa]]; and 15&nbsp;percent live in [[Religion in Sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite report |date=27 January 2011 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the [[Islam in the Americas|Americas]], [[Islam in China|China]], and [[Islam in Europe|Europe]].<ref>{{cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |website=[[Al Jazeera]] |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency|Anadolu News Agency]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=13 January 2019}}</ref> Islam is the [[Growth of religion|fastest-growing major religion]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Daniel |date=2 April 2015 |title=The world's fastest-growing religion is... |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/ |access-date=18 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="USNewsLippman22">Lippman, Thomas W. 7 April 2008. "[https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god No God But God]." ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''. Retrieved 24 May 2020. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."</ref>

 

 

 

The word ''"silm"'' ({{lang-ar|سِلْم}}) in Arabic means both peace and also the religion of Islam.<ref name="CA">{{cite web |date=20 June 2020 |title=What Does "Islam" Mean? |url=https://classicalarabic.org/2020/06/19/what-does-islam-mean/ |access-date=20 June 2020 |website=Classical Arabic}}</ref> A common linguistic phrase demonstrating its usage is "he entered into ''as-silm''" ({{lang-ar|دَخَلَ فِي السِّلْمِ}}) which means "he entered into Islam," with a connotation of finding peace by submitting one's will to the [[Predestination in Islam|Will]] of God.<ref name="CA" /> The word "Islam" can be used in a linguistic sense of submission or in a technical sense of the religion of Islam, which also is called ''as-silm'' which means peace.<ref name="CA" />

 

Islam itself was historically called [[Mohammedan|''Mohammedanism'']] in the [[English-speaking world]]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be [[Religious offence|offensive]], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in [[Buddhism]].<ref>Wilson, Kenneth G. ''The Columbia Guide to Standard American English''. {{ISBN|0-231-06989-8}}. p. 291: "Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive."</ref> Some authors, however, continue to use the term ''Mohammedanism'' as a [[wikt:technical term|technical term]] for the religious system as opposed to the [[Theology|theological]] concept of Islam that exists within that system.

 

The Islamic [[creed]] (''[[aqidah]]'') requires belief in [[Iman (concept)#The six articles of the Islamic faith|six articles]]: God, angels, books, prophets, the [[Day of Resurrection]] and in the divine decree.

 

The central concept of Islam is ''[[Tawhid|tawḥīd]]'' (Arabic:توحيد), the oneness of God. Usually thought of as a ''precise [[monotheism]]'', but also [[panentheism|panentheistic]] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>See:

* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the [[Christian Trinity]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Surah Al-Ma'idah – 5:73 |url=https://quran.com/5/73?translations=131 |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=quran.com}}</ref> and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as [[idolatory]], called [[Shirk (Islam)|''shirk'']]. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, therefore Muslims are not [[iconodule]]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several [[Names of God in Islam|names or attributes]], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان)'' meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and ''Ar-Rahīm ( الرحيم)'' meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref name="Ben2">{{Cite book |last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |date=1999 |publisher=[[William Carey Library]] |isbn=978-0-87808-299-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>

 

 

* "[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur Nūr]." ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]''. – via ''[[Encyclopedia.com]]''.

* {{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Remebrance of God ([[Arabic]]: {{lang-ar|ذكر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none}}) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring [[Alhamdulillah|praise be due to God]] ({{lang-ar|الحمد لله}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Ḥamdu lillāh}}'') during prayer or when feeling thankful, [[Tasbih]], declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying '[[Basmala|in the name of God]]' ({{lang-ar|بسملة}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|basmalah}}) before starting an act such as eating.

{{For timeline|Timeline of Islamic history}}

{{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam}}

=== Muhammad (610–632) ===

Born in [[Mecca]] in 571, Muhammad was orphaned early in life. New trade routes rapidly transformed Meccan society from a semi-bedouin society to a commercial urban society, leaving out weaker segments of society without protection. He acquired the nickname "[[Amin (name)|trustworthy]]" (Arabic: الامين), {{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} and was sought after as a bank to safeguard valuables and an impartial arbitrator. Affected by the ills of society and after becoming financially secure through marrying his employer, the businesswoman [[Khadija]], he began retreating to a [[Cave of Hira|cave]] to contemplate. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 [[Common Era|CE]],  Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God, conveyed to him through the [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|archangel Gabriel]],<ref name=":04" /><ref>See:

During this time, [[Muhammad in Mecca|while in Mecca, Muhammad]] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring them to abandon [[polytheism]] and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first [[muezzin]] [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]]. The Meccan elite profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba and felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and slaves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DyuqdDIjaswC|page=1323}} |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323–}}</ref><ref>See:

* "Slaves and Slavery." ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]].''

* {{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}.</ref> Muhammad, who was accused of being a poet, a madman or possessed, presented the [[challenge of the Quran]] to imitate the like of the Quran in order to disprove him. The Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers, including a boycott and banishment of Muhammad and his clan to starve them into withdrawing their protection of him. This resulted in the [[Migration to Abyssinia]] of some Muslims (to the [[Aksumite Empire]]).

After 12 years of the [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans]], Muhammad and his [[Sahaba|companions]] performed the ''[[Hegira|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") in AD&nbsp;622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (the ''[[Muhajirun]]''), [[Muhammad in Medina]] established his [[Theocracy|political and religious authority]]. The [[Constitution of Medina]] was signed,{{efn|1=Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date—specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624).<ref>Watt. ''Muhammad at Medina''. pp. 227–228.{{full citation needed|date=September 2021}}</ref> Serjeant argues that the constitution is, in fact, eight different treaties that can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival.<ref>Serjeant, R.B. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in ''The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World'': Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: [[Ashgate Publishing]], 1998, p. 151 and see same article in {{harvp|Serjeant|1978|pp=18 ff}}.</ref> See also {{harvp|Caetani|1905}} who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caetani |title=Annali dell'Islam, Volume I |place=Milano |publisher=Hoepli |year=1905 |page=393}}</ref> Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624.<ref>Julius Wellhausen. ''Skizzen und Vorabeiten'', IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p. 82f.</ref> Even Moshe Gil, a sceptic of Islamic history, argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina.<ref>Moshe Gil. 1974. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." ''Israel Oriental Studies'' 4. p. 45.</ref>}} by all the tribes of Medina agreeing to defend Medina from external threats and establishing among the Muslim, Jewish, Christian, and pagan communities religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws, security of women and the role of Medina as a sacred place barred of weapons and violence.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624—a Muslim victory—and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the [[Battle of Uhud]], which ended inconclusively.{{Citation needed|reason=The contrac needs to be backed up by a source|date=November 2021}} The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation, and during the [[Battle of the Trench]] (March–April&nbsp;627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After signing the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See:

* {{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single religious [[polity]].<ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref>

The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the [[Salaf]], with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith [[Abu Hureyrah]], recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.

=== Caliphate and civil strife (632–750) ===

{{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests}}

{{See also|Event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}}

[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun empire-slide.gif|thumb|right|[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] expansion]]

[[File:Dome of the Rock1.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]] built by caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]]; completed at the end of the [[Second Fitna]]]]

Following Muhammad's death in 632, Muslims disagreed over who would succeed him as leader. The first successors – [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]], [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and sometimes [[Hasan ibn Ali]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1 = Melchert |first1 = Christopher | date = 2020|contribution=The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth| editor1-last = al-Sarhan| editor1-first = Saud| title = Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought |location= London and New York|publisher = [[I.B. Tauris]]| isbn = 978-1-83860-765-4 |pages=70–71|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63}}</ref> – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2003|loc="Rightly Guided Caliphs"|p={{page needed|date=September 2021}}}} Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the [[Ridda wars]].<ref>See:

* {{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Under Umar, the caliphate expanded rapidly as Muslims scored major victories over the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] empires.<ref>See

* {{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}} Uthman [[election of Uthman|was elected in 644]]. Ali reluctantly accepted being elected the next Caliph after Uthman, whose assassination by rebels in 656 led to the [[First Fitna|First Civil War]]. Muhammad's widow, [[Aisha]] raised an army against Ali asking to avenge the death of Uthman but was defeated at the [[Battle of the Camel]]. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali after accusing Ali of being behind Uthman's death. Ali defeated him in the [[Battle of Siffin]] and then decided to arbitrate with him, which angered the [[Kharijites]], an extremist sect who felt Mu'awiya should be fought. They felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well and they rebelled against him and were defeated in the [[Battle of Nahrawan]] but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali and Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali was elected Caliph. To avoid further fighting, Hasan signed a [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty|peace treaty]] abdicating to [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]] in return for him not appointing a successor.{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} Mu'awiyah began the [[Umayyad dynasty]] with the appointment of his son [[Yazid&nbsp;I]] and this sparked the [[Second Fitna|Second Civil War]]. During the [[Battle of Karbala]], [[Husayn ibn Ali]] and other descendants of Muhammad were massacred by Yazid; the event has been [[Ashura|annually commemorated]] by Shia ever since. Sunnis, led by [[Ibn al-Zubayr]], who were opposed to the caliphate turning into a dynasty were defeated in the [[Siege of Mecca (692)|Siege of Mecca]]. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the [[Sunni]]-[[Shia]] schism,<ref name="NYT-20160103">{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=3 January 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> with the Shia believing leadership belonging to Ali and the family of Muhammad called the [[ahl al-bayt]]{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}} while the Kharijites disagreed with Uthman and Ali and quietist forms led to the emergence of the third largest denomination in Islam, [[Ibadiyya]].

Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur'an. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the influential committee, [[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> headed by [[Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr|Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]].{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=522}} [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the ''[[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Al-Muwatta' |url=http://bewley.virtualave.net/muwcont.html |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=d5Ks31qHlSYC}} |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Va6oSxzojzoC}} |pages=207–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=[[Moshe Sharon]] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264}}</ref> The [[Kharijites]] believed there is no compromised middle ground between good and evil and any Muslim committing a grave sin becomes an unbeliever, with the term also used to refer to later groups such as [[Islamic State|Isis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mamouri|first=Ali |date=8 January 2015 |title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022}}</ref> Conversely, an early sect, the [[Murji'ah]] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone and that wrongdoers might be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} and this attitude came to prevail into the mainstream.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}}

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the [[Berber Revolt]] leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the [[Abbasid revolution]], non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}

[[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|The eye, according to [[Hunain ibn Ishaq]] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]]

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|Muslim]] compiled the major [[Six major Hadith collections|Sunni hadith collections]] while scholars like [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni|Al-Kulayni]] and [[Ibn Babawayh]] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], Malik ibn Anas and [[al-Shafi'i]]. In contrast, the teachings of [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] formed the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]. In the 9th&nbsp;century [[Al-Tabari]] completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the ''[[Tafsir al-Tabari]]''. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into ''Tasawwuf'' or Sufism.<ref name=EB-Sufism />{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}}

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the [[Iblis|devil]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as [[Muʿtazila]], first originated by [[Wasil ibn Ata]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} Caliphs such as [[Mamun al Rashid]] and [[Al-Mu'tasim]] made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force their position on the majority.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=88}} They carried out inquisitions with the traditionalist [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] notably refusing to conform to the Mutazila idea of the creation of the Quran and was tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> However, other [[Schools of Islamic theology|schools]] of [[Kalam|speculative theology]] – [[Maturidi|Māturīdism]] founded by [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] and [[Ash'ari]] founded by [[Al-Ash'ari]] – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as [[Al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] sought to harmonize Aristotle's metaphysics within Islam, similar to later [[scholasticism]] within Christianity in Europe, while others like [[Al-Ghazali]] argued against such [[syncretism]] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See:

* {{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref> Avicenna pioneered the science of [[Medical research|experimental medicine]],<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref> and was the first [[physician]] to conduct [[clinical trials]].<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> His two most notable works, ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', were used as standard medicinal texts in the Islamic world and later in [[Europe]]. Amongst his contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008" /> and the introducing [[clinical pharmacology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brater |first1=D. Craig |last2=Daly |first2=Walter J. |year=2000 |title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century |journal=[[Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics]] |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=447–450 [448] |doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 |pmid=10824622 |s2cid=45980791}}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the mathematician [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to the concept of the [[algorithm]], while the term [[algebra]] is derived from ''al-jabr''.<ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|Toomer, Gerald]] (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]]. {{ISBN|0-684-16962-2}}.</ref> [[Public hospital]]s established during this time (called [[Bimaristan]] hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=The scientific institutions in the medieval Near East |last1=Micheau |first1=Françoise |pages=991–992 |editor-last1=Rāshid |editor-first1=Rushdī |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Volume 3: Technology, alchemy and life sciences |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |year=1996 |url={{Google books|mnAXV09Z5bIC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-415-12412-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate |website=Planetseed.com |url=https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715091828/https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref name="Alatas">{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> The [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242 242] |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> The doctorate is argued to date back to the [[Ijazah|licenses to teach]] in Islamic [[law schools]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=George |date=April–June 1989 |title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 [175–177] |doi=10.2307/604423 |jstor=604423}}</ref> Standards of experimental and [[Quantification (science)|quantification]] techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,<ref name="Ahmed">{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}. "Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."</ref> were introduced. An important pioneer in this, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (c.&nbsp;965 – c.&nbsp;040) is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<ref name="Haq">[[Nomanul Haq|Haq, Syed]] (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. {{ISSN|1703-7603}}. Retrieved 22 October 2014</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008}}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name="Ahmed" /> It is argued that that [[Al-Jahiz]] (776–868/869) proposed a theory of [[natural selection]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=30 January 2008 |title=It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton |website=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=29 January 2008 |title=Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |access-date=13 December 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723135408/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2009}}</ref> The [[Persian literature|Persian poet]] [[Ferdowsi]] (940–1019/1025) wrote his [[epic poem]] ''[[Shahnameh]]''.

The vast Abbasid empire proved impossible to hold together.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} Soldiers established their own dynasties, such as the [[Tulunid]]s, [[Samanid Empire|Samanid]] and [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid dynasty]],<ref>Hamad Subani ''The Secret History of Iran'' Lulu.com 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-304-08289-3}} 74</ref> and the [[millennialist]] [[Isma'ili]] Shi'a missionary movement took advantage of the situation,<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit“ Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> with the [[Fatimid dynasty]] taking control of North Africa and the [[Qarmatians]] sacking Mecca and stealing the Black Stone in their unsuccessful rebellion.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=18 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> In what is called the [[Shi'a Century]], another Ismaili group, the [[Buyid dynasty]] conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The [[Alawites]] and the [[Druze]], offshoots of Shi'a Islam date to this time. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty, campaigned to [[Sunni Revival|reassert Sunnism]], notably with the construction of educational institutions known as [[Nezamiyeh]], which are associated with Al-Ghazali and [[Saadi Shirazi]].<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' [[Walter de Gruyter]] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>

Religious missions converted [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. In the [[Indian Subcontinent]], during the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the Indian [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionaries]] achieved their greatest success in terms of ''[[dawah]]'' and the number of converts to Islam.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227-228</ref><ref>Majumdar, Dr. R.C., ''History of Mediaeval Bengal'', First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-89118-06-4}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate is known for enthroning one of the few female rulers in [[Islamic History|Islamic history]], [[Razia Sultana]].<ref>Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, [[Princeton University Press]]</ref> Many Muslims also went to [[Islam in China|China]] to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="china">{{cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

{{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}

[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ghazan Khan]], 7{{sup|th}} [[Ilkhanate]] ruler of the [[Mongol Empire]], converts to Islam]]

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas.{{sfnp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref> Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of "assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into... local religious systems",<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=[[Temple University Press]] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> The Turks probably found similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} Muslim Turks incorporated elements of [[Tengrism|Turkish Shamanism beliefs]] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century.<ref name=Peacock />{{rp|style=ama|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} [[Islam during the Ming dynasty|Muslims in China]], who were descended from earlier immigrants, were assimilated, sometimes by force, by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill/page/n62 37] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

While cultural influence used to radiate outward from Baghdad, after the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol destruction]] of the Abbasid Caliphate, Arab influence decreased.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> Iran and Central Asia, benefiting from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under [[Pax Mongolica|Mongol rule]], flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the [[Timurid Renaissance]] under the [[Timurid dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref> [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (1201–1274) proposed the [[Tusi couple|mathematical model]] that was later adopted by [[Copernicus]] unrevised in his heliocentric model and [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]]'s estimate of [[pi]] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021}}</ref> Many Muslim dynasties in India chose Persian as their court language.

The introduction of gunpowder weapons led to the rise of large centralized states and the Muslim [[Gunpowder empires]] consolidated much of the previously splintered territories. The [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]] was claimed by the [[Ottoman dynasty]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] since [[Murad&nbsp;I]]'s [[Ottoman conquest of Adrianople|conquest of Edirne]] in 1362,<ref>Hassan, Mona (2018). Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History. Princeton University Press.</ref> and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as [[Selim&nbsp;I]] became the [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques|ruler of Mecca and Medina]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf}}</ref> The Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> In South Asia, [[Babur]] founded the [[Mughal Empire]]. The Mughals made [[Mughal architecture|major contributions]] to Islamic architecture, including the [[Taj Mahal]] and [[Badshahi mosque]], and compiled the [[Fatwa Alamgiri]]. Mughal India surpassed [[Qing China]] to become the world's largest economy, worth 25% of world GDP,<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, pages 259–261</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 |title=How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-474-2997-5 |page=174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |title=Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-25758-9 |author-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam}}</ref> with the [[Bengal Subah]] signalling the [[proto-industrialization]] and showing signs of the [[Industrial revolution]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abhay Kumar Singh |title=Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800, (Volume 1) |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-7211-201-1}}</ref>

The religion of the centralized states of the Gunpowder empires impacted their constituent populations. A [[symbiosis]] between [[list of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rulers]] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. According to Ottoman historiography, the [[legitimation]] of a ruler is attributed to [[Sheikh Edebali]] who interpreted a dream of [[Osman I|Osman Gazi]] as God's legitimation of his reign.<ref>Jens Peter Laut ''Vielfalt türkischer Religionen'' Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (German) p. 31</ref> The [[Mevlevi Order]] and [[Bektashi Order]] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as [[heterodox]] and [[syncretic]] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wasserstein |first1=David J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGSTgfU7CQC&q=ottomans+sufism&pg=PA106 |title=Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter |last2=Ayalon |first2=Ami |date=17 June 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-57917-2 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref> The often forceful [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|Safavid conversion of Iran]] to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid dynasty  ensured the final dominance of the [[Twelver|Twelver sect]] within Shiism over the [[Ismaili]] sects and the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ismail Safavi |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2021 |reason=Did not find entry in online Encyclopædia Iranica.}}</ref> which had previously been the majority and oldest group among the Shia.<ref name=IslamicFinance>{{cite book |title=Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice |author=Mahmoud A. El-Gamal |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45716-3 |page=122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA118}}</ref><ref name=Arab-IsraeliConflict>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History |editor1=Spencer C. Tucker |editor2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917}}</ref><ref name=IraqEffect>{{cite book |title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War |author=Frederic M. Wehrey |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91}}</ref> [[Nader Shah]], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |author=Ernest Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=29 March 2006 |author=Ernest Tucker}}</ref>

=== Modern era (18th – 20th centuries) ===

Earlier in the 14th century, [[Ibn Taymiyya]] promoted a [[puritan]]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of [[itjihad]] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics<ref name="ReferenceD">Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130}}</ref> During the 18th&nbsp;century in Arabia, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]], founded a movement, called [[Wahhabi]] with their self-designation as ''Muwahiddun'',  to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later [[bidah|innovations]] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|tombs of Muhammad and his companions]] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shiite pilgrimage site.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=[[Libya Herald]] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> He formed an alliance with the [[House of Saud|Saud family]], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' [[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> [[Ma Wanfu]] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the nineteenth century such as [[Sailaifengye]] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M. |last=Rubin |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=wEih57-GWQQC|page=79}} |page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the [[Senusiyya]] and [[Muhammad Ahmad]] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the [[Deobandi]] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the [[Barelwi]] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular [[Sufism]] and reforming its practices.<ref name="Canfield2002">{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url={{Google books|g3JhKNSk8tQC|page=PA131|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |via=Cambridge Core}}</ref> The movement is famous for the celebration of the [[Mawlid|Muhammad's birthday]] and today, is spread across the globe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Search Results |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/search?siteToSearch=aup&q=barelvi&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true |website=oxfordreference.com}}</ref>

The [[Muslim world]] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially regarding non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the fifteenth century, the [[Reconquista]] succeeded in ending the [[Taifa|Muslim presence in Iberia]]. By the 19th&nbsp;century; the British [[Company rule in India|East India Company]] had formally annexed the [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to [[Imperialism|Western Imperialism]], many intellectuals sought to [[Islamic revival|reform Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> [[Islamic modernism]], initially labelled by Western scholars as [[Salafi movement|''Salafiyya'']], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented.<ref name="ReferenceG">Robert Rabil ''Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism'' [[Georgetown University Press]] 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-62616-118-4}} chapter: "Doctrine"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref> Notable forerunners include [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad 'Abduh]] and [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]].<ref name="ReferenceF">Henri Lauzière ''The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century'' [[Columbia University Press]] 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-231-54017-9}}</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=[[Economist Magazine]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014}}</ref> Similar to contemporary [[Civil code|codification]], Shariah was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's [[Mecelle]] code.<ref>Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law, ''Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran'' Routledge 2004 {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}</ref>

The [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire disintegrated]] after [[World War&nbsp;I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolished in 1924]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> by the first [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of the Turkish Republic]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], as part of his [[Atatürk's Reforms|secular reforms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPSGDwAAQBAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate&pg=PT317 |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey |date=26 August 2002 |publisher=[[Abrams Books]]|isbn=978-1-59020-924-0 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |date=29 April 1982 |title=The Caliphate and Ataturk's Inkilab |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iViDoAEACAAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate |access-date=29 April 2020 |publisher=[[Turkish Historical Society|Türk Tarih Kurumu]] |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Pan-Islam]]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as [[pan-Arabism]]. The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref>

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref> Muslim immigrants began arriving largely from former colonies in several Western European nations since the 1960s, many as [[guest workers]].

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref>  which performed well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011}}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in South Asia and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] monarchy with an [[Islamic state]]. Others such as [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis’ religious interpretations."}}</ref>  and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, USA|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West...  Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> While some were [[Political quietism in Islam|quietist]], others believed in violence against those opposing them even other Muslims, such as the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], who would even attempt to recreate the [[modern gold dinar]] as their monetary system.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

[[File:Ulu mosque, Utrecht 26.jpg|thumb|Ulu mosque in [[Utrecht]], Netherlands]]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out [[1997 Turkish military memorandum|coups]] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restriced, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularsim |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref> In other places religious power was co-opted, such as in Saudi Arabia, where the state monopolized religious scholarship and are often seen as puppets of the state<ref name="economist">{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> while Egypt nationalized [[Al-Azhar University]], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = Islamic liberalism: a critique of development ideologies | last = Binder | first = Leonard | author-link = Leonard Binder | year = 1988 | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pkNKPebCfwEC | isbn = 978-0-226-05147-5

}}</ref> Salafism was funded for it quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=[[MSNBC]]}}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to [[Iran]],<ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016}}</ref> Turkey<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 October 2018|title=Why dissidents are gathering in Istanbul |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/10/11/why-dissidents-are-gathering-in-istanbul|access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> and Qatar.

 

 

[[File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|World Muslim population by percentage ([[Pew Research Center]], 2014).]]

A 2015 demographic study reported that 24.1% of the global population, or 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="auto2">Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "[https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group]" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name=":3" /> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015 /> It has been estimated that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia,{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] Group |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu/page/n186 172] |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Islam in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Islam in India|India]], and [[Islam in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] alone.<ref name="USN&WR">{{cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]]}} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}} Most estimates indicate [[Islam in China|China]] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web |work=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> [[Islam in Europe]] is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref> [[Religious conversion]] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who [[convert to Islam|become Muslims through conversion]] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith".<ref name="The Future of the Global Muslim Population">{{Cite report|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith}}</ref> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high [[fertility rate|fertility-rate]] of Muslims relative to other religious groups".<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050]." [[Pew Research Center]]. p. 70 [https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ Article].</ref>

 

 

[[File:Sahih Al-Bukhari in English.png|thumb|right|The nine volumes of [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]], one of the [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six Sunni hadith books]]]]

Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni |title=Sunni |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the [[Sunnah|sunna]] (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet|author=Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki|date=1994|title=Ahl as-Sunnah|work=[[Islam Ansiklopedisi]] |volume=10|pages=525–530|publisher=Turkish Diyanet Foundation|location=Istanbul|lang=tr}}</ref> Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six major hadith works]] for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|pp=275, 306}}</ref>

 

 

In the 18th&nbsp;century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> A similar movement called [[Ahl al-Hadith]] also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The ''[[Nur movement|Nurcu]]'' Sunni movement was by [[Said Nursi]] (1877–1960);<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' [[M.E. Sharpe]] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science,<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /><ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' [[Indiana University Press]] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref> and has given rise to the [[Gülen movement]].

 

Shia Islam or Shi'ism, the second-largest Muslim denomination, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's [[Succession to Muhammad|successor]] as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the [[Ahl al-Bayt]] and those leaders, referred to as [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imam]]s, have additional spiritual authority.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|title=Shiʿi|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 December 2021}}</ref> Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as [[Ali]]. [[Zaidism|Zaidi]], the oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia sect.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQvhZaEVzjcC&q=zaydi+similar+sunni&pg=PA23 |title=Yemen: The Bradt Travel Guide - Daniel McLaughlin - Google Books |date= February 2008|access-date=30 November 2013|isbn=9781841622125 |last1=McLaughlin |first1=Daniel }}</ref><ref name=Arab-IsraeliConflict /><ref name=IraqEffect/> The [[Twelvers]], the largest Shiite branch, believe in [[twelve Imams]], the last of whom went into [[Occultation (Islam)|occultation]] to return one day. The [[Ismailism|Ismailis]] split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of Imams, with the largest being the [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari]]s.<ref name="Newman2013">{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|author-link=Andrew J. Newman|title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18|page=2|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

 

[[Ibadi Islam]] or [[Ibadism]] is practised by 1.45&nbsp;million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in [[Oman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vFq_KUqqWJMC|page=15}} |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |access-date=7 January 2015}}</ref> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the [[Khawarij]] movement, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the [[Jami Sahih]] collection, uses chains of narrators from early Islamic history they considered trustworthy but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<ref>{{Cite book|first= Valerie Jon|last= Hoffman|title= The Essentials of Ibadi Islam|location= [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]]|pages=3–4|publisher= [[Syracuse University Press]]|year= 2012|isbn= 9780815650843|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC}}</ref>

 

*[[Quranism|Quranists]] are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the [[Criticism of hadith|religious authority, reliability or authenticity]] of the hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.<ref name="The Quranists">{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742}}</ref> From the 19th&nbsp;century onward, hadith were questioned by [[Syed Ahmad Khan|Sayyid Ahmad Khan]], Abdullah Chakralawi, [[Ghulam Ahmed Perwez|Ghulam Ahmad Parwez]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=4 March 1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68}}</ref> and Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Magazine Al Manar |language=Arabic |url=http://archive.org/details/almanaralmanar}}</ref> Quranists differ in the practice of Islamic rituals from other Muslims in frequency of prayer, details of prayer, zakat, fasting, or the Hajj.<ref name="The Quranists" /> Quranists like [[Rashad Khalifa]] interpret 6:114 of the Quran to mean the Quran is already complete and detailed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.masjidtucson.org/quran/appendices/appendix18.html |title=Appendix 18, Quran: All You Need For Salvation |publisher=Masjidtucson.org |date= |accessdate=2022-06-30}}</ref>

* [[Alevism|Bektashi Alevism]] is a [[Syncretism|syncretic]] and [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical ([[Batin (Islam)|bāṭenī]]) teachings of Ali and [[Haji Bektash Veli]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BEKTĀŠĪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=www.iranicaonline.org}}</ref> Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th&nbsp;century,<ref name="ReferenceB">Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' [[Edinburgh University Press]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> such as [[Tengrism|Shamanism]] and [[Animism]], mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10&nbsp;million to over 20&nbsp;million (~ 0.5% - ~ 1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref>[http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf ''John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution''], PDF-Datei, See also [http://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi''], consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>

* The [[Ahmadiyya]] movement was founded by [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Who Are the Ahmadi? |work=bbc.co.uk |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8711026.stm |access-date=6 October 2013}}</ref> in [[India]] in 1889.<ref name="ahmadi">See:

* {{cite web |date=20 January 2012 |title=Ahmadiyya Muslims |work=Religion & Ethics Newsweekly |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/ |access-date=6 October 2013 |publisher=PBS}}</ref>{{efn|A figure of 10-20&nbsp;million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also: [[Ahmadiyya by country]].}} Ahmad claimed to be the "Promised Messiah" or "Imam Mahdi" of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA11 11]}} and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhume |first=Sadanand |date=1 December 2017 |title=Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/pakistan-persecutes-a-muslim-minority-1512087028 |access-date=14 July 2018 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref>

 

[[Non-denominational Muslims]] is an [[umbrella term]] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific [[Islamic denomination]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref name="Kirkham">{{Cite news |last=Kirkham |first=Bri |date=2015 |title=Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive |url=http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive |url-status=dead |access-date=21 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125113410/http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive |archive-date=25 November 2015 |quote=Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.}}</ref><ref name="Pollack">{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez |first=Ralph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vuNfXxnYWPIC|page=65}} |title=Truth in the Age of Bushism |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5 |page=65 |quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center]] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in [[Kazakhstan]] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.<ref name="Pew" />

 

{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}

Sufism (Arabic: {{lang-ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a [[mystical]]-[[ascetic]] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct [[Divine presence|personal experience of God]]. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''Tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>See:

* {{cite web |year=1997 |title=Afghanistan: A Country Study – Sufism |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061) |access-date=18 April 2007 |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Zarruq 2008">[[Ahmad Zarruq|Zarruq, Ahmed]], Zaineb Istrabadi, and [[Hamza Yusuf|Hamza Yusuf Hanson]]. 2008. ''The Principles of Sufism''. Amal Press.</ref> It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. [[Ismaili]] Shias, whose teachings root in [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neo-Platonism]],<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191-206.</ref> as well as by the [[Illuminationism|Illuminationist]] and [[School of Isfahan|Isfahan]] schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>[[Mehdi Aminrazavi|Aminrazavi, Mehdi]]. [2009] 2016. "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/ Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy]." ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', edited by [[Edward N. Zalta|E. N. Zalta]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> [[Hasan al-Basri]], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]] and [[Jalaluddin Rumi]], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with [[Rumi|Jalaluddin Rumi]] (1207–1273), still one of the best selling poets in America,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=30 September 2007 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> writing his Persian poem [[Masnawi]] and the works of [[Hafez]] (1315–1390) are often considered the pinnacle of Persian poetry.

 

Sufis see ''tasawwuf'' as an inseparable part of Islam, just like the ''sharia''.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Traditional Sufis, such as [[Bayazid Bastami]], Jalaluddin Rumi, [[Haji Bektash Veli]], [[Junaid Baghdadi]], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|p={{page needed|date=September 2021}}}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr |access-date=17 January 2015 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr/page/192 192]}}</ref>{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Historian [[Nile Green]] argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less ''Sufism''.<ref name=Peacock>{{Cite book |first1=A.C.S.|last1=Peacock|title=Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia|publisher= Cambridge University Press| date=2019|doi= 10.1017/9781108582124|isbn=978-1-108-58212-4|s2cid=211657444}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=77}}{{rp|style=ama|p=24}} Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of [[salafism]], who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in [[Sufi–Salafi relations]].

 

Sufi congregations form orders (''[[tariqa]]'') centered around a teacher (''[[wali]]'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa &#124; Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cook |first=David |date=4 May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |doi-access=free |postscript={{which|date=September 2021|reason=The original ref had pieces of both.}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Stoeber |first=Michael |date=3 September 2015 |title=The Comparative Study of Mysticism |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.93 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |postscript={{which|date=September 2021|reason=The original ref had pieces of both.}}}}</ref> Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or [[Barelvi]] movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |year=2003 |c=Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101 |in=Esposito}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709}}</ref> as well as in African countries like [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=[[International Journal of African Historical Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref>

 

 

Traditional [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|theory of Islamic jurisprudence]] recognizes four [[sources of sharia]]: the Quran, sunnah (''Hadith'' and [[prophetic biography|''Sira'']]), [[qiyas]] (analogical reasoning), and ''[[ijma]]'' (juridical consensus).<ref name="Esposito, John 2001">{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> Different [[Madhhab|legal schools]] developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ''[[ijtihad]]''.<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Islamic Law |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,''[[Ibadah|ʿibādāt]]'' (rituals) and ''[[Muamalat|muʿāmalāt]]'' (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.<ref name="ODI" /> Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called [[ahkam]]: mandatory (''[[fard]]''), recommended (''[[mustahabb]]''), permitted (''[[mubah]]''), abhorred (''[[makruh]]''), and prohibited (''[[haram]]'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam{{sfnp|Leaman|2006|page=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=214}} 214]}} and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=116}} 116]}}<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|41|34|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref> Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.<ref name="vikor" />

 

Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists ([[mufti]]s). Their legal opinions ([[fatwa]]) were taken into account by ruler-appointed [[Qadi|judges]] who presided over [[Qadi|qāḍī]]'s courts, and by ''[[Mazalim|maẓālim]]'' courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The [[Ottoman Empire]]'s 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms lead to the [[Mecelle]] civil code and represented the first attempt to [[Codification (law)|codify]] sharia.<ref>[[Ashk Dahlén|Dahlen, Ashk]]. 2004. ''Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}.</ref> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in [[Status (law)|personal status]] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 Law. Modern Legal Reform]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> The [[Islamic revival]] of the late 20th&nbsp;century brought along calls by [[Islamist]] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, [[freedom of thought]], and [[women's rights]].<ref name="naim96">{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A. |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref name="hajjar2004">{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=[[Law & Social Inquiry]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref><ref>Al-Suwaidi, J. 1995. ''Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, War, and Peace in the Middle East'', edited by D. Garnham and M. A. Tessler. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-253-20939-9}}. see Chapters 5 and 6.{{page needed|date=April 2016}}</ref>

 

A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a ''madhhab'' ({{lang-ar|مذهب}}). The four major Sunni schools are the [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]] madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the [[Ja'fari]], [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called ''[[Usul al-fiqh]]'' ("principles of jurisprudence"). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called ''[[taqlid]]''. The term ''[[Salafi movement|ghair muqallid]]'' literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ''ijtihad''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=3, 161}}

 

Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the [[sacerdotalism|sacerdotal]] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. ''[[Imam]]'' ({{lang-ar|إمام|label=none}}) is the religious title used for the individual who leads an Islamic worship service.

 

 

 

 

 

In [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]], hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus [[monopoly|monopolistic]] behavior is frowned upon.<ref>Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref> Attempts to comply with shariah has led to the development of [[Islamic banking]]. Islam prohibits ''[[riba]]'', usually translated as [[usury]], which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karim, Shafiel A. |title=The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments |publisher=[[Brown Walker Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59942-539-9 |location=Boca Raton, FL}}</ref> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foster|first=John |date=1 December 2009|title=How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8388644.stm|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref>  and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which substantially protected them from the [[2008 financial crisis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Domat|first=Chloe|date=20 October 2020|title=What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?|work=Global Finance magazine|url=https://www.gfmag.com/topics/blogs/islamic-finance-faq-what-islamic-finance-and-how-does-it-work|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The state used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as [[Bayt al-mal]], before it became a largely individual pursuit. The first [[Caliph]], [[Abu Bakr]], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a [[guaranteed minimum income]], with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 [[dirhams]] annually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|VICE]]}}</ref> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, [[child support]] was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<ref>Quddus, Syed Abdul. ''The Challenge of Islamic Renaissance''.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> while the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]] assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Al-Jawzi|first1=Ibn |url=|title=The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph |publisher=IUR Press |year=2001 |isbn= |page=130 }}</ref>

 

Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of [[wikt:disapprobation|disapprobation]]".{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}} This could refer to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection<ref name=":17">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=Asma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>See:

* {{harvp|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}

* {{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> with the Shia and Sufis in particular, distinguishing between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual [[self-improvement|self-perfection]], and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2">{{harvc|last=Tyan, E. |year=2012 |c=D̲j̲ihād |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}}<ref name=":17" /> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2" /> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. [[Yale University Press]]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="EI2" /> For most [[Twelver|Twelver Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamate in Twelver doctrine|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s [[occultation (Islam)|occultation]] is 868&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|p=72}}

 

Many daily practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a [[moral character|good character]] as Muhammad said: "The best among you are those who have the best manners and character."<ref group="lower-roman">{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|8|73|56|usc=yes}}</ref> This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu 'alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[Basmala|bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking.

 

Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and [[carrion]]. Health is viewed as a trust from God and [[khamr|intoxicants]], such as [[alcoholic drink]]s, are prohibited.<ref name="Bahammam">{{cite book|author=Fahd Salem Bahammam|title=Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRojJ7lnb18C&pg=PP1|publisher=Modern Guide|isbn=978-1-909322-99-8|page=1}}</ref> All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself.<ref>See:

* {{cite web |last=Ghamidi |first=Javed Ahmad |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html |title=The Dietary Laws |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502045147/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html}}

* {{harvc |c=Slaughter |author=Ersilia Francesca |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<ref>{{Cite news |last=De Sondy |first=Amanullah  |date=28 January 2016|title=The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one|work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/28/muslim-men-beards-facial-hair-islam |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Tahir|date=30 December 2021|title=Taliban Call on Barbershops to Not Shave, Trim Beards |work=[[Voice of America]] |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-call-on-barbershops-to-not-shave-trim-beards-/6376027.html|access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> and body modifications, such as [[Religious perspectives on tattooing#Islam|permanent tattoos]], are usually forbidden as violating the creation.{{efn|Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted [[footbinding]] of girls for the same reason.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg|quote=mohammedan.|title=The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity|author=James Legge|year=1880|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=LONDON|page=[https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg/page/111 111]|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> }}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/tattoos-in-islam-2004393|title=Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos? |website=|access-date=7 March 2022 }}</ref> Gold and silk for men are prohibited and are seen as extravagant.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://classroom.synonym.com/are-silk-ties-permissible-in-islam-12086494.html|title=Are Silk Ties Permissible in Islam? |website=|access-date=7 March 2022 }}</ref> ''[[Haya (Islam)|Haya]]'', often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zine |first1=Jasmin |last2=Babana-Hampton |first2=Safoi |last3=Mazid |first3=Nergis |last4=Bullock |first4=Katherine |last5=Chishti |first5=Maliha |title=American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4 |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JM4DwAAQBAJ&q=haya+islam&pg=PA59 |access-date=4 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, [[Islamic clothing|clothing in Islam]] emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the [[hijab]] for women. Similarly, [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|personal hygiene]] is encouraged with certain requirements.

 

In [[Marriage in Islam|Islamic marriage]], the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'').<ref>See:

* {{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=339}}

Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications|Oneworld]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb/page/141 141]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 68]}}</ref> However, Muslim men are allowed to practice [[polygyny]] and can have up to four wives at the same time. There are also cultural variations in weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The [[Islamic Texts Society]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato/page/92 92–93]}}</ref> [[Polyandry]], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref>

 

After the birth of a child, the [[Adhan]] is pronounced in the right ear.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=106}} On the seventh day, the ''[[aqiqah]]'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} 120]}} The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} 120]}} [[Khitan (circumcision)|Male circumcision]] is practised. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}}<ref>[[Muhammad Shafi Usmani]]. ''[[Maariful Quran]]''. English trans. By [[Muhammad Taqi Usmani]]</ref>

 

 

 

[[Islamic art]] encompasses the [[visual arts]] including fields as varied as architecture, [[calligraphy]], painting, and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |first2=Oleg |last2=Grabar |first3=Marilyn |last3=Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 3]}}</ref> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with [[Aniconism in Islam|laws against idolatry]], this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[tessellation]], and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref> In [[Islamic architecture]], varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] containing [[marble]] and [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> while [[mosques in Indonesia]] often have multi-tiered roofs from local [[Java]]nese styles.

 

The [[Islamic calendar]] is a [[lunar calendar]] that begins with the [[Hegira|Hijra]] of 622&nbsp;CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<ref>"[http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/Sacred-Time.html Sacred Time]." ''[[Patheos]]''. 2020.</ref>{{bsn|date=May 2022}} Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in [[seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic|عيد الف) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic|عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{harvc |last=Ghamidi(a) |first=Javed Ahmad |year=2001 |c=Customs and Behavioral Laws |pp=321–333 |in=Ghamidi |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923142412/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html}}</ref>

 

 

{{See also|Islam and Druze}}

Some movements, such as the [[Druze]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse/page/114 114] |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse/page/33 33] |quote=Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Stewart |first=Dona |title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-135-98079-5 |page=33 |quote=Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and kept their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref> [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. [[Yazdânism]] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to [[Kurdistan]] by [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir]] in the 12th&nbsp;century. [[Bábism]] stems from Twelver Shia passed through [[Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab]] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri [[Baha'u'llah]] founded the [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref>{{cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late-fifteenth-century [[Punjab]], primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' [[University of Tennessee Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>

 

 

 

 

Defamatory images of [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Muhammad]], derived from early 7th&nbsp;century depictions of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Church]],<ref name="ReferenceH">[[Minou Reeves|Reeves, Minou]], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. [[New York University Press|NYU Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]].<ref name="auto">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. [[Springer Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 132.</ref> Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of [[schism]], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="auto" />

 

 

===Footnotes===

{{notelist}}

 

===Qur'an and hadith===

{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}

 

===Citations===

{{reflist}}

===Sources===

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{{Refend}}

* [https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/encyclopedia-of-sahih-al-bukhari-arabic-virtual-translation-center/1134457685?ean=2940160787701 Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari] by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, [[Barnes & Noble]] {{ISBN|978-0-359-67265-3}}). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.

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* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |first2=Almas |last2=Heshmati |first3=Hichem |last3=Karoui |publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers]] |place=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |edition=1st |author-link=Arno Tausch}} Prepublication text available at: {{cite web |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |last2=Heshmati |first2=Almas |last3=Karoui |first3=Hichem |date=January 2014 |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218}}

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