Islam: Difference between revisions

{{Infobox religion|name=Islam|native_name={{nobold|{{Script/Arabic|الاسلام}}<br/>''al-’Islām''}}|native_name_lang=<!-- ar -->|image=Kaaba Mirror like.jpg|caption=The [[Kaaba]] at [[Masjid al-Haram]] in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[Holiest sites in Islam|holiest site in Islam]]|type=[[Universal religion]]|main_classification=[[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]]|scripture=[[Quran]]|theology=[[Monotheism]]|language=[[Classical Arabic]]|territory=[[Muslim world]]|founder=[[Muhammad]]|founded_date=7th century CE|founded_place=[[Jabal al-Nour]]<!-- Beginnings are understood to be where Muhammad is said to have received his first ever revelation, which was inside a cave in this mountain -->, [[Mecca]], [[Hejaz]], [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]|members={{circa|2 billion}} (referred to as [[Muslims]] who make up the [[Ummah]])|separations = [[Bábism]],<ref name="browne">{{cite book |url=http://bahai-library.com/browne_babism |title=Bábism |first=Edward G. |last=Browne |author-link=E.G. Browne |year=1889}}</ref> [[Druze|Druzism]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies| first=Shireen|last= Hunter|year=2010| isbn=9780253345493| page = 33|publisher=University of Michigan Press|quote= Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634| page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is consider distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze do not  identify as Muslims..}}</ref> and partly [[Sikhism]]<ref>Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), ''The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723134}}, p. 40</ref>}}

'''Islam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}};{{efn|1=There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is {{IPAc-en|z}} or {{IPAc-en|s}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} or (when the stress is on the first syllable) {{IPAc-en|ə}} (''[[Merriam Webster]]''). The most common are {{IPAc-en|ɪ|15=ˈ|26=ə|25=l|24=s|23=ɪ|22=ˈ|21=,_|20=m|19=ə|18=l|17=z|16=ɪ|14=,_|z|13=m|12=ɑː|11=l|10='|9=s|8=ɪ|7=,_|6=m|5=ɑː|4=l|ˈ|27=m}} (''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}} (''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'').}} {{lang-ar| الاسلام|al-’Islām}} {{IPA-ar|ɪsˈlaːm||ar-islam.ogg|}}, {{Translation|"Submission [to [[God in Islam|God]]]"}})<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam {{!}} Religion, Beliefs, Practices, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Islam |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Islam {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en}}</ref> is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]], [[Monotheism#Islam|monotheistic religion]] centred primarily<!-- "Primarily" leads into the value of Muhammad's teachings and practices as the second-most important aspect of observance. --> around the [[Quran]], a religious text that is considered by [[Muslims]]<ref>"[https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim Muslim]." ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''. UK: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2020.</ref> to be the direct word of [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]] as it was revealed to [[Muhammad]], the [[Muhammad in Islam|main Islamic prophet]].<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 quick reference].) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref name="OEIW-allah2">Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 quick reference].) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"</ref> It is the [[Major religious groups|world's second-largest religion]] with more than two billion followers, covering 24.9 percent of the global population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country |title=Muslim Population By Country 2021 |website=World Population Review |access-date=22 July 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Pew2">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615053333/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> Islam teaches that God (or ''[[Allah]]'') is [[Mercy#Islam|merciful]], [[Omnipotence|all-powerful]], and [[Tawhid|unique]],{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}} and has guided humanity through [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|various prophets]], [[Islamic holy books|revealed scriptures]], and [[Āyah|natural signs]], with the Quran serving as the final, universal revelation and Muhammad serving as the [[Seal of the Prophets]].<ref name="OEIW-allah2" /><ref>[[İbrahim Özdemir|Özdemir, İbrahim]]. 2014. "Environment." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam''}}, edited by [[İbrahim Kalın|I. Kalin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-981257-8}}. "When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment.... The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator."</ref> The teachings and practices of Muhammad (''[[sunnah]]'') documented in traditional collected accounts (''[[hadith]]'') provide a secondary constitutional model for Muslims to follow after the Quran.<ref>Goldman, Elizabeth. 1995. ''Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-508240-1}}. p. 63.</ref>

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a [[Fitra|primordial faith]] that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=177}}</ref> these earlier revelations are attributed to [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], which are regarded in Islam as [[People of the Book|spiritual predecessor faiths]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Connections . Religion {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> They also consider the Quran, when preserved in [[Classical Arabic]], to be the unaltered and final revelation of God to humanity.{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}} Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches a [[Last Judgment|Final Judgement]] wherein the righteous will be rewarded in [[paradise]] (''[[Jannah]]'') and the unrighteous will be punished in [[hell]] (''[[Jahannam]]'').<ref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Eschatology |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are considered to be obligatory acts of worship, as well as following Islamic law (''[[sharia]]''), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society from [[Islamic banking and finance|banking and finance]] and [[Zakat|welfare]] to [[Women in Islam|women's roles]] and the [[Islamic ethics#Environmentalism|environment]].{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}}<ref name=":15">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Noel James |last=Coulson |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shariah |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}} (See also: "[https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia sharia]" via ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''.)</ref> The cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], and [[Jerusalem]] are home to the [[holiest sites in Islam|three holiest sites in Islam]], in descending order: [[Masjid al-Haram]], [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]], and [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]].<ref>[[Yaroslav Trofimov|Trofimov, Yaroslav]]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. [[Knopf]]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>

From a historical point of view, [[Muhammad's first revelation|Islam originated]] in the early 7th&nbsp;century&nbsp;CE in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], near Mecca.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=AQUZ6BGyohQC|page=5}} |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5}}</ref> Through various [[caliphate]]s, the religion later [[Spread of Islam|spread outside of Arabia]] shortly after Muhammad's death, and by the 8th&nbsp;century, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] had imposed Islamic rule from the [[Al-Andalus|Iberian Peninsula]] in the west to the [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Indus Valley]] in the east. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th&nbsp;century to the 13th&nbsp;century, during the reign of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], when much of the [[Muslim world]] was experiencing a [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|scientific]], [[History of Islamic economics#Classical Muslim commerce|economic]], and cultural flourishing.<ref>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: [[New York University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: [[Ibn Khaldun International Institute of Advanced Research|International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization]]. Archived from the [http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html original] on 2 April 2015.</ref> The expansion of the Muslim world involved [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|various states and caliphates]] such as the [[Ottoman Empire]], extensive trade, and religious conversion as a result of [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionary activities]] (''[[dawah]]'').<ref>[[Thomas Walker Arnold|Arnold, Thomas Walker]]. ''The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.'' pp. 125–258.</ref>

Most of the world's Muslims belong to two notable [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic denominations]]: [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85–90 percent)<ref name="Denny">Denny, Frederick. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3 ''Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide'']. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."</ref> or [[Shia Islam|Shia]] (10–15 percent);<ref name="CIA Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Field Listing :: Religions |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="berkleycenter-sunni">{{cite web |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=24 May 2020 |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} combined, they make up a majority of the population in [[Islam by country|49 countries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref><ref>[[Pew Forum|The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]]. December 2012. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010]." DC: Pew Research Center. [https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ Article].</ref> [[Shia–Sunni relations|Sunni–Shia differences]] arose from disagreements over the [[succession to Muhammad]] and acquired broader political significance as well as [[Schools of Islamic theology|theological]] and [[Fiqh|juridical]] dimensions.<ref name="EMMENA">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> About 12&nbsp;percent of Muslims live in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], the most populous Muslim-majority country;<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "[https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050]" (projections table). [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}&nbsp;percent live in [[Islam in South Asia|South Asia]];<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kaubzRxh-U0C}} |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193]}}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 315/1571 round 0}}&nbsp;percent live in the [[MENA#Religion|Middle East–North Africa]]; and 15&nbsp;percent live in [[Sub-Saharan Africa#Religion|sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite report |date=27 January 2011 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the [[Islam in the Americas|Americas]], [[Islam in China|China]], and [[Islam in Europe|Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |website=[[Al Jazeera]] |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency|Anadolu News Agency]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=13 January 2019}}</ref> Islam is the [[Growth of religion|fastest-growing major religion]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Daniel |date=2 April 2015 |title=The world's fastest-growing religion is... |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/ |access-date=18 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="USNewsLippman22">Lippman, Thomas W. 7 April 2008. "[https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god No God But God]." ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''. Retrieved 24 May 2020. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."</ref>

The word ''"silm"'' ({{lang-ar|سِلْم}}) in Arabic means both peace and also the religion of Islam.<ref name="CA">{{Cite web |date=20 June 2020 |title=What Does "Islam" Mean? |url=https://classicalarabic.org/2020/06/19/what-does-islam-mean/ |access-date=20 June 2020 |website=Classical Arabic}}</ref> A common linguistic phrase demonstrating its usage is "he entered into ''as-silm''" ({{lang-ar|دَخَلَ فِي السِّلْمِ}}) which means "he entered into Islam," with a connotation of finding peace by submitting one's will to the [[Predestination in Islam|Will]] of God.<ref name="CA" /> The word "Islam" can be used in a linguistic sense of submission or in a technical sense of the religion of Islam, which also is called ''as-silm'' which means peace.<ref name="CA" />

* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the [[Christian Trinity]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Ma'idah – 5:73 |url=https://quran.com/5/73?translations=131 |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=quran.com}}</ref> and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as [[idolatory]], called [[Shirk (Islam)|''shirk'']]. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, therefore Muslims are not [[iconodule]]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several [[Names of God in Islam|names or attributes]], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان)'' meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and ''Ar-Rahīm ( الرحيم)'' meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref name="Ben2">{{Cite book |last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |date=1999 |publisher=[[William Carey Library]] |isbn=978-0-87808-299-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the [[universe]] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "[[Be, and it is]],"<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q2:117]] {{Cite quran|2|117|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and that the [[Purpose of life|purpose of existence]] is to worship God.<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q51:56]] {{Cite quran|51|56|style=ref}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html |access-date=24 May 2020 |website=Patheos}}</ref><ref>Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> He is viewed as a personal god<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q2:186]] {{Cite quran|2|186|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> and there are no intermediaries, such as [[clergy]], to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as [[Taqwa]]. ''[[Allāh]]'' is a term with no [[plural]] or [[gender]] being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' ({{lang-ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>See:

*{{Cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=[[PBS]]}}

* {{harvc|c=Tahrif |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh}}</ref> while the Quran (lit. "Recitation")<ref name=":8" /><ref>See:

* {{harvc|c=Sunna|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as [[hadith]], which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. [[Hadith qudsi|Hadith Qudsi]] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called [[Hadith studies#Traditional importance of the sanad|''sanad'']], and the actual wording, called ''[[Hadith studies|matn]]''. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading being: "authentic" or "correct" ({{lang-ar|صحيح|links=no|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ṣaḥīḥ|ṣaḥīḥ]]|label=none}}); "good", ''[[Hasan (hadith)|hasan]]'' ({{lang-ar|حسن|links=no|label=none|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ḥasan|ḥasan]]}}); or "weak" ({{lang-ar|ضعيف|label=none|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ḍaʻīf|ḍaʻīf]]}}), among others. The ''[[Kutub al-Sittah]]'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in [[Sunnism]]. Among them is ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]'', often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most [[Hadith terminology#Terminology relating to the authenticity of a hadith|authentic]] sources after the Quran.<ref>Brown, Jonathan. 2007. {{URL|{{google books|plainurl=y|id=nyMKDEAb4GsC}}|''The Canonization of Al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon''}}{{page needed|date=April 2016}}. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. {{ISBN|978-90-04-15839-9}}.</ref><ref name="Muqaddimah">[[Aisha Abd al-Rahman|al-Rahman, Aisha Abd]], ed. 1990. ''[[Introduction to the Science of Hadith|Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ]]''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another famous source of hadiths is known as ''[[The Four Books]]'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref name="Meri">{{Cite book |last=Meri, Josef W. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |location=USA}}</ref><ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. "[https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books The Four Books]." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>[[Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi|Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar]]. "[https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu’l-Arb’ah)]." Ch 4 in ''The Qur’an and Hadith''. Tanzania: [[Bilal Muslim Mission]]. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref>

The concept of [[Divinity|divine]] decree and [[destiny]] in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. ''Al-qadar'', meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |date=2002 |title=Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>See:

* {{harvc |last=Gardet|first=L.|year=2012|c=al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa ’l-Ḳadar |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase [[Inshallah|"Insha-Allah"]] meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |publisher=BBC |work=Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Abdur Rashid |title=Qur'anic Keywords: a Reference Guide |date=2015 |publisher=Kube Publishing |author2=((Islamic Foundation Staff (Great Britain) )) |isbn=978-0-86037-676-7 |location=New York |oclc=947732907}}</ref> In addition to loss, gain is also seen as a test of believers – whether they would still recognize that the gain originates only from God.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |last2=Buckles|first2=Luke|title=Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions|date=2004 |publisher=Alpha|isbn=978-1-59257-222-9 |location=|oclc=}}</ref>

There are five obligatory acts of worship – the [[Shahada]], the five daily prayers, the [[Zakat]] alms-giving, [[fasting during Ramadan]] and the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|title=Pillars of Islam &#124; Islamic Beliefs & Practices &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> Apart from these, Muslims also perform other supplemental religious acts.

The [[Shahada|''shahadah'']],{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|pp=3, 39, 85, 270–272}} is an [[oath]] declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{lang-ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that there is no [[deity]] except [[God in Islam|God]] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." ''[[Journal of Law and Religion]]'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to [[Religious conversion#Islam|convert to Islam]] are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<ref>{{harvc |last=Kasim |first=Husain |year=2004 |c=Islam |pp=195–197 |in=Salamone}}</ref>{{sfnp|Farah|1994|p=135}}<ref>Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, USA: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003</ref>

{{Main|History of Islam|Timeline of Islamic history|Spread of Islam}}

* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref><ref name=":04">{{Cite web |date=8 October 2019 |orig-year=5 January 2018 |title=Islam |website=[[History Channel]] |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]] |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam |access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref>

Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur'an. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the influential committee, [[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> headed by [[Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr|Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]].{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=522}} [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the ''[[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Muwatta' |url=http://bewley.virtualave.net/muwcont.html |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=d5Ks31qHlSYC}} |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Va6oSxzojzoC}} |pages=207–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=[[Moshe Sharon]] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264}}</ref> The [[Kharijites]] believed there is no compromised middle ground between good and evil and any Muslim committing a grave sin becomes an unbeliever, with the term also used to refer to later groups such as [[Islamic State|Isis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mamouri|first=Ali |date=8 January 2015 |title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022}}</ref> Conversely, an early sect, the [[Murji'ah]] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone and that wrongdoers might be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} and this attitude came to prevail into the mainstream.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}}

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the [[Berber Revolt]] leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the [[Abbasid revolution]], non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), Arabs clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}

* {{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref> Avicenna pioneered the science of [[Medical research|experimental medicine]],<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref> and was the first [[physician]] to conduct [[clinical trials]].<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> His two most notable works, ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', were used as standard medicinal texts in the Islamic world and later in [[Europe]]. Amongst his contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008" /> and the introducing [[clinical pharmacology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brater |first1=D. Craig |last2=Daly |first2=Walter J. |year=2000 |title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century |journal=[[Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics]] |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=447–450 [448] |doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 |pmid=10824622 |s2cid=45980791}}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the mathematician [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to the concept of the [[algorithm]], while the term [[algebra]] is derived from ''al-jabr''.<ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|Toomer, Gerald]] (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]]. {{ISBN|0-684-16962-2}}.</ref> [[Public hospital]]s established during this time (called [[Bimaristan]] hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=The scientific institutions in the medieval Near East |last1=Micheau |first1=Françoise |pages=991–992 |editor-last1=Rāshid |editor-first1=Rushdī |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Volume 3: Technology, alchemy and life sciences |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |year=1996 |url={{Google books|mnAXV09Z5bIC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-415-12412-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate |website=Planetseed.com |url=https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715091828/https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref name="Alatas">{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> The [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242 242] |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> The doctorate is argued to date back to the [[Ijazah|licenses to teach]] in Islamic [[law schools]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=George |date=April–June 1989 |title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 [175–177] |doi=10.2307/604423 |jstor=604423}}</ref> Standards of experimental and [[Quantification (science)|quantification]] techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,<ref name="Ahmed">{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}. "Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."</ref> were introduced. An important pioneer in this, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (c.&nbsp;965 – c.&nbsp;040) is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<ref name="Haq">[[Nomanul Haq|Haq, Syed]] (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. {{ISSN|1703-7603}}. Retrieved 22 October 2014</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008}}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name="Ahmed" /> It is argued that that [[Al-Jahiz]] (776–868/869) proposed a theory of [[natural selection]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=30 January 2008 |title=It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton |website=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=29 January 2008 |title=Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |access-date=13 December 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723135408/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2009}}</ref> The [[Persian literature|Persian poet]] [[Ferdowsi]] (940–1019/1025) wrote his [[epic poem]] ''[[Shahnameh]]''.

Religious missions converted [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. In the [[Indian Subcontinent]], during the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the Indian [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionaries]] achieved their greatest success in terms of ''[[dawah]]'' and the number of converts to Islam.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227-228</ref><ref>Majumdar, Dr. R.C., ''History of Mediaeval Bengal'', First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-89118-06-4}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate is known for enthroning one of the few female rulers in [[Islamic History|Islamic history]], [[Razia Sultana]].<ref>Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, [[Princeton University Press]]</ref> Many Muslims also went to [[Islam in China|China]] to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="china">{{Cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas.{{sfnp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref> Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of "assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into... local religious systems",<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=[[Temple University Press]] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> The Turks probably found similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} Muslim Turks incorporated elements of [[Tengrism|Turkish Shamanism beliefs]] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century.<ref name=Peacock />{{rp|style=ama|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} [[Islam during the Ming dynasty|Muslims in China]], who were descended from earlier immigrants, were assimilated, sometimes by force, by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill/page/n62 37] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

While cultural influence used to radiate outward from Baghdad, after the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol destruction]] of the Abbasid Caliphate, Arab influence decreased.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> Iran and Central Asia, benefiting from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under [[Pax Mongolica|Mongol rule]], flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the [[Timurid Renaissance]] under the [[Timurid dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref> [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (1201–1274) proposed the [[Tusi couple|mathematical model]] that was later adopted by [[Copernicus]] unrevised in his heliocentric model and [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]]'s estimate of [[pi]] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021}}</ref> Many Muslim dynasties in India chose Persian as their court language.

Earlier in the 14th century, [[Ibn Taymiyya]] promoted a [[puritan]]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of [[itjihad]] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics<ref name="ReferenceD">Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130}}</ref> During the 18th&nbsp;century in Arabia, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]], founded a movement, called [[Wahhabi]] with their self-designation as ''Muwahiddun'',  to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later [[bidah|innovations]] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|tombs of Muhammad and his companions]] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shiite pilgrimage site.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=[[Libya Herald]] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> He formed an alliance with the [[House of Saud|Saud family]], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' [[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> [[Ma Wanfu]] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the nineteenth century such as [[Sailaifengye]] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M. |last=Rubin |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=wEih57-GWQQC|page=79}} |page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the [[Senusiyya]] and [[Muhammad Ahmad]] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the [[Deobandi]] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the [[Barelwi]] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular [[Sufism]] and reforming its practices.<ref name="Canfield2002">{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url={{Google books|g3JhKNSk8tQC|page=PA131|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |via=Cambridge Core}}</ref> The movement is famous for the celebration of the [[Mawlid|Muhammad's birthday]] and today, is spread across the globe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/search?siteToSearch=aup&q=barelvi&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true |website=oxfordreference.com}}</ref>

The [[Muslim world]] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially regarding non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the fifteenth century, the [[Reconquista]] succeeded in ending the [[Taifa|Muslim presence in Iberia]]. By the 19th&nbsp;century; the British [[Company rule in India|East India Company]] had formally annexed the [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to [[Imperialism|Western Imperialism]], many intellectuals sought to [[Islamic revival|reform Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> [[Islamic modernism]], initially labelled by Western scholars as [[Salafi movement|''Salafiyya'']], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented.<ref name="ReferenceG">Robert Rabil ''Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism'' [[Georgetown University Press]] 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-62616-118-4}} chapter: "Doctrine"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref>                     Notable forerunners include [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad 'Abduh]] and [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]].<ref name="ReferenceF">Henri Lauzière ''The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century'' [[Columbia University Press]] 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-231-54017-9}}</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=[[Economist Magazine]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014}}</ref> Similar to contemporary [[Civil code|codification]], Shariah was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's [[Mecelle]] code.<ref>Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law, ''Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran'' Routledge 2004 {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}</ref>

The [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire disintegrated]] after [[World War&nbsp;I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolished in 1924]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> by the first [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of the Turkish Republic]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], as part of his [[Atatürk's Reforms|secular reforms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPSGDwAAQBAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate&pg=PT317 |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey |date=26 August 2002 |publisher=[[Abrams Books]]|isbn=978-1-59020-924-0 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |date=29 April 1982 |title=The Caliphate and Ataturk's Inkilab |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iViDoAEACAAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate |access-date=29 April 2020 |publisher=[[Turkish Historical Society|Türk Tarih Kurumu]] |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Pan-Islam]]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as [[pan-Arabism]]. The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref>

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref>  which performed well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011}}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in South Asia and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] monarchy with an [[Islamic state]]. Others such as [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis’ religious interpretations."}}</ref>  and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, USA|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West...  Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> While some were [[Political quietism in Islam|quietist]], others believed in violence against those opposing them even other Muslims, such as the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], who would even attempt to recreate the [[modern gold dinar]] as their monetary system.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

}}</ref> Salafism was funded for it quietism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=[[MSNBC]]}}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to [[Iran]],<ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016}}</ref> Turkey<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 October 2018|title=Why dissidents are gathering in Istanbul |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/10/11/why-dissidents-are-gathering-in-istanbul|access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> and Qatar.

A 2015 demographic study reported that 24.1% of the global population, or 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="auto2">Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "[https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group]" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name=":3" /> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015 /> It has been estimated that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia,{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] Group |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu/page/n186 172] |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, and 683 million adherents in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Islam in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Islam in India|India]], and [[Islam in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] alone.<ref name="USN&WR">{{Cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]]}} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}} Most estimates indicate [[Islam in China|China]] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{Cite web |work=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> [[Islam in Europe]] is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref> [[Religious conversion]] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who [[convert to Islam|become Muslims through conversion]] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith".<ref name="The Future of the Global Muslim Population">{{Cite report|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith}}</ref> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high [[fertility rate|fertility-rate]] of Muslims relative to other religious groups".<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050]." [[Pew Research Center]]. p. 70 [https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ Article].</ref>

*[[Quranism|Quranists]] are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the [[Criticism of hadith|religious authority, reliability or authenticity]] of the hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.<ref name="The Quranists">{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742}}</ref> From the 19th&nbsp;century onward, hadith were questioned by [[Syed Ahmad Khan|Sayyid Ahmad Khan]], Abdullah Chakralawi, [[Ghulam Ahmed Perwez|Ghulam Ahmad Parwez]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=4 March 1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68}}</ref> and Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Magazine Al Manar |language=Arabic |url=http://archive.org/details/almanaralmanar}}</ref> Quranists differ in the practice of Islamic rituals from other Muslims in frequency of prayer, details of prayer, zakat, fasting, or the Hajj.<ref name="The Quranists" />

* [[Alevism|Bektashi Alevism]] is a [[Syncretism|syncretic]] and [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical ([[Batin (Islam)|bāṭenī]]) teachings of Ali and [[Haji Bektash Veli]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=BEKTĀŠĪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=www.iranicaonline.org}}</ref> Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th&nbsp;century,<ref name="ReferenceB">Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' [[Edinburgh University Press]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> such as [[Tengrism|Shamanism]] and [[Animism]], mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10&nbsp;million to over 20&nbsp;million (~ 0.5% - ~ 1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref>[http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf ''John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution''], PDF-Datei, See also [http://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi''], consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>

* {{Cite web |date=20 January 2012 |title=Ahmadiyya Muslims |work=Religion & Ethics Newsweekly |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/ |access-date=6 October 2013 |publisher=PBS}}</ref>{{efn|A figure of 10-20&nbsp;million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also: [[Ahmadiyya by country]].}} Ahmad claimed to be the "Promised Messiah" or "Imam Mahdi" of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA11 11]}} and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhume |first=Sadanand |date=1 December 2017 |title=Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/pakistan-persecutes-a-muslim-minority-1512087028 |access-date=14 July 2018 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref>

* {{Cite web |year=1997 |title=Afghanistan: A Country Study – Sufism |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061) |access-date=18 April 2007 |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Zarruq 2008">[[Ahmad Zarruq|Zarruq, Ahmed]], Zaineb Istrabadi, and [[Hamza Yusuf|Hamza Yusuf Hanson]]. 2008. ''The Principles of Sufism''. Amal Press.</ref> It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. [[Ismaili]] Shias, whose teachings root in [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neo-Platonism]],<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191-206.</ref> as well as by the [[Illuminationism|Illuminationist]] and [[School of Isfahan|Isfahan]] schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>[[Mehdi Aminrazavi|Aminrazavi, Mehdi]]. [2009] 2016. "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/ Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy]." ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', edited by [[Edward N. Zalta|E. N. Zalta]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> [[Hasan al-Basri]], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]] and [[Jalaluddin Rumi]], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with [[Rumi|Jalaluddin Rumi]] (1207–1273), still one of the best selling poets in America,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=30 September 2007 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> writing his Persian poem [[Masnawi]] and the works of [[Hafez]] (1315–1390) are often considered the pinnacle of Persian poetry.

Sufi congregations form orders (''[[tariqa]]'') centered around a teacher (''[[wali]]'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa &#124; Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cook |first=David |date=4 May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |doi-access=free |postscript={{which|date=September 2021|reason=The original ref had pieces of both.}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Stoeber |first=Michael |date=3 September 2015 |title=The Comparative Study of Mysticism |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.93 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |postscript={{which|date=September 2021|reason=The original ref had pieces of both.}}}}</ref> Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or [[Barelvi]] movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |year=2003 |c=Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101 |in=Esposito}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709}}</ref> as well as in African countries like [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="Pew">{{Cite web|date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=[[International Journal of African Historical Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref>

In [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]], hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus [[monopoly|monopolistic]] behavior is frowned upon.<ref>Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref> Attempts to comply with shariah has led to the development of [[Islamic banking]]. Islam prohibits ''[[riba]]'', usually translated as [[usury]], which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karim, Shafiel A. |title=The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments |publisher=[[Brown Walker Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59942-539-9 |location=Boca Raton, FL}}</ref> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foster|first=John |date=1 December 2009|title=How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8388644.stm|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref>   and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which substantially protected them from the [[2008 financial crisis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Domat|first=Chloe|date=20 October 2020|title=What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?|work=Global Finance magazine|url=https://www.gfmag.com/topics/blogs/islamic-finance-faq-what-islamic-finance-and-how-does-it-work|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The state used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as [[Bayt al-mal]], before it became a largely individual pursuit. The first [[Caliph]], [[Abu Bakr]], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a [[guaranteed minimum income]], with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 [[dirhams]] annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|VICE]]}}</ref> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, [[child support]] was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<ref>Quddus, Syed Abdul. ''The Challenge of Islamic Renaissance''.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> while the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]] assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Al-Jawzi|first1=Ibn |url=|title=The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph |publisher=IUR Press |year=2001 |isbn= |pages=130 }}</ref>

Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and [[carrion]]. Health is viewed as a trust from God and [[khamr|intoxicants]], such as [[alcoholic drink]]s, are prohibited.<ref name="Bahammam">{{cite book|author=Fahd Salem Bahammam|title=Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRojJ7lnb18C&pg=PP1|publisher=Modern Guide|isbn=978-1-909322-99-8|pages=1}}</ref> All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself.<ref>See:

In [[Marriage in Islam|Islamic marriage]], the groom is required pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'').<ref>See:

Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications|Oneworld]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb/page/141 141]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 68]}}</ref> However, Muslim men are allowed to practice [[polygyny]] and can have up to four wives at the same time. There are also cultural variations in weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The [[Islamic Texts Society]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato/page/92 92–93]}}</ref> [[Polyandry]], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref>

The [[Islamic calendar]] is a [[lunar calendar]] that begins with the [[Hegira|Hijra]] of 622&nbsp;CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<ref>"[http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/Sacred-Time.html Sacred Time]." ''[[Patheos]]''. 2020.</ref> Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in [[seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic|عيد الف) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic|عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{harvc |last=Ghamidi(a) |first=Javed Ahmad |year=2001 |c=Customs and Behavioral Laws |pp=321–333 |in=Ghamidi |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923142412/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html}}</ref>

Some movements, such as the [[Druze]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse/page/114 114] |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse/page/33 33] |quote=Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Stewart |first=Dona |title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-135-98079-5 |page=33 |quote=Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and kept their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref> [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. [[Yazdânism]] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to [[Kurdistan]] by [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir]] in the 12th&nbsp;century. [[Bábism]] stems from Twelver Shia passed through [[Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab]] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri [[Baha'u'llah]] founded the [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late-fifteenth-century [[Punjab]], incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' [[University of Tennessee Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>

Defamatory images of [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Muhammad]], derived from early 7th&nbsp;century depictions of the [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Byzantine period|Byzantine Church]],<ref name="ReferenceH">[[Minou Reeves|Reeves, Minou]], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. [[New York University Press|NYU Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]].<ref name="auto">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. [[Springer Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 132.</ref> Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of [[schism]], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="auto" />

{{Reflist}}