Nepal: Difference between revisions

{{Use British English|date=January 2022}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}

| conventional_long_name = Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal

| native_name            = {{ubl|{{native name|ne|सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल|italics=off}}|''Saṅghīya Lokatāntrik Gaṇatantra Nepāl''}}

| flag_type             = [[Flag of Nepal|Flag]]

| flag_size              = 80px

| image_coat            = Emblem of Nepal (2020).svg

| coa_size              = 120px

| national_motto        = {{native phrase|sa|"जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी"|italics=off}}" <br /> {{native phrase|sa|[[Janani Janmabhumishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi]]|paren=omit}}<br /> "Mother and Motherland Are Greater Than Heaven"

| national_anthem        = {{native phrase|ne|"सयौँ थुँगा फूलका"|italics=off}}"<br /> {{native phrase|ne|[[Sayaun Thunga Phulka]]|paren=omit}}<br />"Made of Hundreds of Flowers"<br /><div style="padding-top:0.5em;"class="center">[[File:Sayaun Thunga Phool Ka (instrumental).ogg]]</div>

| map_width              = 250px

| map_caption            = Land controlled by Nepal shown in dark green; land claimed but uncontrolled shown in light green.

| ethnic_groups          = {{ublist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |class=nowrap |16.6% [[Chhetri]]||12.2% [[Bahun]]| 7.1% [[Magar people|Magar]]|6.6% [[Tharu people|Tharu]] | 5.8% [[Tamang people|Tamang]]| 5% [[Newar people|Newar]]| 4.4% [[Nepalese Muslims|Musalman]]| 4% [[Yadav]] |2.3% [[Rai people|Rai]] | 2% [[Gurung people|Gurung]] | 1.5% [[Limbu people|Limbu]] | 21.93% [[Ethnic groups in Nepal|Others]] }}

| ethnic_groups_year    = 2011

| religion          = {{ublist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |class=nowrap | 81.3% [[Hinduism in Nepal|Hinduism]]|9.0% [[Buddhism in Nepal|Buddhism]]|4.4% [[Islam in Nepal|Islam]]|3.1% [[Kirat Mundhum|Kirant]]|1.4% [[Christianity in Nepal|Christianity]]|0.5% [[Nature worship|Prakriti]]|0.3% Others}}

| religion_year          = 2011

| demonym                = {{hlist|[[Nepalis|Nepali]]|[[:wikt:Nepalese|Nepalese]]}}

| government_type        = [[Federation|Federal]] [[parliamentary republic]]

| leader_name1          = [[Bidya Devi Bhandari]]<ref name=office>{{Cite news|url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/21933|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322091521/https://therisingnepal.org.np/news/21933|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 March 2020|title=President Bhandari administers oath of office to Oli|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|date=15 February 2020|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>

| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Nepal|Vice President]]

| leader_name2         = [[Nanda Kishor Pun]]<ref name=office/>

| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of Nepal|Prime Minister]]

| leader_name3          = [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]<ref name=office/>

| leader_title4          = [[Chief Justice of Nepal|Chief Justice]]

| leader_name4           =

[[Cholendra Shumsher JB Rana]]<ref name=office/>

| established_event3    = [[Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923]]<ref>Formal recognition of Nepal as an independent and sovereign state by Great Britain.</ref>

| Gini_ref              =<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=NP |title=Gini Index (World Bank Estimate) – Nepal|publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=16 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608054636/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |archive-date=8 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

| drives_on              = left

'''Nepal''' ({{IPAc-en|Lang|n|ᵻ|ˈ|p|ɔː|l}};<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepal {{!}} Definition of Nepal by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Nepal|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/nepal|access-date=23 July 2020|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en}}</ref> {{lang-ne|[[:ne:नेपाल|नेपाल]]}} {{IPA-ne|nepal|}}), officially the '''Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal''' ({{lang-ne|  

  सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल }}),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/11/09/it-is-federal-democratic-republic-nepal-not-just-nepal-parliamentary-committee-says |title=It is Federal Democratic Republic Nepal, not just Nepal, parliamentary committee says |work=The Kathmandu Post |date=9 November 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021 }}</ref> is a [[landlocked country]] in [[South Asia]]. It is mainly situated in the [[Himalayas]], but also includes parts of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], bordering [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]] of China [[China–Nepal border|to the north]], and India [[India–Nepal border|in the south, east, and west]], while it is narrowly separated from [[Bangladesh]] by the [[Siliguri Corridor]], and from [[Bhutan]] by the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Sikkim]]. Nepal has a [[Geography of Nepal|diverse geography]], including [[Terai|fertile plains]], subalpine forested hills, and eight of the world's ten [[List of highest mountains#List|tallest mountains]], including [[Mount Everest]], the highest point on Earth. Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious and multi-cultural state, with [[Nepali language|Nepali]] as the official language. [[Kathmandu]] is the nation's capital and the [[List of cities in Nepal|largest city]].

The name "Nepal" is first recorded in texts from the [[Vedic period]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]], the era in [[ancient Nepal]] when [[Hinduism]] was founded, the predominant religion of the country. In the middle of the first millennium BC, [[Gautama Buddha]], the founder of [[Buddhism]], was born in [[Lumbini]] in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of [[Tibet]]. The centrally located [[Kathmandu Valley]] is intertwined with the culture of [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]]s, and was the seat of the prosperous [[Newar people|Newar]] confederacy known as [[Nepal Mandala]]. The Himalayan branch of the ancient [[Silk Road]] was dominated by the [[Lhasa Newar|valley's traders]]. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional [[Newa art|art]] and [[Architecture of Nepal|architecture]]. By the 18th century, the [[Gorkha Kingdom]] achieved the [[unification of Nepal]]. The [[Shah dynasty]] established the [[Kingdom of Nepal]] and later formed an alliance with the [[British Empire]], under its [[Rana dynasty]] of [[Prime Minister of Nepal|premiers]]. The country was never colonised but served as a buffer state between [[Imperial China]] and [[British India]]. [[Parliamentary democracy]] was introduced in 1951 but was twice suspended by Nepalese monarchs, in 1960 and 2005. The [[Nepalese Civil War]] in the 1990s and early 2000s resulted in the establishment of a [[secular]] [[republic]] in 2008, ending the world's last [[Hinduism|Hindu]] monarchy.

The [[Constitution of Nepal]], adopted in 2015, affirms the country as a [[Secular state|secular]] [[federal republic|federal]] [[parliamentary republic]] divided into [[Provinces of Nepal|seven provinces]]. Nepal was admitted to the [[United Nations]] in 1955, and friendship treaties were signed with India in 1950 and China in 1960. Nepal hosts the permanent secretariat of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC), of which it is a founding member. Nepal is also a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[Bay of Bengal Initiative]]. The [[Nepalese Armed Forces]] are the fifth-largest in South Asia; and are notable for their [[Gurkha]] history, particularly during the [[world war]]s, and has been a significant contributor to [[United Nations peacekeeping]] operations.

Before the [[unification of Nepal]], the [[Kathmandu Valley]] was known as ''Nepal''.{{efn|The entire territory controlled by the monarch seated in Kathmandu at any given time would also be referred to as ''Nepal''. Thus, at times, only the Kathmandu valley was considered ''Nepal'' while at other times, ''Nepal'' would encompass an area comparable to and largely overlapping with the modern state of Nepal.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A history of ancient and early medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century|last=Singh|first=Upinder|year=2008|location=New Delhi|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=9788131716779|page=477}}</ref>}} The precise origin of the term ''Nepāl'' is uncertain. ''Nepal'' appears in [[ancient Indian]] literary texts dated as far back as the fourth century BC.{{which|date=May 2022}} An absolute chronology can not be established, as even the oldest texts may contain anonymous contributions dating as late as the [[early modern period]]. Academic attempts to provide a plausible theory are hindered by the lack of a complete picture of history and insufficient understanding of linguistics or relevant Indo-European and Tibeto-Burman languages.<ref name=Malla>{{cite conference |title=Nepāla: Archaeology of the Word|last=Malla|first=Kamal P.|author-link=Kamal P. Malla|work=The Nepal Heritage Society Souvenir for PATA Conference|pages=33–39|conference=3rd PATA International Tourism & Heritage Conservation Conference (1–4 November)|location=Kathmandu|year=1983|url=http://www.kpmalla.com/?attachment_id=285|access-date=5 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322214352/http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Nepala.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2012}}</ref>

Norwegian [[Indology|indologist]] [[Christian Lassen]] had proposed that ''Nepāla'' was a compound of ''Nipa'' (foot of a mountain) and ''-ala'' (short suffix for ''alaya'' meaning abode), and so ''Nepāla'' meant "abode at the foot of the mountain". He considered ''Ne Muni'' to be a fabrication.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Indische Alterthumskunde|url=https://archive.org/details/indischealterth08lassgoog|trans-title=Indian Archaeology|last=Lassen|first=Christian|author-link=Christian Lassen|year=1847–1861}}</ref> Indologist [[Sylvain Levi]] found Lassen's theory untenable but had no theories of his own, only suggesting that either ''[[Newar people|Newara]]'' is a [[vulgarism]] of [[sanskrit]]ic ''Nepala,'' or ''Nepala'' is [[Sanskritisation]] of the local ethnic;<ref>{{Cite book |title=Le Nepal : Etude Historique d'Un Royaume Hindou|last=Levi|first=Sylvain|author-link=Sylvain Lévi|location=Paris|publisher=Ernest Leroux|year=1905|volume=1|pages=222–223}}</ref> his view has found some support though it does not answer the question of etymology.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Majupuria |first1=Trilok Chandra |last2=Majupuria |first2=Indra |year=1979 |title=Glimpses of Nepal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jDNuAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Maha Devi |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Ralph L. |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.1.turner.1333792 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714053644/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.1.turner.1333792 |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 July 2012 |title=A Comparative and Etymological Dictionary of the Nepali Language |publisher=London: Routledge and Kegan Paul |year=1931 |access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hodgson |first=Brian H. |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysonlanguage00hodg |title=Essays on the Languages, Literature and Religion of Nepal and Tibet |publisher=London: Trübner & Co |year=1874 |access-date=8 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111204021/http://archive.org/details/essaysonlanguage00hodg |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=live }} Page 51.</ref><ref name=Malla/> It has also been proposed that ''Nepa'' is a [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] stem consisting of ''Ne'' (cattle) and ''Pa'' (keeper), reflecting the fact that early inhabitants of the valley were ''Gopalas'' (cowherds) and ''[[Mahisapala dynasty|Mahispalas]]'' (buffalo-herds).<ref name=Malla/> [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] believed ''Nepal'' originated from Tibeto-Burman roots – ''Ne,'' of uncertain meaning (as multiple possibilities exist), and ''pala'' or ''bal'', whose meaning is lost entirely.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kirata-Jana-Krti: The Indo-Mongoloids: Their Contribution to the History and Culture of India|last=Chatterji|first=Suniti Kumar|author-link=Suniti Kumar Chatterji|year=1974|location=Calcutta|publisher=The Asiatic Society|edition=2|page=64}}</ref>

| image_style = border:none;

| image1 = Birth of Buddha at Lumbini.jpg

| caption1 = This painting in a [[Laos|Laotian]] temple depicts a legend surrounding the birth of [[Gautama Buddha]] {{circa|563}} BC in [[Lumbini]], Western Nepal.

| alt = The painting depicts Gautama Buddha taking seven steps immediately after birth; seven lotuses mark his steps. His mother, Maya, watches over him while grabbing on a Sal tree branch for support, gods and angels celebrate the occasion by showering flowers and playing music.

| caption2 = In the premises of the [[Changu Narayan Temple]], is a stone inscription dated 464 AD, the first in Nepal since the Ashoka inscription of Lumbini ({{circa|250}} BC).

By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.<ref name="Dyson2018">{{cite book |last=Dyson|first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2018 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|page=1}} Quote: "Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially, they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. (page 1)"</ref><ref name="PetragliaAllchin">{{cite book |author1=Michael D. Petraglia |author2=Bridget Allchin |author-link2=Bridget Allchin |title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10 |publisher=[[Springer Science + Business Media]] |page=6 |isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1|date=22 May 2007 }} Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref><ref name="Fisher2018">{{cite book |last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|year=2018|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2|page=23}} Quote: "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the ''Homo sapiens'' range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along with the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and the northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago (page 23)"</ref> The earliest known modern human remains in [[South Asia]] date to about 30,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Petraglia|first1=Michael D. |last2=Allchin|first2=Bridget |author-link2=Bridget Allchin|editor=Michael Petraglia |editor2=Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA6| year=2007|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1| chapter=Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent|page=6}}</ref> The oldest discovered archaeological evidence of human settlements in Nepal dates to around the same time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Corvinus |first=Gudrun |author-link=Gudrun Corvinus |title=The Prehistory of Nepal (A summary of the results of 10 years research) |publisher=[[Department of Archaeology (Nepal)|Department of Archaeology]] |journal=Ancient Nepal |location=Kathmandu |number=154 |date=March 2004 |via=[[University of Cambridge]] |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_154_02.pdf |access-date=3 March 2020}}</ref>

After 6500 BC, evidence for the domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in [[Mehrgarh]] and other sites in what is now [[Balochistan]].<ref name=coni>{{cite book |last1=Coningham|first1=Robin|last2=Young|first2=Ruth|title=The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BC – 200 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-84697-4|pages=104–5}}</ref> These gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulke|first1=H.|last2=Rothermund|first2=D.|author1-link=Hermann Kulke|date=1 August 2004|title=A History of India|series=4th|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC|pages=21–3}}</ref><ref name=coni/> the first urban culture in South Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh|first=U.|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|year=2009|publisher=[[Longman]]|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC|page=181}}</ref> Prehistoric sites of [[Paleolithic|palaeolithic]], [[mesolithic]] and [[neolithic]] origins have been discovered in the [[Sivalik Hills|Siwalik hills]] of [[Dang District, Nepal|Dang district]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/c...tnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_154_02.pdf|title=The Prehistory of Nepal}}{{Dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The earliest inhabitants of modern Nepal and adjoining areas are believed to be people from the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]]. It is possible that the [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] people whose history predates the onset of the [[Bronze Age]] in the Indian subcontinent (around 6300 BC) inhabited the area before the arrival of other ethnic groups like the Tibeto-Burmans and [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]] from across the border.<ref>{{cite book|title=Nepal|author=Krishna P. Bhattarai|publisher=Infobase publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aArqOqBGBQC&pg=PA32|isbn=9781438105239|year=2009}}</ref> By 4000 BC, the Tibeto-Burmese people had reached Nepal either directly across the Himalayas from Tibet or via Myanmar and north-east India or both.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang|first1=Hua-Wei|last2=Li|first2=Yu-Chun|last3=Sun|first3=Fei|last4=Zhao|first4=Mian|last5=Mitra|first5=Bikash|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Tapas Kumar|last7=Regmi|first7=Pasupati|last8=Wu|first8=Shi-Fang|last9=Kong|first9=Qing-Peng|last10=Zhang|first10=Ya-Ping|date=April 2012|title=Revisiting the role of the Himalayas in peopling Nepal: insights from mitochondrial genomes|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|language=en|volume=57|issue=4|pages=228–234|doi=10.1038/jhg.2012.8|pmid=22437208|issn=1435-232X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Another possibility for the first people to have inhabited Nepal are the [[Kusunda people]]. According to Hogdson (1847), the earliest inhabitants of Nepal were perhaps the Kusunda people, probably of [[Australo-Melanesian|proto-Australoid origin]].<ref>Africa's History & Migrations 200,000bc-3,000bc

British Museum Press, 1993 – Crafts & Hobbies – 204 pages</ref>

By 250 BC, the southern regions had come under the influence of the [[Maurya Empire]]. [[Emperor Ashoka]] made a pilgrimage to [[Lumbini]] and [[Pillars of Ashoka|erected a pillar]] at Buddha's birthplace, the [[Lumbini pillar inscription|inscriptions]] on which mark the starting point for properly recorded history of Nepal.{{sfn|Landon|1928|p=11}} Ashoka also visited the Kathmandu valley and built monuments commemorating Gautama Buddha's visit there. By the 4th century AD, much of Nepal was under the influence of the [[Gupta Empire]].{{efn|On [[Samudragupta]]'s [[Allahabad Pillar]], Nepal is mentioned as a border country.}}<ref name="ChakrabartiChakrabarti2013">{{cite book |author1=Kunal Chakrabarti|author2=Shubhra Chakrabarti|title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|date= 2013|publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]]|isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5|page=9}}</ref>

In the Kathmandu valley, the Kiratas were pushed eastward by the [[Licchavi (clan)|Lichchhavis]], and the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Lichchhavi dynasty]] came into power {{circa}} 400 AD. The Lichchhavis built monuments and left a series of inscriptions; Nepal's history of the period is pieced together almost entirely from them.{{sfn|Landon|1928|p=19}}<ref name=leo>{{cite book |last1=Rose|first1=Leo E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VTduAAAAMAAJ|title=Nepal: profile of a Himalayan kingdom|last2=Scholz|first2=John T.|date=1980|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-89158-651-7|language=en}}</ref> In 641, [[Songtsen Gampo]] of the [[Tibetan Empire]] sends Narendradeva back to [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavi]] with an army and subjugates Nepal. Parts of Nepal and Licchavi was later under the direct influences of the Tibetan empire.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I|title=The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages|year=1987|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Thakuri]] rule. Thakuri kings ruled over the country up to the middle of the 11th century AD; not much is known of this period that is often called the dark period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalnepal.synthasite.com/the-thakuri-dynasty.php|title=Nepal Monarchy: Thakuri Dynasty|website=royalnepal.synthasite.com|access-date=17 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230042020/http://royalnepal.synthasite.com/the-thakuri-dynasty.php|archive-date=30 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

| image_style = border:none;

| image1 = Sinja_Valley, Karnali.jpg

| caption1 = [[Sinja Valley]], thought to be the place of origin of the [[Khas]]as and the [[Nepali language]], was at the heart of the Khas Malla empire.|alt=A wooden bridge in Sinja Valley with wooden pillars on either side, their top sculpted to depict human figures standing on the platform.

| caption2 = [[Patan Durbar Square]], one of the three palace squares in the Kathmandu Valley, was built by the Mallas in the 17th century. The Durbar Squares are a culmination of over a millennium of development in Nepali art and architecture.

In south-eastern Nepal, Simraungarh annexed [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] around 1100 AD, and the unified Tirhut stood as a powerful kingdom for more than 200 years,<ref name=Darnal/> even ruling over Kathmandu for a time.{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=32–33}} After another 300 years of Muslim rule, Tirhut came under the control of the Sens of [[Makwanpur District|Makawanpur]].<ref name=Darnal>{{cite journal |last=Darnal|first=Prakash|date=31 December 2018|title=A Review of Simarongarh's History on Its Nexus Areas with References of Archaeological Evidences|journal=Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology|language=en|volume=12|pages=18–26|doi=10.3126/dsaj.v12i0.22176|issn=1994-2672|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the eastern hills, a confederation of Kirat principalities ruled the area between Kathmandu and Bengal.

In the Kathmandu valley, the [[Malla (Nepal)|Mallas]], who make several appearances in Nepalese history since ancient times, had established themselves in Kathmandu and Patan by the middle of the 14th century. The Mallas ruled the valley first under the suzerainty of Tirhut but established independent reign by late 14th century as Tirhut went into decline. In the late 14th century, [[Jayasthiti Malla]] introduced widespread socio-economic reforms, principal of which was the caste system. By dividing the indigenous non-Aryan Buddhist population into castes modelled after the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna system]] of Hinduism, he provided an influential model for the Sanskritisation and Hinduisation of the indigenous non-Hindu tribal populations in all principalities throughout Nepal. By the middle of the 15th century, Kathmandu had become a powerful empire which, according to [[William James Kirkpatrick|Kirkpatrick]], extended from Digarchi or Sigatse in Tibet to Tirhut and Gaya in India.{{sfn|Landon|1928|p=39}} In the late 15th century, Malla princes divided their kingdom in four – Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur in the valley and Banepa to the east. The competition for prestige among these brotherly kingdoms saw the flourishing of art and architecture in central Nepal, and the building of famous [[Kathmandu Durbar Square|Kathmandu]], [[Patan Durbar Square|Patan]] and [[Bhaktapur Durbar Square]]s; their division and mistrust led to their fall in the late 18th century, and ultimately, the unification of Nepal into a modern state.<ref name=leo/>{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=52–61}}

Apart from one destructive sacking of Kathmandu in the early 13th century, Nepal remains largely untouched by the [[Muslim invasion of India]] that began in the 11th century. The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal period]] saw an influx of high-caste Hindus from India into Nepal. They soon intermingled with the Khas people and by the 16th century, there were about 50 Rajput-ruled principalities in Nepal, including the 22 (Baisi) states and, to their east in west-central Nepal, 24 [[Chaubisi rajya|''Chaubisi'' states]]. There emerged a view that Nepal remained the true bastion of unadulterated Hinduism at a time when Indian culture had been influenced by centuries of Mughal, followed by [[British Raj|British rule]]. [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]], one of the Baisi states, emerged as an influential and ambitious kingdom with a reputation for justice, after it codified the first Hinduism-based laws in the Nepalese hills.<ref name=leo/>

| caption3 = [[Jung Bahadur Rana]], who established the autocratic [[Rana regime]] in 1846 and instituted a pro-British foreign policy

| caption4 = [[Balbhadra Kunwar]], who, at age 25, commanded the [[Battle of Nalapani|defence of Nalapani fort]] against a superior British force, and after the enemy cutoff the water supply, charged out with 70 men

The Gorkha control reached its height when the [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and [[Garhwal Kingdom]]s in the west to [[Sikkim]] in the east came under Nepalese control. A dispute with [[Tibet]] over the control of mountain passes and inner Tingri valleys of Tibet prompted the [[Qing dynasty|Qing Emperor]] of China to start the [[Sino-Nepalese War|Sino-Nepali War]] compelling the Nepali to retreat to their own borders in the north.{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=68–69}} The rivalry between the Kingdom of Nepal and the [[East India Company]] over the control of states bordering Nepal eventually led to the [[Anglo-Nepalese War|Anglo-Nepali War]] (1815–16). At first, the British underestimated the Nepali and were soundly defeated until committing more military resources than they had anticipated needing. Thus began the reputation of [[Gurkha]]s as fierce and ruthless soldiers. The war ended in the [[Sugauli Treaty]], under which Nepal ceded recently captured lands.{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=75–80}}<ref name=leo/>

=== Contemporary history ===

In the late 1940s, newly emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Following the success of Indian Independence Movement which Nepalese activists had taken part in, with India's support and cooperation of King Tribhuvan, [[Nepali Congress]] was successful in toppling the Rana regime, establishing a parliamentary democracy. After a decade of power wrangling between the king and the government, [[Mahendra of Nepal|King Mahendra]] (ruled 1955–1972) scrapped the democratic experiment in 1960, and a "partyless" [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. The political parties were banned and politicians imprisoned or exiled.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}} The Panchayat rule modernised the country, introducing reforms and developing infrastructure, but curtailed liberties and imposed heavy censorship. In 1990, the [[People's Movement I (1990)|People's Movement]] forced [[Birendra of Nepal|King Birendra]] (ruled 1972–2001) to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty democracy.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}}<ref name="Nepal_Timeline">{{cite news |title=Nepal profile – Timeline|date=19 February 2018|work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm |access-date=29 September 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303103321/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm |archive-date=3 March 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1996, the [[Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist Party]] started a violent bid to replace the royal parliamentary system with a people's republic.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}} This led to the long [[Nepali Civil War]] and more than 16,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8268651.stm|title=Nepal raises conflict death toll|date=22 September 2009 |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> With the death of both the King and the Crown Prince in a [[Nepalese royal massacre|massacre in the royal palace]], King Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]] inherited the throne in 2001{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}} and subsequently assumed full executive powers aiming to quash the Maoist insurgency himself.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hutt|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Hutt (academic and translator)|year=2005|title=King Gyanendra's Coup and its Implications for Nepal's Future|jstor=24590670|journal=[[The Brown Journal of World Affairs]]|volume=12|issue=1|pages=111–123|issn=1080-0786}}</ref>

The Maoist Party joined mainstream politics following the success of the peaceful [[2006 Nepalese revolution|democratic revolution of 2006]];<ref name="Abolish">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7424302.stm |title=Nepal votes to abolish monarchy |work=[[BBC News]] |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=18 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107130737/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7424302.stm |archive-date=7 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal became a [[secular state]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/05/18/nepal.king/|title=Nepal king stripped of most powers|publisher=[[CNN]] |date=18 May 2006 |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> and on 28 May 2008, it was declared a federal republic,<ref name="Abolish"/> ending its time-honoured status as the world's only Hindu kingdom.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/03/world/birenda-55-ruler-of-nepal-s-hindu-kingdom.html|title=Birenda, 55, Ruler of Nepal's Hindu Kingdom|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|last=Crossette|first=Barbara|author-link=Barbara Crossette|date=3 June 2001|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> After a decade of instability and internal strife which saw two constituent assembly elections, the [[Constitution of Nepal|new constitution]] was promulgated on 20 September 2015, making Nepal a federal democratic republic divided into [[Provinces of Nepal|seven provinces]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2015/09/20/constitution-special-the-evolution-of-nepals-constitution|title=[Constitution special] The evolution of Nepal\'s constitution|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=English |date=20 September 2015 |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2015/09/20/people-celebrate-constitution-promulgation-in-photos|title=Constitution of Nepal 2015 Promulgated|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=English |date=20 September 2015 |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

Nepal is divided into three principal physiographic belts known as ''[[himalayas|Himal]]''–''[[Lower Himalayan Range|Pahad]]''–''[[Terai]]''.{{efn|This trichotomy is a prominent feature of Nepali discourse and is represented in the [[Emblem of Nepal]], with blue and white peaks signifying ''Himal'', green hills below them signifying ''Pahad'' and the yellow strip at the bottom signifying the ''Terai'' belt.}} Himal is the mountain region containing snow and situated in the Great Himalayan Range; it makes up the northern part of Nepal. It contains the highest elevations in the world including {{convert|8848.86|m|ft|0}} height [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmāthā'' in Nepali) on the border with China. Seven other of the world's "[[eight-thousander]]s" are in Nepal or on its border with Tibet: [[Lhotse]], [[Makalu]], [[Cho Oyu]], [[Kangchenjunga]], [[Dhaulagiri]], [[Annapurna]] and [[Manaslu]]. Pahad is the mountain region that does not generally contain snow. The mountains vary from {{convert|800|to|4000|m|ft|-2}} in altitude, with progression from subtropical climates below {{convert|1200|m|ft|-2}} to alpine climates above {{convert|3600|m|ft|-2}}. The [[Lower Himalayan Range]], reaching {{convert|1500|to|3000|m|ft|-2}}, is the southern limit of this region, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alternating to the north of this range. Population density is high in valleys but notably less above {{convert|2000|m|ft|-2}} and very low above {{convert|2500|m|ft|-2}}, where snow occasionally falls in winter. The southern lowland plains or ''Terai'' bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. Terai is the lowland region containing some hill ranges. The plains were formed and are fed by three major Himalayan rivers: the [[Koshi River|Koshi]], the [[Gandaki River|Narayani]], and the [[Ghaghara|Karnali]] as well as smaller rivers rising below the permanent snowline. This region has a subtropical to tropical climate. The outermost range of the foothills called [[Sivalik Hills]] or Churia Range, cresting at {{convert|700|to|1000|m|ft|-1}}, marks the limits of the Gangetic Plain. Broad, low valleys called [[Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal|Inner Terai Valleys]] ({{Lang|ne|Bhitri Tarai Upatyaka}}) lie north of these foothills in several places.

=== Biodiversity ===

{{See also|List of protected areas of Nepal|Community forestry in Nepal}}

[[File:Land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30&nbsp;m (2010) data.jpg|thumb|This land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30&nbsp;m (2010) data shows forest cover as the dominant type of land cover in Nepal.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Development of 2010 national land cover database for the Nepal |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=15 January 2015 |pages=82–90 |volume=148 |series=Land Cover/Land Use Change (LC/LUC) and Environmental Impacts in South Asia |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.047 |pmid=25181944 |first1=Kabir |last1=Uddin |first2=Him Lal |last2=Shrestha |first3=M. S. R. |last3=Murthy |first4=Birendra |last4=Bajracharya |first5=Basanta |last5=Shrestha |first6=Hammad |last6=Gilani |first7=Sudip |last7=Pradhan |first8=Bikash |last8=Dangol}}</ref>|left]]

Nepal contains a disproportionately large diversity of plants and animals, relative to its size.<ref name=wwf>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwfnepal.org/?206342/The-Status-of-Nepals-Mammals |title=The Status of Nepal's Mammals: The National Red List Series |publisher=WWF Nepal |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref><ref name=kindl/> Nepal, in its entirety, forms the western portion of the [[eastern Himalaya]]n biodiversity hotspot, with notable [[biocultural diversity]].<ref name="O'Neill_al2017">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R.|last2=Badola |first2=H.K. |last3=Dhyani |first3=P. P. |last4=Rana |first4=S. K. |year=2017 |title=Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=21 |doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9 |pmid=28356115 |pmc=5372287}}</ref> The dramatic differences in elevation found in Nepal (60&nbsp;m from sea level in the Terai plains, to 8,848&nbsp;m [[Mount Everest]])<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jha |first=Sasinath |year=2008 |title=Status and Conservation of Lowland Terai Wetlands in Nepal |journal=Our Nature |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=67–77 |doi=10.3126/on.v6i1.1657 |issn=2091-2781 |doi-access=free}}</ref> result in a variety of [[biome]]s.<ref name=wwf/> The Eastern half of Nepal is richer in biodiversity as it receives more rain, compared to western parts, where [[arctic desert]]-type conditions are more common at higher elevations.<ref name=kindl>{{citation |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-1802-9_1 |chapter=An Overview of the Biodiversity in Nepal |title=Himalayan Biodiversity in the Changing World |pages=1–40 |year=2012 |last1=Paudel |first1=Prakash Kumar |last2=Bhattarai |first2=Bishnu Prasad |last3=Kindlmann |first3=Pavel |isbn=978-94-007-1801-2}}</ref> Nepal is a habitat for 4.0% of all [[Mammal|mammal species]], 8.9% of [[Bird|bird species]], 1.0% of [[Reptile|reptile species]], 2.5% of [[Amphibian|amphibian species]], 1.9% of [[Fish|fish species]], 3.7% of [[Butterfly|butterfly species]], 0.5% of [[Moth|moth species]] and 0.4% of [[Spider|spider species]].<ref name=kindl/> In its 35 forest-types and 118 ecosystems,<ref name=wwf/>{{efn|198 ecological types were first proposed in 1976, which was further revised and reduced to 118, which was further reduced by IUCN to 59 in 1998, which was further reduced to 36 in 2002. As this issue has yet to be settled, the 35-forest-type classification is generally preferred to the ecological categorisation.<ref name=kindl/>}} Nepal harbours 2% of the [[Flowering plant|flowering plant species]], 3% of [[pteridophyte]]s and 6% of [[bryophyte]]s.<ref name=kindl/>

[[File:Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) 4.jpg|thumb|The [[greater one-horned rhinoceros]] roams the sub-tropical grasslands of the Terai plains.]]

Nepal's [[forest cover]] is {{convert|59624|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, 40.36% of the country's total land area, with an additional 4.38% of [[Shrubland|scrubland]], for a total forested area of 44.74%, an increase of 5% since the turn of the millennium.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/forest-cover-increased-nepal-late/|title=Forest cover has increased in Nepal of late |date=13 May 2016 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824161239/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/forest-cover-increased-nepal-late/ |archive-date=24 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.23/10, ranking it 45th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M. |display-authors=1 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the southern plains, [[Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands]] ecoregion contains some of the world's tallest grasses as well as ''[[Shorea robusta|Sal]]'' forests, [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical evergreen forests]] and tropical riverine deciduous forests.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-W0OAQAAMAAJ |title=Forests of Nepal |last=Stainton |first=J. D. A. |date=1972 |publisher=Hafner Publishing Company |isbn=9780028527000 |language=en}}</ref> In the lower hills (700&nbsp;m – 2,000&nbsp;m), [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests|subtropical]] and [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|temperate deciduous mixed forests]] containing mostly S''al'' (in the lower altitudes), ''[[Schima wallichii|Chilaune]]'' and ''[[Castanopsis indica|Katus]]'', as well as [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|subtropical pine forest]] dominated by [[chir pine]] are common. The middle hills (2,000&nbsp;m – 3,000&nbsp;m) are dominated by [[oak]] and [[rhododendron]]. [[Temperate coniferous forest|Subalpine coniferous forests]] cover the 3,000&nbsp;m to 3,500&nbsp;m range, dominated by oak (particularly in the west), [[Abies spectabilis|Eastern Himalayan fir]], [[Pinus wallichiana|Himalayan pine]] and [[Tsuga dumosa|Himalayan hemlock]]; rhododendron is common as well. Above 3,500&nbsp;m in the west and 4,000&nbsp;m in the east, coniferous trees give way to rhododendron-dominated [[Alpine tundra|alpine shrubs and meadows]].<ref name=kindl/>

Among the notable trees, are the [[astringent]] ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'', or ''neem'', which is widely used in traditional [[herbal medicine]],<ref name="Goyal2006">{{cite book |last=Goyal|first=Anupam|title=The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567710-2|page=295}} Quote: "The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal ''neem'' tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)"</ref> and the luxuriant ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'', or ''peepal'',<ref name="Hughes2013">{{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Julie E. |title=Animal Kingdoms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07480-4 |page=106 |quote=At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.}}</ref> which is displayed on the ancient seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]],<ref name="AmeriCostello2018">{{cite book |last1=Ameri|first1=Marta|last2=Costello |first2=Sarah Kielt |last3=Jamison |first3=Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer |title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |year=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-17351-3 |pages=156–7}} Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbor and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro."</ref> and under which [[Gautama Buddha|Gautam Buddha]] is recorded in the [[Pali canon]] to have sought enlightenment.<ref name="Gwynne2011">{{cite book |author=Paul Gwynne |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |page=358 |quote=The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (''[[Ficus religiosa]]'') }}</ref>

[[File:Lophophorus impejanus Zoo DU 2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Himalayan monal]] ({{lang|ne|Danphe}}), the national bird of Nepal,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/national-bird-verge-disappearance/ |title=National bird on verge of disappearance |date=16 April 2016 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121001/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/national-bird-verge-disappearance/ |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> nests high in the Himalayas.]]

Nepal contains 107 [[IUCN]]-designated [[threatened species]], 88 of them animal species, 18 plant species and one species of "fungi or protist" group.<ref>{{cite book |title=IUCN Red List version 2019-2|chapter=Table 5: Threatened species in each country (totals by taxonomic group)|chapter-url=https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_5.pdf|access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> These include the [[Endangered species|endangered]] [[Bengal tiger]], the [[red panda]], the [[Asiatic elephant]], the [[Himalayan musk deer]], the [[wild water buffalo]] and the [[South Asian river dolphin]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Red List of Mammal Species of Nepal |url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/red_list_poster_low.jpg |format=jpg |author=[[IUCN]] Nepal |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> as well as the [[critically endangered]] [[gharial]], the [[Bengal florican]],<ref name="wwf" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Bengal Florican Conservation Action Plan |author=Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal |url=http://www.birdlifenepal.org/download-newsletter/56 |via=birdlifenepal.org |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819192112/http://www.birdlifenepal.org/download-newsletter/56 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[white-rumped vulture]], which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.<ref name=thtvul>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/conservation-of-white-rumped-vultures-in-progress-in-nepal/ |title=Conservation of white-rumped vultures in progress in Nepal |date=16 March 2018 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121112/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/conservation-of-white-rumped-vultures-in-progress-in-nepal/ |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered [[Wildlife of Nepal|Nepali wildlife]]. In response, the system of [[Protected areas of Nepal|national parks and protected areas]], first established in 1973 with the enactment of ''National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973'',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284/ |title=Chitwan National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284/ |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> was substantially expanded. ''Vulture restaurants''<ref name=kindl/> coupled with a ban on veterinary usage of diclofenac has seen a rise in the number of white-rumped vultures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mahottari-declared-58th-diclofenac-free-district/ |title=Mahottari declared 58th diclofenac-free district |date=8 August 2017 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mahottari-declared-58th-diclofenac-free-district/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=thtvul/> The [[Community forestry in Nepal|community forestry programme]] which has seen a third of the country's population directly participate in managing a quarter of the total forested area has helped the local economies while reducing [[human-wildlife conflict]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/96394/nepal-community-forest-value-untapped|title=Community forest value untapped|date=26 September 2012|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718195507/http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/96394/nepal-community-forest-value-untapped|archive-date=18 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ojha |first1=Hemant |last2=Persha |first2=Lauren |last3=Chhatre |first3=Ashwini |date=November 2009 |title=Community Forestry in Nepal: A Policy Innovation for Local Livelihoods |url=http://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/16969/filename/16970.pdf |publisher=International food policy research institute |access-date=24 August 2019}}</ref> The breeding programmes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwfnepal.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/tal/project/gharial_breeding/ |title=The Terai Arc Landscape Project (TAL) – Gharial Breeding Centre |publisher=WWF Nepal |access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121004/http://www.wwfnepal.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/tal/project/gharial_breeding/|archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> coupled with community-assisted military patrols,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/joint-patrol-for-wildlife-conservation-in-chitwan-national-park/ |title='Joint Patrol' for wildlife conservation in CNP |date=22 March 2018 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/joint-patrol-for-wildlife-conservation-in-chitwan-national-park/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and a crackdown on poaching and smuggling, has seen poaching of critically endangered tigers and elephants as well as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] rhinos, among others, go down to effectively zero, and their numbers have steadily increased.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iucn.org/content/nepal-celebrates-%E2%80%98zero-poaching-year%E2%80%99-rhino-tiger-and-elephant |title=Nepal celebrates 'zero poaching year' for rhino, tiger and elephant |date=14 March 2014 |publisher=IUCN |language=en |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122073025/https://www.iucn.org/content/nepal-celebrates-%E2%80%98zero-poaching-year%E2%80%99-rhino-tiger-and-elephant |archive-date=22 November 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has ten [[national park]]s, three [[wildlife reserves]], one [[Game reserve|hunting reserve]], three [[Conservation Area]]s and eleven [[buffer zone]]s, covering a total area of {{convert|28959.67|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, or 19.67% of the total land area,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNksAQAAMAAJ |title=Nepal biodiversity resource book: Protected areas, Ramsar sites, and World Heritage sites |author=Nepalnature.com (Organization) |author2=<nowiki>International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal</nowiki> |author3=<nowiki>Nepal Ministry of Environment, Science, and Technology</nowiki> |chapter=Protected Areas of Nepal |page=41 |date=1 October 2007 |publisher=International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development |isbn=9789291150335 |language=en}}</ref> while ten [[wetland]]s are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/nepal |title=Nepal |publisher=Ramsar |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708074016/https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/nepal |archive-date=8 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

| style="text-align:left;"| [[File:Shinzo Abe and Bidhya Devi Bhandari at the Enthronement of Naruhito (1) (cropped).jpg|175px]] || style="text-align:left;" | [[File:The former Prime Minister of Nepal, Mr. Sher Bahadur Deuba meeting the Union Minister for Commerce & Industry and Textiles, Shri Anand Sharma, in New Delhi on June 13, 2013 (cropped).jpg|175px]]

| style="text-align:center;"|[[Bidya Devi Bhandari]]<br /><small>[[President of Nepal|President]]</small>

Nepal is a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system.<ref name="Al Jazeera elections explained">{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/11/nepal-elections-2017-explained-171126103009857.html |title=Nepal elections explained |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814220351/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/11/nepal-elections-2017-explained-171126103009857.html |archive-date=14 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> It has three political parties recognised in the federal parliament: [[Nepal Communist Party (NCP)]], [[Nepali Congress]] (NC),<ref name="Al Jazeera elections explained" /> and [[Janata Samajbadi Party, Nepal]] (JSPN).<ref name="Al Jazeera elections explained" /> Of the two major parties which both officially espouse democratic socialism, NCP is considered leftist while Nepali Congress is considered centrist.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/blogs/asia/2017/10/nepal-headed-communist-state-171014095129113.html |title=Is Nepal headed towards a communist state? |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726113406/https://www.aljazeera.com/blogs/asia/2017/10/nepal-headed-communist-state-171014095129113.html |archive-date=26 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> During most of the brief periods of democratic exercise in the 1950s and the 1990s, Nepali Congress held majority of seats in parliament; [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)|CPN (UML)]] was its competitor in the 1990s.<ref name="Khadka 1993">{{cite journal |last=Khadka |first=Narayan |year=1993 |title=Democracy and Development in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=44–71 |doi=10.2307/2760015 |issn=0030-851X |jstor=2760015}}</ref> After the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)|Maoists]] entered the political process in 2006, they emerged as the third largest party.<ref name="mao" /> In the aftermath of the [[2017 Nepalese legislative election|2017 elections]], the first one according to the new constitution, NCP, formed by the merger of CPN (UML) and CPN (Maoist Centre) has become the ruling party at the federal level and in six out of seven provinces.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/ncp-to-announce-party-department-chiefs-today/|title=NCP to announce party department chiefs today |date=21 July 2019 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818100446/https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/ncp-to-announce-party-department-chiefs-today/ |archive-date=18 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Madhesi coalition, comprising [[Samajbadi Party, Nepal]] and [[Rastriya Janata Party Nepal|Rastriya Janata Party, Nepal]], which later merged to form JSPN, formed the provincial government in [[Madhesh Province]] (then Province No. 2), though it has negligible presence in the rest of the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-05-26/uml-wins-mayor-deputy-mayor-in-pokhara-lekhnath-metropolis.html |title=UML wins mayor, deputy mayor in Pokhara Lekhnath metropolis |newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |access-date=18 April 2018 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418092943/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-05-26/uml-wins-mayor-deputy-mayor-in-pokhara-lekhnath-metropolis.html |archive-date=18 April 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/nepali-communists-win-landslide-face-big-obstacles-win-change|title=Nepali Communists win landslide, but face big obstacles to win change|date=5 January 2018|newspaper=[[Green Left Weekly]]|language=en|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726113413/https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/nepali-communists-win-landslide-face-big-obstacles-win-change|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-01-29/uml-to-get-4-chief-ministers-maoist-centre-2.html|title=UML to get 4 chief ministers, Maoist Centre 2|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |language=en |access-date=18 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418092959/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-01-29/uml-to-get-4-chief-ministers-maoist-centre-2.html|archive-date=18 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Though Nepali Congress has a significantly reduced representation, it is the only major opposition to the ruling communist party in all levels of government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/20981 |title=Nepali Congress in the Opposition |newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]] |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818100448/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/20981 |archive-date=18 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sher Bahadur Deuba, leader of the Nepali Congress, was appointed as Prime Minister again in July 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/19/nepals-new-pm-sher-bahadur-deuba-wins-confidence-vote |title=Nepal's new PM Sher Bahadur Deuba wins confidence vote |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=19 July 2021 |access-date=31 August 2021 }}</ref>

In the 1930s, a vibrant underground political movement arose in the capital, birthing [[Nepal Praja Parishad]] in 1936,{{sfn|Hutt|2004|p=3-7}} which was dissolved seven years later, following the execution of the [[Martyrs of Nepal|four great martyrs]]. Around the same time, Nepalis involved in the [[Indian independence movement]] started organizing into political parties, leading to the birth of [[Nepali Congress]] and [[Communist Party of Nepal]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown |first=T. Louise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uy2IAgAAQBAJ |title=The Challenge to Democracy in Nepal |date=1 November 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-88532-9 |language=en}}</ref> As communism was trying to find its footing, Nepali Congress was successful in [[1951 Nepalese revolution|overthrowing the Rana regime]] in 1951 and enjoyed the overwhelming support of the electorate.<ref name="ram00">{{cite journal |last1=Ramachandran |first1=Shastri |last2=Ramachandaran |first2=Shastri |year=2003 |title=Nepal as Seen from India |journal=[[India International Centre Quarterly]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=81–98 |issn=0376-9771 |jstor=23006108}}</ref> In the partyless [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat system]] initiated in 1962 by [[Mahendra of Nepal|King Mahendra]], monarchy loyalists took turns leading the government; political leaders remained underground, exiled or in prison.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|p=3-7}} A communist insurgency was crushed in its cradle in the 1970s, which led to the eventual coalescence of hitherto scattered communist factions under the [[United Left Front (Nepal, 1990)|United Left Front]].

After the [[1990 Nepalese revolution|joint civil resistance]] launched by the United Left Front and Nepali Congress overthrew the Panchayat in 1990,<ref name=ram00/><ref>Rawal, Bhim Bahadur. ''Nepalma samyabadi andolan: udbhab ra vikas''. Kathmandu: Pairavi Prakashan. p. 83-84.</ref> the Front became [[CPN UML|CPN (UML)]], adopted multi-party democracy, and in the brief period, it was in government, introduced welfare programmes that remain popular.<ref name="Khadka 1993" /> After the Maoist Party joined mainstream politics, in the aftermath of the [[2006 Nepalese revolution|peaceful revolution of 2006]], it also adopted multi-party democracy as its official line. The transition period between 2006 and 2015 saw sustained protests from the newly formed ethnocentric nationalist movements, principal among them the [[Madhes Movement]]. RJPN and SPN advocating equal rights and self-governance for the Madhesi people became major political parties in the Terai, [[Madhesh Province]] in particular.<ref name=mao>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/06/AR2010070605214.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=Long stalemate after Maoist victory disrupts life in Nepal |first=Anup |last=Kaphle |date=7 July 2010 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104015054/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/06/AR2010070605214.html |archive-date=4 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |title=Nepal's election The Maoists triumph |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=29 July 2009 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT8Sk3J?url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |archive-date=29 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Baburam Bhattarai elected prime minister of Nepal |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14700892 |access-date=12 March 2012 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=28 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010024052/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14700892 |archive-date=10 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/05/27/nepal-elections.html |title=Nepal PM calls new elections after constitution failure |publisher=[[CBC News]] |date=28 May 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528045008/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/05/27/nepal-elections.html |archive-date=28 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

|caption3=[[International Convention Centre, Nepal|Parliament House]]

! [[Chief minister (Nepal)|Chief Minister]]

|[[Province No. 1]]||[[Biratnagar]]||[[Somnath Adhikari]]||[[Rajendra Kumar Rai (Nepalese politician)|Rajendra Kumar Rai]]||14||25,905&nbsp;km²||4,534,943||175||0.553||[[File:Nepal Province 1.svg|100px]]

|[[Madhesh Province]]||[[Janakpur]]||[[Hari Shankar Mishra]]||[[Lalbabu Raut]]||8||9,661&nbsp;km²||5,404,145 ||559||0.485||[[File:Nepal Madhesh Province.svg|100px]]

|[[Bagmati Province]]||[[Hetauda]] ||[[Yadav Chandra Sharma]]||[[Rajendra Prasad Pandey]] ||13|| 20,300&nbsp;km²|| 5,529,452||272||0.560||[[File:Nepal Province 3.svg|100px]]

|[[Gandaki Province]]||[[Pokhara]] ||[[Prithvi Man Gurung]]||[[Krishna Chandra Nepali Pokharel|Krishna Chandra Nepali]]||11||21,504&nbsp;km²||2,403,757||112||0.567||[[File:Nepal Province 4.svg|100px]]

|[[Lumbini Province]]||[[Deukhuri]]||[[Amik Sherchan]]||[[Kul Prasad KC]]||12||22,288&nbsp;km²||4,499,272||219||0.519||[[File:Nepal Province 5.svg|100px]]

|[[Karnali Province]]||[[Birendranagar]]||[[Govinda Prasad Kalauni]]||[[Jeevan Bahadur Shahi]]||10|| 27,984&nbsp;km²||1,570,418||41||0.469||[[File:Nepal Karnali.svg|100px]]

|[[Sudurpashchim Province]]||[[Godawari, Seti|Godawari]]||[[Ganga Prasad Yadav]]||[[Trilochan Bhatta]]||9||19,915&nbsp;km²|| 2,552,517||130||0.478||[[File:Nepal Sudurpashchim Pradesh.svg|100px]]

![[President of Nepal|President]]<br />[[Bidya Devi Bhandari]]

![[Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]]<br />[[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]

Nepal is a federal republic comprising [[List of provinces of Nepal|7 provinces]]. Each province is composed of 8 to 14 districts. The districts, in turn, comprise local units known as urban and rural municipalities.<ref name=con15/> There is a total of 753 local units which includes 6 metropolitan municipalities, 11 sub-metropolitan municipalities and 276 municipalities for a total of 293 urban municipalities, and 460 rural municipalities.<ref name=asia1>{{cite web |title=Diagnostic Study of Local Governance in Federal Nepal 2017 |author=Australian Government-The Asia Foundation Partnership on Subnational Governance in Nepal |publisher=[[The Asia Foundation]] |url=https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Diagnostic-Study-of-Local-Governance-in-Federal-Nepal-07112018.pdf |access-date=20 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720153050/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Diagnostic-Study-of-Local-Governance-in-Federal-Nepal-07112018.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Each local unit is composed of wards. There are 6,743 wards in total.

The [[Constitution of Nepal]] is the supreme law of the land, and any other laws contradicting it are automatically invalid to the extent of the contradiction.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/55907/ |title=Govt registers amendment bill to review 56 laws in bulk |newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]] |language=en |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125309/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/55907/|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The specific legal provisions are codified as Civil Code and Criminal Code, accompanied by Civil Procedure Code and Criminal Procedure Code respectively.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/25251 |title=The Modified Criminal And Civil Codes |newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]] |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125556/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/25251 |archive-date=2 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Supreme Court is the highest authority in the interpretation of laws and it can direct the parliament to amend or enact new laws as required. Nepali laws are considered generally more progressive compared to other developing countries, and in some instances, many developed ones. The death penalty has been abolished.<ref name="Death Penalty">{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenalty.org/article.php?id=81 |title=International Views on the Death Penalty |publisher=[[Death Penalty Focus]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106083835/http://www.deathpenalty.org/article.php?id=81 |archive-date=6 November 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=6 November 2012}}</ref> Nepal also has made progress in LGBT rights and gender equality. It recognises marital rape and supports abortion rights. Owing to a rise in sex-selective abortion, however, constraints have been introduced. Nepal is a signatory to the [[Geneva Convention]], [[Biological Weapons Convention|Conventions/Treaties on the prohibition of Biological]], [[Chemical Weapons Convention|Chemical]] and [[Nuclear weapons convention|Nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreatiesByCountrySelected.xsp?xp_countrySelected=NP |title=Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries – Nepal |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125320/https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreatiesByCountrySelected.xsp%3Fxp_countrySelected%3DNP |archive-date=2 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[ILO fundamental conventions|International Labour Organization Fundamental Conventions]], [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] and the [[Paris climate accord]]. Some legal provisions, guided by socio-economic, cultural and religious sensibilities, remain discriminatory. There is gender-based discrimination against foreign nationals married to Nepali citizens.{{Efn|However, same-sex marriage with foreign nationals occurring in a jurisdiction that recognises same-sex marriage is now recognised in Nepal, for eligibility to obtain a "non-tourist visa" as dependent of a Nepali citizen, by verdict of the Supreme Court in 2017, as the laws do not make sex-specific distinction in provisions relating to the rights of foreign nationals married to Nepali citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nkp.gov.np/full_detail/8972/?keywords=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%20%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4 |title=निर्णय नं. ९९२१ – उत्प्रेषण / परमादेश |publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]}}</ref>|name=|group=}} Paternal lineage of a person is valued and required in legal documents. Many laws remain unenforced in practice.

[[Nepal Police]] is the primary law enforcement agency. It is an independent organisation under the command of the [[Inspector General of Police (Nepal)|Inspector General]], who is appointed by and reports to the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Nepal)|Ministry of Home Affairs]]. In addition to maintaining law and order, it is responsible for the management of road traffic, which is undertaken by Nepal Traffic Police. [[Armed Police Force (Nepal)|Nepal Armed Police Force]], a separate paramilitary police organisation, works in cooperation with Nepal police in routine security matters; it is intended for crowd control, counter-insurgency and anti-terrorism actions, and other internal matters where the use of force may be necessary. The [[Central Investigation Bureau|Crime Investigation Department]] of Nepal Police specialises in criminal investigation and forensic analysis.<ref name="Newman2010">{{cite book |title=Crime and Punishment around the World |first=Graeme |last=Newman |page=171 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2uK6bR9byVIC&pg=RA2-PA176|isbn=978-0-313-35134-1}}</ref><ref name="AHRC">{{cite web |title=NEPAL: Corruption in Nepal&nbsp;– Curse or Crime? |url=http://www.humanrights.asia/opinions/columns/AHRC-ETC-011-2012 |publisher=[[Asian Human Rights Commission]]|access-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815082147/http://www.humanrights.asia/opinions/columns/AHRC-ETC-011-2012 |archive-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="InterpolNepal">{{cite web|title=INTERPOL – Kathmandu |url=https://www.interpol.int/Who-we-are/Member-countries/Asia-South-Pacific/NEPAL |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=[[Interpol]]}}</ref><ref name="Brown2013">{{cite web |title=The Impact of Organized Crime on Governance in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Nepal|publisher=[[Center on International Cooperation]]|url=http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/kavanagh_crime_developing_countries_nepal_study.pdf |access-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223155209/http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/kavanagh_crime_developing_countries_nepal_study.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://niss.org.np/organizational-structure-and-role-of-nid-in-nepals-federal-set-up/ |title=Organizational Structure and Role of NID in Nepal's Federal Set up|publisher=[[Nepal Institute for Strategic Studies]]|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125311/http://niss.org.np/organizational-structure-and-role-of-nid-in-nepals-federal-set-up/|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority]] is an independent investigative agency that investigates and prosecutes cases related to corruption, bribery and abuses of authority. At 2.16 per 100,000 in 2016, Nepal's intentional homicide rate is much lower than average; police data indicates a steady increase in the crime rate in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/12/08/crime-rate-in-nepal-rose-by-40-percent-in-past-five-fiscal-years-police-data-reveals |title=Crime rate in Nepal rose by 40 percent in past five fiscal years, police data reveals |website=Kathmandu Post |language=en |access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref> Nepal was ranked 76 out of 163 countries in the Global Peace Index (GPI) in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/ |title=Global Peace Index 2019 |website=Vision of Humanity |publisher=[[Institute for Economics & Peace]] |access-date=9 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619080402/http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/ |archive-date=19 June 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Nepal depends on diplomacy for national defence. It maintains a policy of neutrality between its neighbours, has amicable relations with other countries in the region, and has a policy of non-alignment at the global stage. Nepal is a member of [[SAARC]], [[UN]], [[WTO]], [[BIMSTEC]] and [[Asia Cooperation Dialogue|ACD]], among others. It has bilateral diplomatic relations with 167 countries and the EU,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/ |title=Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA |language=en-US |publisher=[[Government of Nepal]] |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925203632/https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/ |archive-date=25 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> has embassies in 30 countries<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/embassy-of-nepal/ |title=Embassy of Nepal – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA |language=en-US |publisher=[[Government of Nepal]] |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717045107/https://mofa.gov.np/embassy-of-nepal/ |archive-date=17 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and six consulates,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/consulates-general-of-nepal/ |title=Consulates General of Nepal – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA |language=en-US |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724133315/https://mofa.gov.np/consulates-general-of-nepal/ |archive-date=24 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> while 25 countries maintain embassies in Nepal, and more than 80 others maintain non-residential diplomatic missions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/non-residential-diplomatic-missions/ |title=NON-RESIDENTIAL DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA |language=en-US |publisher=[[Government of Nepal]] |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717010017/https://mofa.gov.np/non-residential-diplomatic-missions/ |archive-date=17 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal is one of the major contributors to the [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping]] missions, having contributed more than 119,000 personnel to 42 missions since 1958.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/nepalese-peacekeepers-receive-un-medal |title=Nepalese Peacekeepers receive UN Medal |publisher=[[United Nations]] |language=en |access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> Nepali people have a reputation for honesty, loyalty and bravery, which has led to them serving as legendary Gurkha warriors in the Indian and British armies for the last 200 years, with service in both world wars, India-Pakistan wars as well as Afghanistan and Iraq,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/the-nepalis-fighting-americas-wars/ |title=The Nepalis Fighting America's Wars |first=Peter |last=Gill |newspaper=[[The Diplomat]] |language=en-US |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919053517/https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/the-nepalis-fighting-americas-wars/ |archive-date=19 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> though Nepal was not directly involved in any of those conflicts, and winning the highest military awards, including the [[Victoria Cross]] and the [[Param Vir Chakra]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/the-big-question-who-are-the-gurkhas-and-what-is-their-contribution-to-military-history-1676354.html |title=The Big Question: Who are the Gurkhas and what is their contribution |date=30 April 2009 |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |language=en |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603070551/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/the-big-question-who-are-the-gurkhas-and-what-is-their-contribution-to-military-history-1676354.html |archive-date=3 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Nepal pursues a policy of "balanced relations" with the two giant immediate neighbours, India and China;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/18241 |title=Nepal's Ties With India, China |newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]] |access-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222203139/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/18241 |archive-date=22 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dahal |first=Girdhari |year=2018 |title=Foreign Relation of Nepal with China and India |journal=[[Journal of Political Science]] |volume=XVIII |pages=46–61 |doi=10.3126/jps.v18i0.20439 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the [[1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship|1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship]] with India provides for a much closer relationship.<ref name=rn50>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/22232 |title=Reviewing The Treaty Of 1950 |newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]] |access-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303194225/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/22232 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal and India share an open border with free movement of people, religious, cultural and marital ties. India is Nepal's largest trading partner, which it depends upon for all of its oil and gas, and a number of essential goods. Nepalis can own property in India, while Indians are free to live and work in Nepal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/is-it-the-end-of-india-s-special-relationship-with-nepal/story-ijLNl5AvvOt1w6fQANekVP.html |title=Is it the end of India's special relationship with Nepal? |date=8 March 2018 |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en |access-date=6 April 2020}}</ref> Relations between India and Nepal, though very close, have faced difficulties stemming from [[Territorial disputes between India and Nepal|territorial disputes]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anab |first=Mohammad |last2=Punetha |first2=Prem |date=September 18, 2020 |title=India Nepal news: Nepal depicts Indian areas as its own in book |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nepal-depicts-indian-areas-as-its-own-in-book/articleshow/78178044.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.ph/4L5zm |archive-date=April 18, 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref> economics, and the problems inherent in big power-small power relations.{{sfn|Balakrishnan|2010|p=196}}{{Failed verification|date=April 2022|reason=needs inline citation from book source}} Nepal established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China on 1 August 1955, and signed the [[Sino-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship|Treaty of Peace and Friendship]] in 1960; relations since have been based on the [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]]. Nepal maintains neutrality in conflicts between China and India. It remains firmly committed to the [[One-China policy|One China Policy]] and is known to curb anti-China activities from the [[Tibetan diaspora|Tibetan refugees]] in Nepal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-tibet-nepal-20150806-story.html |title=Tibet's Road Ahead: Tibetans lose a haven in Nepal under Chinese pressure |date=6 August 2015 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023225427/https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-tibet-nepal-20150806-story.html |archive-date=23 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7353249.stm |title=Nepal Arrests Tibetan Protesters |work=[[BBC News]] |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=29 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930002704/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7353249.stm |archive-date=30 September 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Citizens of both countries can cross the border and travel as far as 30&nbsp;km without a visa.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/china-urged-to-let-nepalis-work-in-taklakot/|title=China urged to let Nepalis work in Taklakot|date=7 June 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607195323/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/china-urged-to-let-nepalis-work-in-taklakot/|archive-date=7 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> China is viewed favourably in Nepal owing to the absence of any border disputes or serious interference in internal politics, coupled with its assistance in infrastructure development and aid during emergencies; favourability has increased since China helped Nepal during the [[2015 Nepal blockade|2015 economic blockade]] imposed by India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/why-nepals-access-to-china-ports-matters/|title=Why Nepal's Access to China Ports Matters|last=Rajgopalan|first=Rajeswari Pillai|newspaper=[[The Diplomat]]|language=en-US|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031155408/https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/why-nepals-access-to-china-ports-matters/|archive-date=31 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, China granted Nepal access to its ports for third-country trade, and Nepal joined China's [[Belt and Road Initiative]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/opinion/belt-and-road-initiative-nepals-concern-and-commitment/ |title=Belt and Road Initiative: Nepal's concern and commitment |date=23 April 2019 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424161958/https://thehimalayantimes.com/opinion/belt-and-road-initiative-nepals-concern-and-commitment/ |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Nepal emphasises greater cooperation in South Asia and actively pushed for the establishment of [[SAARC]], the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the permanent secretariat of which, is hosted in Kathmandu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Iqbal |first=Muhammad Jamshed |year=2006 |title=SAARC: Origin, Growth, Potential and Achievements |url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/SAARC_Jamshed_Iqbal.pdf |journal=[[Pakistan Journal of History & Culture]] |volume=XXVII |pages=127–40 |access-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111092347/http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/SAARC_Jamshed_Iqbal.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal was one of the first countries to recognise an independent Bangladesh, and the two countries seek to enhance greater cooperation, on trade and water management; seaports in Bangladesh, being closer, are seen as viable alternatives to India's monopoly on Nepal's third-country trade.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/19231 |title=Nepal, Bangladesh Can Become Better Trade Partners |newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]] |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111072640/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/19231 |archive-date=11 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal was the first South Asian country to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, and the countries enjoy a strong relationship;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/42903/ |title=Marking the diplomatic ties between Nepal and Israel |newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]] |language=en |access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> it recognises the rights of the Palestinians, having voted in favour of its recognition at the UN and against the recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2017/12/23/unga-vote-consistent-with-nepals-position-on-israel-palestine |title=UNGA vote 'consistent with Nepal's position on Israel, Palestine' |newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |language=en |access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> Countries that Nepal maintains a close relationship with, include the most generous donors and development partners—the United States, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Japan and Norway, among others.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Khadka |first=Narayan |year=1997 |title=Foreign Aid to Nepal: Donor Motivations in the Post-Cold War Period |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=1044–1061 |doi=10.2307/2645740 |issn=0004-4687 |jstor=2645740}}</ref>

{{main|Nepali Army}}

The President is the supreme commander of the [[Nepali Army]]; its routine management is handled by the [[Ministry of Defence (Nepal)|Ministry of Defence]]. The military expenditure for 2018 was $398.5&nbsp;million,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.CD?locations=NP |title=Military expenditure (current USD) {{!}} Data |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> around 1.4% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=NP |title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) {{!}} Data |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> An almost exclusively ground infantry force, Nepal Army numbers at less than one hundred thousand;<ref name=rag/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2018/08/10/new-chief-faces-daunting-task-rebuilding-nepal-armys-image |title=New chief faces daunting task rebuilding Nepal Army's image |newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |language=en |access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/lieutenant-general-purna-chandra-thapa-to-take-charge-of-nepali-army-as-acting-chief-of-army-staff/ |title=Thapa to take charge of Nepali Army as acting CoAS |date=9 August 2018 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917071448/https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/lieutenant-general-purna-chandra-thapa-to-take-charge-of-nepali-army-as-acting-chief-of-army-staff/ |archive-date=17 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> recruitment is voluntary.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/ |title=South Asia :: Nepal – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> It has few aircraft, mainly helicopters, primarily used for transport, patrol, and search and rescue.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nepali-army-launches-new-helicopters/ |title=Nepali Army launches new helicopters |date=23 June 2015 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723110205/http://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nepali-army-launches-new-helicopters/ |archive-date=23 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Directorate of Military Intelligence (Nepal)|Directorate of Military Intelligence]] under Nepal Army serves as the military intelligence agency;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVLeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA199 |title=Military and Democracy in Nepal |last=Adhikari |first=Indra |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317589068 |language=en}}</ref> [[National Investigation Department of Nepal|National Investigation Department]] tasked with national and international intelligence gathering, is independent.<ref name=rag>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dHXRR3z-_EC&pg=PA130|title=Nepal as a Federal State: Lessons from Indian Experience |last=Raghavan |first=V. R. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Vij Books India]] |isbn=9789382652014 |language=en}}</ref> Nepal Army is primarily used for routine security of critical assets, an anti-poaching patrol of national parks, counterinsurgency, and search and rescue during natural disasters;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/19522/|title=Army to rescue |newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]] |language=en |access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> it also undertakes major construction projects.<ref name=milroad>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/dolpa-hq-connected-to-national-road-network/ |title=Dolpa HQ connected to national road network |date=18 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> There are no discriminatory policies on recruitment into the army, but it is dominated by men from elite Pahari warrior castes.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/4357/ |title=Women promoted to major for first time in NA infantry |last=Pariyar |first=Kamal |newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]] |language=en |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601000757/http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/4357/ |archive-date=1 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/news-and-analysis/post/751-bhakti-shah-the-fight-for-gay-and-transgender-rights-in-nepal |title=Bhakti Shah – the fight for gay and transgender rights in Nepal |publisher=[[Saferworld]] |language=en |access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>

[[File:Nepal Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|A proportional representation of Nepal exports, 2019]]

Nepal's gross domestic product (GDP) for 2019 was $34.186&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=NP |title=GDP (current US$) {{!}} Data |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190312080539/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=NP |archive-date=12 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/NP|access-date=23 July 2021|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> With an annual growth rate calculated at 6.6% in 2019,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=NP |title=GDP growth (annual %) {{!}} Data |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref> and expected 2.89% in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal – Gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate 2026|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/425729/gross-domestic-product-gdp-growth-rate-in-nepal/|access-date=23 July 2021|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref> Nepal is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. The country ranks 165th in the world{{efn|October 2019, IMF update, excludes [[Somalia]] and [[Syria]].}} in [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|nominal GDP per capita]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=47&pr.y=14&sy=2019&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512,668,914,672,612,946,614,137,311,546,213,674,911,676,314,548,193,556,122,678,912,181,313,867,419,682,513,684,316,273,913,868,124,921,339,948,638,943,514,686,218,688,963,518,616,728,223,836,516,558,918,138,748,196,618,278,624,692,522,694,622,962,156,142,626,449,628,564,228,565,924,283,233,853,632,288,636,293,634,566,238,964,662,182,960,359,423,453,935,968,128,922,611,714,321,862,243,135,248,716,469,456,253,722,642,942,643,718,939,724,734,576,644,936,819,961,172,813,132,726,646,199,648,733,915,184,134,524,652,361,174,362,328,364,258,732,656,366,654,144,336,146,263,463,268,528,532,923,944,738,176,578,534,537,536,742,429,866,433,369,178,744,436,186,136,925,343,869,158,746,439,926,916,466,664,112,826,111,542,298,967,927,443,846,917,299,544,582,941,474,446,754,666,698&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=IMF |access-date=15 November 2019}}</ref> and 162nd{{efn|October 2019, IMF update; excludes [[Somalia]], [[Syria]], and [[Venezuela]].}} in [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at PPP]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=81&pr.y=10&sy=2019&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512,668,914,672,612,946,614,137,311,546,213,674,911,676,314,548,193,556,122,678,912,181,313,867,419,682,513,684,316,273,913,868,124,921,339,948,638,943,514,686,218,688,963,518,616,728,223,836,516,558,918,138,748,196,618,278,624,692,522,694,622,962,156,142,626,449,628,564,228,565,924,283,233,853,632,288,636,293,634,566,238,964,662,182,960,359,423,453,935,968,128,922,611,714,321,862,243,135,248,716,469,456,253,722,642,942,643,718,939,724,734,576,644,936,819,961,172,813,132,726,646,199,648,733,915,184,134,524,652,361,174,362,328,364,258,732,656,366,654,144,336,146,263,463,268,528,532,923,944,738,176,578,534,537,536,742,429,866,433,369,178,744,436,186,136,925,343,869,158,746,439,926,916,466,664,112,826,111,542,298,967,927,443,846,917,299,544,582,941,474,446,754,666,698&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=IMF |access-date=15 November 2019}}</ref> Nepal has been a member of [[WTO]] since 23 April 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_nepal_e.htm |title=Accessions: Nepal |publisher=WTO |access-date=15 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115111106/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_nepal_e.htm |archive-date=15 November 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 16.8-million-worker [[Labour in Nepal|Nepali labour force]] is the 37th largest in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2095rank.html|title=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=18 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530152006/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications//the-world-factbook/rankorder/2095rank.html|archive-date=30 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Primary sector of the economy|The primary sector]] makes up 27.59% of GDP, [[Secondary sector of the economy|the secondary sector]] 14.6%, and [[Tertiary sector of the economy|the tertiary sector]] 57.81%.<ref name="National Accounts of Nepal 2018/19">{{cite web |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2019/04/Press-release-2018_19.pdf |title=National Accounts of Nepal 2018/19 |year=2019 |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics Nepal |access-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505113753/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2019/04/Press-release-2018_19.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal's foreign exchange remittances of US$8.1&nbsp;billion in 2018, the 19th largest in the world and constituting 28.0% of GDP,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/04/10/nepal-is-19th-largest-receiver-of-remittances-with-81-billion|title=Nepal is 19th largest receiver of remittances with $8.1&nbsp;billion |website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref> were contributed to its economy by millions of workers primarily in India, the middle east and East Asia, almost all of them unskilled labourers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2018/05/02/unskilled-workers-dominate-nepali-labour-force-abroad|title=Unskilled workers dominate Nepali labour force abroad|website=Kathmandu Post|language=en|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/miscellaneous/2017/09/18/more-nepalis-going-abroad-for-employment|title=More Nepalis going abroad for employment|website=Kathmandu Post|language=en|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref> Major agricultural products include cereals (barley, maize, millet, paddy and wheat), oilseed, potato, pulses, sugarcane, jute, tobacco, milk and water buffalo meat.<ref name=cia17>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|title=South Asia :: Nepal – The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chaudhary|first=Deepak|date=1 November 2018|title=Agricultural Policies and Rural Development in Nepal: An Overview|journal=Research Nepal Journal of Development Studies|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=34–46|doi=10.3126/rnjds.v1i2.22425|issn=2631-2131|doi-access=free}}</ref> Major industries include tourism, carpets, textiles, cigarettes, cement, brick, as well as small rice, jute, sugar and oilseed mills.<ref name=cia17/> Nepal's international trade greatly expanded in 1951 with the establishment of democracy; liberalisation began in 1985 and picked up pace after 1990. By the fiscal year 2016/17, Nepal's foreign trade amounted Rs 1.06&nbsp;trillion, a twenty-three folds increase from Rs 45.6&nbsp;billion in 1990/91. More than 60% of Nepal's trade is with India. Major exports include readymade garment, carpet, pulses, handicrafts, leather, medicinal herbs, and paper products, which account for 90% of the total. Major imports include various finished and semi-finished goods, raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemical fertilisers, electrical and electronic devices, petroleum products, gold, and readymade garments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Khubi Ram|date=5 July 2019|title=Nepalese Foreign Trade: Growth, Composition, and Direction|journal=NCC Journal|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=91–96|doi=10.3126/nccj.v4i1.24741|issn=2505-0788|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inflation was at 4.5% in 2019.<ref name="wb19">{{cite web|title=Overview|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nepal/overview|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621191142/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nepal/overview|archive-date=21 June 2019|access-date=23 November 2019|publisher=World Bank|language=en}}</ref> Foreign exchange reserves were at US$9.5&nbsp;billion in July 2019, equivalent to 7.8 months of imports.<ref name=wb19/>

[[File:GPD per capita development of Nepal.jpg|thumb|right|Real GPD per capita development of Nepal]]

The government's budget is about $13.71&nbsp;billion (FY 2019/20);<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/30/c_138102450.htm|title=Nepali gov't presents 13.71 bln USD budget for next fiscal year |agency=Xinhua News Agency  |access-date=24 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530051927/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/30/c_138102450.htm|archive-date=30 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>  expenditure of infrastructure development budget, most of it contributed by foreign aid, usually fails to meet the target.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.setopati.com/market/141194/|title=Finance Minister Khatiwada worried as ministries fail to spend development budget |website=Setopati|access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref> The country receives foreign aid from the UK,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmintdev/854/85403.htm |title=DFID's bilateral programme in Nepal |date=27 March 2015 |publisher=The [[International Development Committee]] of the House of Commons |access-date=17 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609015721/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmintdev/854/85403.htm |archive-date=9 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-nepal-aid-corruption-idUSKBN0MN00F20150327 |title=UK should cut aid to Nepal if "endemic" corruption persists: report |date=27 March 2015 |work=Reuters |access-date=16 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518085227/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/27/us-britain-nepal-aid-corruption-idUSKBN0MN00F20150327 |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> India, Japan, the US, the EU, China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian countries. The [[Nepalese rupee|Nepali rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Per capita income is $1,004.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/per-capita-income-to-reach-1400-by-2023-24/|title=Per capita income to reach $1,400 by 2023–24|date=4 April 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=24 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405145909/https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/per-capita-income-to-reach-1400-by-2023-24/|archive-date=5 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[distribution of wealth]] among the Nepalis is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[European Union]] (EU) (46.13%), the US (17.4%), and Germany (7.1%) are its main export partners; they mainly buy Nepali ready-made garments (RMG).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ktm2day.com/2011/10/11/eu-is-largest-buyer-of-nepali-garments/ |title=EU as Nepal's largest exporter |date=11 October 2011 |publisher=ktm2day |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013040013/http://www.ktm2day.com/2011/10/11/eu-is-largest-buyer-of-nepali-garments/ |archive-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal's import partners include India (47.5%), the United Arab Emirates (11.2%), China (10.7%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Singapore (4%).

[[File:USAID Measuring Impact Conservation Enterprise Retrospective (Nepal; National Trust for Nature Conservation) (26428623908).jpg|thumb|Tourists view a greater one-horned rhinoceros from an elephant in [[Chitwan National Park]].]]

The bulk of energy in Nepal comes from biomass (80%) and imported fossil fuels (16%).<ref name=adb17>{{cite report|title=NEPAL ENERGY SECTOR ASSESSMENT, STRATEGY, AND ROAD MAP|date=March 2017|url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/356466/nepal-energy-assessment-road-map.pdf|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank|ADB]]|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Most of the final energy consumption goes to the residential sector (84%) followed by transport (7%) and industry (6%); the transport and industry sectors have been expanding rapidly in recent years.<ref name=adb17/> Except for some lignite deposits, Nepal has no known oil, gas or coal deposits.<ref name=adb17/> All commercial fossil fuels (mainly oil, LPG and coal) are imported, spending 129% of the country's total export revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/from-a-fossil-past-to-an-electric-future/|title=From a fossil past to an electric future|last=Rai|first=Om Astha|language=en-US|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Only about 1% of the energy need is fulfilled by electricity.<ref name=adb17/> The perennial nature of Nepali rivers and the steep gradient of the country's topography provide ideal conditions for the development of hydroelectric projects. Estimates put Nepal's economically feasible hydro-power potential at approximately 42,000 MW.<ref name=adb17/> Nepal has been able to exploit only about 1,100 MW. As most of it is generated from run-of-river (ROR) plants, the actual power produced is much lower in the dry winter months when peak demand can reach as high as 1,200 MW, and Nepal needs to import as much as 650 MW from India to meet the demands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/from-the-nepali-press/more-than-half-of-nepals-electricity-imported-from-india/|title=More than half of Nepal's electricity imported from India|last=Times|first=Nepali|language=en-US|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Major hydro-power projects suffer delays and setbacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nea-to-build-10-new-hydropower-projects/|title=NEA to build 10 new hydropower projects|date=26 August 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2018/08/17/power-generation-to-increase-by-750-mw|title=Power generation to increase by 750 MW|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/06/09/nepal-fails-to-meet-energy-sector-targets-in-the-current-fiscal|title=Nepal fails to meet energy sector targets in the current fiscal|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Nepal's electrification rate (76%) is comparable to that of other countries in the region but there is significant disparity between the rural (72%) and urban (97%) areas.<ref name=adb17/>  The position of the power sector remains unsatisfactory because of high tariffs, high system losses, high generation costs, high overheads, over staffing, and lower domestic demand.<ref name="USAID SARI">{{cite web |title=Energy sector in Nepal |url=http://www.sari-energy.org/PageFiles/Countries/Nepal_Energy_detail.asp |access-date=15 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425173323/http://sari-energy.org/PageFiles/Countries/Nepal_Energy_detail.asp |archive-date=25 April 2012 }}</ref>

Nepal is one of the ten least urbanised, and the ten fastest urbanizing countries in the world. {{As of| 2014}}, an estimated 18.3% of the population lived in urban areas. Urbanisation rate is high in the Terai, doon valleys of the inner Terai and valleys of the middle hills, but low in the high Himalayas. Similarly, the rate is higher in central and eastern Nepal compared to further west.<ref>{{cite report|title=Urbanisation and urban growth in Nepal (GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 1294)|year=2015|publisher=UK:GSDRC|location=University of Birmingham, Birmingham|last=Bakrania|first=S.}}</ref> The capital, [[Kathmandu]], nicknamed the "City of temples", is the largest city in the country and the cultural and economic heart. Other large cities in Nepal include [[Pokhara]], [[Biratnagar]], [[Lalitpur, Nepal|Lalitpur]], [[Bharatpur, Nepal|Bharatpur]], [[Birgunj]], [[Dharan, Nepal|Dharan]], [[Hetauda]] and [[Nepalgunj]]. Congestion, pollution and drinking water shortage are some of the major problems facing the rapidly growing cities, most prominently the Kathmandu Valley.

 

{{Main|Religion in Nepal}}

[[File:Sadus at Pashupatinath temple.JPG|thumb|[[Sadhu]]s in [[Pashupatinath Temple]]|left]]

Nepal is a secular country, as declared by the Constitution of Nepal 2012 (Part 1, Article 4), where secularism 'means religious, cultural freedom, along with the protection of religion, culture handed down from time immemorial ({{Lang-hi|सनातन|label=none}})'.<ref>{{Cite web|date=20 September 2015|title=The Constitution of Nepal|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/np/np029en.pdf|access-date=7 May 2021|work=Nepal Gazette}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Constitution of Napal (in Nepali)|url=http://mohp.gov.np/downloads/Constitution%20of%20Nepal_2072_Nepali.pdf|access-date=7 May 2021|website=mohp.gov.np/}}</ref> The 2011 census reported that the religion with the largest number of followers in Nepal was [[Hinduism in Nepal|Hinduism]] (81.3% of the population), followed by [[Buddhism in Nepal|Buddhism]] (9%); the remaining were [[Islam in Nepal|Islam]] (4.4%), [[Kirat Mundhum|Kirant]] (3.1%), [[Christianity in Nepal|Christianity]] (1.4%) and ''Prakriti'' or nature worship (0.5%).{{sfn|2011 National Census|pp=4, 184}} By percentage of population, Nepal has the largest population of Hindus in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/religion101/2012/11/hindu-demographics-denominations-part-one.html|title=Hindu Demographics & Denominations (Part One)|date=28 November 2012|website=Religion 101|language=en|access-date=21 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821130245/https://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/religion101/2012/11/hindu-demographics-denominations-part-one.html|archive-date=21 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal was officially a Hindu Kingdom until recently, and [[Shiva]] was considered the guardian deity of the country.<ref>''Anthologia anthropologica. The native races of Asia and Europe;'' by James George Frazer, Sir; Robert Angus Downie</ref> Although many government policies throughout history have disregarded or marginalised minority religions, Nepalese societies generally enjoy religious tolerance and harmony among all religions, with only isolated incidents of religiously motivated violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/22579/|title=Eid highlights Nepal's religious tolerance|last=KHADKA|first=UPENDRA LAMICHHANE and BASANT|website=My Republica|language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://np.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/79/NEPAL-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf|title=NEPAL-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT|publisher=US Embassy Nepal|access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref> Nepal's constitution does not give anyone the right to convert any person to another religion. Nepal also passed a more stringent anti-conversion law on 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepal: Nepal: Bill criminalises religious conversion|url=https://www.csw.org.uk/2017/08/21/press/3676/article.htm|access-date=5 February 2021|website=csw.org.uk}}</ref> Nepal has the second-largest number of [[Hindu]]s in the world after India.<ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=December 2012|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=5 November 2018}}</ref>

Nepal entered modernity in 1951 with a literacy rate of 5% and about 10,000 students enrolled in 300 schools.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} By 2017, there were more than seven million students enrolled in 35,601 schools.<ref name=moe17>{{cite report|title=Education in figures 2017|publisher=Ministry of Education, Nepal|year=2017|url=https://moe.gov.np/assets/uploads/files/Education_in_Figures_2017.pdf|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> The overall literacy rate (for population age 5 years and above) increased from 54.1% in 2001 to 65.9% in 2011.{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}} The net primary enrolment rate reached 97% by 2017,<ref name="undp">{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/NPL.html|title=Human Development Report 2010&nbsp;– Nepal|publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415135354/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/NPL.html|archive-date=15 April 2012|access-date=25 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/nepal/education|title=Education|publisher=UNICEF |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> yet enrolment was less than 60% at the secondary level (grades 9 –12),<ref name=uis>{{cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/np|title=Nepal|date=27 November 2016|publisher=UNESCO |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> and around 12% at the tertiary level.<ref name=uis/> Though there is significant gender disparity in overall literacy rate,{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}} girls have overtaken boys in enrolment to all levels of education.<ref name=uis/> Nepal has eleven universities and four independent science academies.<ref name=moe17/> Nepal was ranked 111st in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2021, down from 109th in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021  |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2 September 2021|website=wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD – Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2 September 2021|publisher=European Commission}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en}}</ref>

 

Lack of proper infrastructures and teaching materials, and a high student-to-teacher ratio, as well as politicisation of school management committees<ref>{{cite web|url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/12519|title=Community-based School Management The Role Politics Plays |website=The Rising Nepal |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> and partisan unionisation among both students and teachers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/minister-pokhrel-urges-teachers-to-be-loyal-to-their-schools/|title=Minister Pokhrel urges teachers to be loyal to their schools|date=15 September 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> present a hurdle to progress. Free basic education is guaranteed in the constitution but the programme lacks funding for effective implementation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2018/05/08/free-education-to-cost-threefold|title=Free education to cost threefold|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Government has scholarship programmes for girls and disabled students as well as the children of martyrs, marginalised communities and the poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edusanjal.com/scholarship/types-of-scholarships-provided-to-nepalese-students-by-government-of-nepal/|title=Types of scholarships provided to Nepalese students by government of Nepal|website=Edusanjal|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/medical-colleges-charging-extra-fees-even-from-govt-scholarship-holders/|title=Medical colleges charging extra fees even from govt scholarship holders|date=7 April 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Tens of thousands of Nepali students leave the country every year in search of better education and work, with half of them never returning.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://admin.myrepublica.com/society/story/23904/more-students-seeking-no-objection-to-study-abroad.html|title=More students seeking 'no objection' to study abroad|last=Sharma|first=Nirjana|date=3 July 2015|work=[[República (Nepalese newspaper)|Republica]]|access-date=20 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020173146/http://admin.myrepublica.com/society/story/23904/more-students-seeking-no-objection-to-study-abroad.html|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://nepalitimes.com/regular-columns/Between-the-lines/More-Nepali-students-settle-overseas,528|title=Losing our young|last=Tsering|first=Dolker|date=17 July 2015|work=[[Nepali Times]]|access-date=20 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020173506/http://nepalitimes.com/regular-columns/Between-the-lines/More-Nepali-students-settle-overseas,528|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Life_expectancy_in_Nepal.svg|thumb|Historical development of life expectancy in Nepal]]

 

Health care services in Nepal are provided by both the public and private sectors. Life expectancy at birth is estimated at 71 years as of 2017, 153rd highest in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html|title=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226011822/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html%20|url-status=dead}}</ref> up from 54 years in the 1990s and 35 years in 1950.<ref name=ththeal>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/nepal-ranks-second-in-lung-ailment-deaths/|title=Nepal ranks second in lung ailment deaths|date=12 August 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy|access-date=2022-02-18|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> Two-thirds of all deaths are due to non-communicable diseases; heart disease is the leading cause of death.<ref name=nhrc19>{{cite report|title= Nepal Burden of Disease 2017: A Country Report based on the Global Burden of Disease 2017 Study|author=Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC), Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) and Monitoring Evaluation and Operational Research (MEOR)|publisher= NHRC, MoHP, and MEOR|year=2019|location=Kathmandu, Nepal|url=http://nhrc.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/NBoD-2017_NHRC-MoHP.pdf|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> While sedentary lifestyle, imbalanced diet and consumption of tobacco and alcohol has contributed in the rise of non-communicable diseases, many lose their life to communicable and treatable diseases caused by poor sanitation and malnutrition due to a lack of education, awareness and access to healthcare services.<ref name=nhrc19/><ref name=tkpheal19>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/study-reveals-high-prevalence-of-non-communicable-diseases-in-nepal/|title=Study reveals high prevalence of non-communicable diseases in Nepal|date=5 August 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Nepal has made great progress in maternal and child health. 95% of children have access to iodised salt, and 86% of children aged 6 – 59 months receive Vitamin A prophylaxis.<ref name=unicefhealth/> Stunting, underweight and wasting has been reduced significantly;<ref name=unicefhealth>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/nepal/nutrition|title=Nutrition|website=UNICEF |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> malnutrition, at 43% among children under five, is extremely high.<ref name=ntimes19>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/nearly-half-of-nepali-children-still-malnourished/|title=Nearly half of Nepali children still malnourished|last=Awale|first=Sonia|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Anemia in women and children increased between 2011 and 2016, reaching 41% and 53% respectively.<ref name=ntimes19/> Low birth weight is at 27% while breastfeeding is at 65%.<ref name=ntimes19/> Nepal has reduced maternal mortality rate to 229,<ref name=kpmm>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/02/10/maternal-mortality-reduction-target-hard-to-meet-for-nepal-officials|title=Maternal mortality reduction target hard to meet for Nepal: Officials|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> from 901 in 1990;<ref name=whomm>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/94/5/16-030516/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719033028/http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/94/5/16-030516/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 July 2016|title=WHO {{!}} Reaching Nepal's mothers in time|publisher=WHO|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=kpmm/> infant mortality is down to 32.2 per thousand live births compared to 139.8 in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT?locations=NP&view=chart|title=Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) – Nepal {{!}} Data|publisher=World Bank |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Contraceptive prevalence rate is 53% but the disparity rate between rural and urban areas is high due to a lack of awareness and easy access.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/nepal-far-from-hitting-contraceptive-target/|title=Nepal far from hitting contraceptive target|last=Bhattarai|first=Sewa|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Progress in health is driven by strong government initiative in cooperation with NGOs and INGOs. Public health centres provide 72 essential medicines free of cost. In addition, the public health insurance plan initiated in 2016 which covers health treatments of up to Rs 50,000 for five members of a family, for a premium of Rs 2500 per year, has seen limited success, and is expected to expand.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2018/06/07/health-insurance-plan-yet-to-cover-38-districts-in-nepal|title=Health insurance plan yet to cover 38 districts in Nepal|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> By paying stipends for four antenatal visits to health centres and hospitalised delivery, Nepal decreased home-births from 81% in 2006<ref name="whomm"/> to 41% in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mhtf.org/2017/12/29/the-current-state-of-maternal-health-in-nepal/|title=The Current State of Maternal Health in Nepal|date=29 December 2017|publisher=Maternal Health Task Force|language=en-us|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> School meal programmes have improved education as well as nutrition metrics among children.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/usda-wfp-provide-school-meals/|title=USDA, WFP to provide school meals|date=4 February 2018|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Toilet building subsidies under the ambitious "one household-one toilet" programme has seen toilet prevalence rate reach 99% in 2019, from just 6% in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/08/01/government-has-been-trying-to-eliminate-open-defecation-for-over-a-decade-here-s-why-it-hasn-t-worked|title=Government has been trying to eliminate open defecation for over a decade. Here's why it hasn't worked.|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

| footer = Clockwise from top-left: (a) [[Nyatapola]], a five storied [[pagoda]] in Bhaktapur, bejewelled with characteristic stone, metal and wood craftsmanship, has survived at least four major earthquakes.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001461/146117e.pdf |title=Science, Research and Technology in Nepal |year=2006 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=3–6 |author1=Dayananda Bajracharya |author1-link=Dayananda Bajracharya |author2=Dinesh Raj Bhuju |author3=Jiba Raj Pokhrel |access-date=18 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210819/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001461/146117e.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pagodas, now an indispensable part of East Asian architecture, are conjectured to have been transmitted to China from Nepal. (b) Nepali stonecraft in a royal water spout (c) A traditional Newar "Ankhijhyal" window in the form of a peacock

Nepal's literature was closely intertwined with that of the rest of South Asia until its unification into a modern kingdom. Literary works, which were written in Sanskrit by Brahmin priests educated and sometimes also based in Varanasi, included religious texts and other fantasies involving kings, gods and demons.<ref name=bba/> The oldest extant Nepali language text is dated to the 13th century but except for the epigraphic material, Nepali language literature older than the 17th century haven't been found. Newar literature dates back almost 500 years.<ref name=Hutt1991/> The modern history of Nepali literature begins with Bhanubhakta Acharya (1814–1868), who for the first time composed major and influential works in Nepali, the language accessible to the masses, most prominently, the [[Bhanubhakta Ramayana]], a translation of the ancient Hindu epic.<ref name=bba>{{Cite journal|last=Maitra|first=Kiran Shankar|year=1982|title=The First Poet of Nepali Literature|journal=Indian Literature|volume=25|issue=5|pages=63–71|issn=0019-5804|jstor=23331113}}</ref> By the end of the nineteenth century, [[Motiram Bhatta]] had published print editions of the works of Acharya, and through his efforts, single-handedly popularised and propelled Nepali language literature into modernity.<ref name=Hutt1991/> By the mid-twentieth century, Nepali literature was no longer limited to the Hindu literary traditions. Influenced by western literary traditions, writers in this period started producing literary works addressing the contemporary social problems,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=V.|year=1992|journal=Journal of South Asian Literature|volume=27|issue=2|pages=209–218|issn=0091-5637|jstor=40874126|title=B. P. Koirala: A Major Figure in Modern Nepali Literature}}</ref> while many others continued to enrich Nepali poetic traditions with authentic Nepali poetry. Newar literature also emerged as a premier literary tradition. After the advent of democracy in 1951, Nepali literature flourished. Literary works in many other languages began to be produced. Nepali literature continued to modernise, and in recent years, has been strongly influenced by the post civil-war Nepali experience as well as global literary traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Nepali-literature|title=Nepali literature|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.therisingnepal.org.np/index/news/34119|title=Conflict-period Nepali literature holds importance for awareness |website=The Rising Nepal |access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Riccardi|first=Theodore|year=1993|title=Review of Himalayan Voices: An Introduction to Modern Nepali Literature|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=56|issue=1|pages=157–158|issn=0041-977X|jstor=620321|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00002007|s2cid=162890099}}</ref><ref name=Hutt1991>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IwDwAAQBAJ|title=Himalayan Voices: An Introduction to Modern Nepali Literature|last=Hutt|first=Michael J.|date=29 July 1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07048-6|language=en}}</ref>

Nepali cuisines possess their own distinctive qualities to distinguish these hybrid cuisines from both their northern and southern neighbours.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/could-nepali-cuisine-go-global/|title=Could Nepali cuisine go global?|last=Heaton|first=Thomas|language=en-US|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=cnnfood>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/nepal-top-foods/index.html|title=Momos to Thali: What to eat in Kathmandu|last=marsh|first=jenni|date=16 December 2016|publisher=CNN Travel|language=en|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref> Nepali cuisines, with generally tomato-based, leaner curries, are lighter than their cream-based Indian counterparts, and Nepali momo dumplings are heavily spiced compared to their northern counterparts.<ref name=cnnfood/> Newar cuisine, one of the richest and most influential in Nepal, is more elaborate and diverse than most, as Newar culture developed in the highly fertile and prosperous Kathmandu valley.<ref name=tkpcrop/> A typical Newar cuisine can comprise more than a dozen dishes of cereals, meat, vegetable curries, chutneys and pickles. Kwanti (sprouted beans soup), chhwela (ground beef), [[Chatānmari|chatamari]] (rice flour crepe), bara (fried lentil cake), kachila (marinated raw minced beef), samaybaji (centred around flattened rice), {{transl|ne|lakhaamari}} and {{transl|ne|yomuri}} are among the more widely recognised.<ref name=cnnfood/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Oq8AgAAQBAJ|title=Curry Cookbook – Nepal Cuisine|last=Rai|first=Jay|publisher=Springwood emedia|isbn=978-1-4760-4069-1|language=en}}</ref> Juju dhau, a sweet yoghurt originating in Bhaktapur, is also famous.<ref name=cnnfood/> Thakali cuisine is another well-known food tradition which seamlessly melds the Tibetan and the Indian with variety in ingredients, especially the herbs and spices.<ref name=tkpcrop/> In the Terai, [[Bagiya]] is a rice flour dumpling with sweets inside, popular among the Tharu and Maithil people. Various communities in the Terai make {{transl|ne|sidhara}} (sun-dried small fish mixed with [[taro]] leaves) and biriya (lentil paste mixed with taro leaves) to stock for the monsoon floods.<ref name=tkpcrop/> {{transl|ne|Selroti}}, {{transl|ne|kasaar}}, {{transl|ne|fini}} and {{transl|ne|chaku}} are among the sweet delicacies. Rice pulau or sweet rice porridge called {{transl|ne|kheer}} are usually the main dish in feasts.<ref name=pathak/> Tea and buttermilk (fermented milk leftover from churning butter from yoghurt) are common non-alcoholic drinks. Almost all janajati communities have their own traditional methods of brewing alcohol. Raksi (traditional distilled alcohol), jaand (rice beer), tongba (millet beer) and chyaang are the most well-known.

Nepali indigenous sports, like [[dandi biyo]] and [[kabaddi]] which were considered the unofficial national sports until recently,<ref name= voll>{{cite news |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/its-official-volleyball-is-the-national-sport-of-nepal.html|title=It's official: Volleyball is the national sport of Nepal|newspaper=[[Online Khabar]]|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085509/https://english.onlinekhabar.com/its-official-volleyball-is-the-national-sport-of-nepal.html|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> are still popular in rural areas.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play">{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/lifestyle/people/more-than-just-childs-play/|title=More than just child's play|date=25 February 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224138/https://thehimalayantimes.com/lifestyle/people/more-than-just-childs-play/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite efforts, standardisation and development of dandi biyo has not been achieved,<ref name="Online Khabar national sport">{{cite news |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/nepals-national-sport-five-things-didnt-know-dandi-biyo.html|title=Nepal's' 'national sport' we never had: Five things you didn't know about dandi-biyo |newspaper=[[Online Khabar]]|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224142/https://english.onlinekhabar.com/nepals-national-sport-five-things-didnt-know-dandi-biyo.html|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live|access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/57793/|title=Dandi Biyo Championship in Dhading|last=Republica|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224139/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/57793/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> while Kabaddi, as a professional sport, is still in its infancy in Nepal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/kabaddi/nepali-kabaddi-team-announces-12-member-men-s-squad-for-asian-games-2018|title=Nepal announces 12-member men's kabaddi squad for Asian Games 2018|date=6 August 2018|website=[[Sportskeeda]]|language=en|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224141/https://www.sportskeeda.com/kabaddi/nepali-kabaddi-team-announces-12-member-men-s-squad-for-asian-games-2018|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bagh-Chal]], an ancient [[Board games|board game]] that's thought to have originated in Nepal, can be played on chalk-drawn boards, with pebbles, and is still popular today.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tiger and goats is a draw |last1=Jin |first1=L.Y. |last2=Nievergelt |first2=J. |editor2-first=Richard J |editor2-last=Nowakowski |editor1-first=Michael H |editor1-last=Albert |journal=Games of No Chance |url=https://www.msri.org/people/staff/levy/files/Book56/22jin.pdf |publisher=[[MSRI Publications]] |volume=56 |year=2009 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511807251.008 |isbn=9780511807251 |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201337/http://www.msri.org/people/staff/levy/files/Book56/22jin.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://ejournals.ukm.my/apjitm/article/view/26093|title=Analyzing Thousand Years Old Game Tigers and Goats is Still Alive|first1=Hiroyuki|last1=Iida|first2=Sakshi|last2=Agarwal|date=1 October 2018|journal=[[Asia-Pacific Journal of Information Technology and Multimedia]]|volume=7|issue=2|via=[[UKM e-Journal System]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201347/http://ejournals.ukm.my/apjitm/article/view/26093|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ludo (board game)|Ludo]], [[snakes and ladders]] and [[carrom]] are popular pastimes.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2741570&language=en|title=KUNA : Carrom... Traditional game widely loved in Gulf region – Society – 16/08/2018|agency=[[Kuwait News Agency]]|access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref> [[Chess]] is also played.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[Volleyball]] was declared as the national sport of Nepal in 2017.<ref name=voll/> Popular children's games include versions of [[Tag (game)|tag]],<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[knucklebones]],<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[hopscotch]], [[Duck, duck, goose#Rumaal Chor|Duck, duck, goose]]<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> and [[seven stones|lagori]], while [[marbles]],<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[top]], [[hoop rolling]] and [[gully cricket]] are also popular among boys. [[Rubber band]]s, or [[ranger band]]s cut from tubes in [[Bicycle|bike]] tyres, make a multi-purpose sporting equipment for Nepali children, which may be bunched or chained together, and used to play [[dodgeball]], [[cat's cradle]], [[jianzi]]<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> and a variety of [[skipping rope]] games.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" />

[[Association football|Football]] and [[cricket]] are popular professional sports.<ref>{{cite web |title=Football at the heart of the Himalayas |url=https://www.fifa.com/theclub/news/newsid=93201/ |publisher=[[FIFA]] |date=5 March 2009 |access-date=17 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903141351/http://www.fifa.com/theclub/news/newsid=93201/ |archive-date=3 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nepal is competitive in football in the South Asia region but has never won the [[SAFF|SAFF championships]], the regional tournament.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/sports/2018/09/12/nepal-eye-historic-final|title=Saff Championship: Nepal eye historic final|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102020/https://kathmandupost.com/sports/2018/09/12/nepal-eye-historic-final|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-crash-out-of-saff-cship-after-3-0-defeat-to-maldives/|title=Nepal crash out of SAFF C'ship after 3–0 defeat to Maldives|date=12 September 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102013/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-crash-out-of-saff-cship-after-3-0-defeat-to-maldives/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It usually ranks in the bottom quarter in the [[FIFA World Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/men|title=The FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking – Ranking Table |publisher=[[FIFA]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907060006/https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/ranking-table/men/|archive-date=7 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has had success in cricket and holds the elite [[List of countries with ODI status|ODI status]],<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/cricket/92328/nepal-cricket-odi-status?amp|title=Nepal make cricket history after securing ODI status|newspaper=[[The Week|The Week (UK)]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627202049/http://www.theweek.co.uk/cricket/92328/nepal-cricket-odi-status?amp|archive-date=27 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/22777050/biggest-day-nepal-cricket-history-khadka |title='Biggest day in Nepal cricket history' – Khadka |date=15 March 2018 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316024753/http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/22777050/biggest-day-nepal-cricket-history-khadka |archive-date=16 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> consistently ranking in the Top 20 in the [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] [[ICC ODI Championship|ODI]] and [[ICC T20I Championship|T20I rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/odi|title=ICC Ranking for ODI teams International Cricket Council|publisher=[[International Cricket Council|ICC]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324175838/https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/odi|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/t20i|title=ICC Ranking for T20 teams International Cricket Council|publisher=[[International Cricket Council|ICC]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324175834/https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/t20i|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has had some success in [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]] and [[martial arts]], having won many medals at the [[South Asian Games]] and some at the [[Asian games]].<ref name=trn>{{Cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/33198|title=Current priorities of sports: Hosting SAG, winning medals|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085510/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/33198|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has never won an [[Olympic games|olympic]] medal.<ref name=gauri/> Sports like [[basketball]], volleyball, [[futsal]], [[wrestling]], competitive bodybuilding<ref name=gauri/><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/malik-overall-winner-afghanistan-bag-team-cship/|title=Malik overall winner, Afghanistan bag team c'ship|date=21 July 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085506/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/malik-overall-winner-afghanistan-bag-team-cship/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[badminton]] are also gaining in popularity.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> Women in football, cricket, athletics, martial arts, badminton and swimming have found some success.<ref name=award>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/cricket-football-dominate-nominations/|title=Cricket, football dominate nominations|date=26 June 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102011/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/cricket-football-dominate-nominations/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=gauri>{{Cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/67830/|title=Will she quench Nepal's thirst for Olympic medals?|first=Rajan|last=Shah|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722091043/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/67830/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal also fields players and national teams in several tournaments for [[Disability|disabled]] individuals, most notably in men's<ref name=menb>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/blind-cricketers-horrible-journey-to-world-cup/|title=Blind cricketers' horrible journey to WC|date=22 January 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201344/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/blind-cricketers-horrible-journey-to-world-cup/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as women's blind cricket.<ref name=wmenb>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-defeat-pakistan-seal-womens-blind-cricket-series/|title=Nepal defeat Pakistan, seal women's blind cricket series|date=4 February 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201351/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-defeat-pakistan-seal-womens-blind-cricket-series/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

* {{Cite book|last=Shaha|first=Rishikesh|title=Ancient and Medieval Nepal|year=1992|publisher=Manohar Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-85425-69-6}}

* {{Cite book|last=Tiwari|first=Sudarshan Raj|title=The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the Ancient Capital of Nepal|year=2002|publisher=Himal Books|isbn=978-99933-43-52-3}}

* {{Cite book|first=Barbara|last=Crossette|title=So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas|location=New York|publisher=Vintage|year=1995|isbn=978-0-679-74363-7}}

* {{Cite book|author=Dor Bahadur Bista|title=People of Nepal|publisher=Department of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Nepal|year=1967|isbn=978-99933-0-418-0}}

* {{Cite book|first=Dervla|last=Murphy|title=The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal|publisher=Transatlantic Arts|year=1968|isbn=978-0-7195-1745-7}}

* {{Cite book|author=Rishikesh Shaha|title=Modern Nepal: A Political History|publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors|year=2001|isbn=978-81-7304-403-8|author-link=Rishikesh Shaha}}

* {{Cite book|author=Jane Wilson-Howarth|title=A Glimpse of Eternal Snows: a family's journey of love and loss in Nepal|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides, UK|year=2012|page=390|isbn=978-1-84162-435-8|author-link=Jane Wilson-Howarth}}

*{{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=Sudheer|title=[[The Nepal Nexus|The Nepal Nexus: An Inside Account of the Maoists, the Durbar and New Delhi]]|publisher=[[Penguin Viking]]|year=2019|isbn=9780670089307|location=India|language=en}}{{Refend}}

{{Sister project links|voy=Nepal|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nepal|Nepal|auto=1|d=1}}