Islam in India: Difference between revisions

| group      = Indian Muslims<br />(ہندوستانی مسلمان)

| population = {{Circa|'''172.2 million'''|lk=yes}}<ref name="2011census-Religion-pca"/> (14.2%) (2011 Census) {{increase}}

|pop1      = 38,483,970<ref name="statista-numbers">{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/616679/muslim-population-by-state-and-union-territory-india/|title=India - Muslim population 2011|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2020-02-20}}</ref>

|pop2      = 24,654,830<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|pop3      = 17,557,810<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|pop4      = 12,971,150<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|pop5      = 10,679,350<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|pop6      = 8,873,470<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|region7    = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)#Religion|Jammu and Kashmir]]

|pop7      = 8,567,490<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|region8    = [[Religion in Andhra Pradesh#Islam|Andhra Pradesh]]

|pop8      = 8,082,410<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|region9    = [[Religion in Karnataka#Islam|Karnataka]]

|pop9      = 7,893,070<ref name=statista-numbers/>

|region10  = [[Islam in Rajasthan|Rajasthan]]

|pop10      = 6,215,380<ref name=statista-numbers/>

'''Liturgical'''<br>{{Hlist| [[Quranic Arabic]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |date= 30 May 2011|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004177024 |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030}}</ref>}}

*'''Common'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why the 30% Muslim vote share is crucial in Bengal, explains Robin Roy|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/analysis/why-the-30-muslim-vote-share-is-crucial-in-bengal-explains-robin-roy|access-date=2021-11-08|website=Free Press Journal|language=en}}</ref> [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Hindi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Maharashtrian Konkani]], [[Nawayathi dialect|Nawayathi]], [[Beary language|Beary]], [[Malvani Konkani]], [[Meitei language|Pangon]], and other [[languages of India]]}}

* '''Traditional'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Arwi]], [[Arabi Malayalam]]}}

|rels= Majority [[Sunni Islam]] and significant minority [[Shia Islam]]

'''Islam is India's [[India#Demographics, languages, and religion|second-largest religion]]''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/jammu-and-kashmir-the-view-from-india-29991|title=Jammu and Kashmir: The view from India|website=Jammu and Kashmir: The view from India|language=en|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref> with 14.2% of the country's population, approximately 172.2 million people identifying as adherents of [[Islam]] in 2011 Census.<ref name="2011census-Religion-pca">{{Cite web|title=Religion PCA – India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_pca/RL-0000.xlsx|access-date=26 October 2021 |work=[[2011 Census of India]]}}<br />{{Cite web|title=Religion PCA |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_PCA.html|access-date=1 September 2021 |work=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref> [[India]] is also the country with the second largest number of [[Muslims]] in the world.<ref name="pewresearch.org-2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/|title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&q=what+percent+of+muslims+live+in+south+asia&pg=PA193 |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415448512 |page=193}}</ref> The majority of India's Muslims are Sunni, with Shia making up 13% of the population.<ref name="USSD-IRFR" />

[[Islam]] spread in Indian communities along the Arab coastal trade routes in [[Gujarat]] and along the [[Malabar Coast]] shortly after the religion emerged in the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Islam arrived in the inland of [[Indian subcontinent]] in the 7th century when the Arabs conquered [[Sindh]] and later arrived in [[North India]] in the 12th century via the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids conquest]] and has since become a part of India's [[Culture of India|religious and cultural heritage]]. The Barwada Mosque in [[Ghogha]], [[Gujarat]] built before 623 CE, [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]] (629 CE) in [[Methala]], [[Kerala]] and [[Palaiya Jumma Palli]] (or The Old Jumma Masjid - 628 - 630 CE) in [[Kilakarai]], [[Tamil Nadu]] are three of [[List of mosques in India|the first mosques in India]] which were built by [[seafaring]] [[Arabs|Arab]] [[merchant]]s.<ref>Prof.Mehboob Desai,''Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam, Divy Bhasakar, Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May, page 4''</ref><ref>Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad, July 2012, P 444</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms |title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat |date=6 November 2016 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=28 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116041920/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms |archive-date=16 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/indias-oldest-mosque-and-growing-irrelevance-of-muslim-vote-in-gujarat/articleshow/61985802.cms|title=India's oldest mosque and growing irrelevance of Muslim vote in Gujarat |date=8 December 2017 |work=[[The Times of India]] |language=en |access-date=28 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209035951/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/indias-oldest-mosque-and-growing-irrelevance-of-muslim-vote-in-gujarat/articleshow/61985802.cms |archive-date=9 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gujaratexpert.com/blog/muslim-religious-places-in-gujarat/|title=Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat|last=Sharma|first=Indu|date=22 March 2018 |website=Gujarat Travel Blog|language=en |access-date=28 July 2019}} {{verify source|date=August 2019|reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/911246496]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/911172027]] cite #23 - please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] in present-day [[Kerala]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570–632). On a similar note, [[Tamil Muslim]]s on the eastern coasts also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. The local mosques date to the early 700s.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=1}}

The vast majority of the Muslims in India belong to [[South Asian ethnic groups]]. However, some Indian Muslims were found with detectable, traceable, minor to some levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Journal of Human Genetics |title=Diverse genetic origin of Indian Muslims: evidence from autosomal STR loci |journal=Nature |date=8 May 2009 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=340–348 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2009.38 |pmid=19424286 |s2cid=153224 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="genestudy"/><ref name="Kashif-ul-Huda">{{cite web|author=Kashif-ul-Huda |url=http://www.radianceweekly.com/57/407/draught-of-character-in-the-high-ups/2007-05-06/science-amp-technology/story-detail/genetically-indianstory--of-indian-muslims.html |title=Genetically Indian: Story of Indian Muslims |publisher=Radiance Viewsweekly |date=6 May 2007 |access-date=18 March 2011}}</ref> However, they are found in very low levels.<ref name="Kashif-ul-Huda"/> Sources indicate that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of the concept of Kafa'a.<ref name="EoI">{{cite book |author-link=John Burton-Page |last1=Burton-Page |first1=John |url=http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-2884 |title=Hindū |work=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor1-first=Peri |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor2-first=Thierry |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor3-first=Clifford Edmund |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor4-first=Emeri Johannes |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |editor5-first=Wolfhart P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |publisher=Brill |date=2006 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, p. 66</ref><ref name="Sikand">{{cite web |last=Singh Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Caste in Indian Muslim Society |publisher=[[Hamdard University]] |url=http://stateless.freehosting.net/Caste%20in%20Indian%20Muslim%20Society.htm |access-date=18 October 2006 }}</ref> Those who are referred to as [[Ashraf]]s (see also [[Sharif]]) are presumed to have a superior status derived from their foreign [[Arabs|Arab]] ancestry,<ref name="pratap_caste">{{cite book| last = Aggarwal|first = Patrap|title = Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India|publisher=Manohar|year = 1978 }}</ref><ref name="zarina_social_strat">{{cite book

According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of [[Malabar Coast]], by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]], [[Kerala]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |article=Mappila |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VI |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1988 |pages=458–66}}</ref> According to [[Mappila|Kerala Muslim]] tradition, the [[Masjid Zeenath Baksh]] at [[Mangalore]] is one of the oldest mosques in [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.karnataka.com/mangalore/zeenath-baksh-masjid/|title=Zeenath Baksh Masjid {{!}} Zeenath Baksh Masjid Mangalore {{!}} Zeenath Baksh Masjid History|date=2017-12-02|work=Karnataka.com|access-date=2018-06-30|language=en-US}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] in present-day [[Kerala]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] was died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref>

The first Indian [[mosque]], [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]], is thought to have been built in 629 CE by [[Malik Deenar]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Cheraman-Juma-Masjid-A-1000-year-old-lamp-burns-in-this-mosque/articleshow/47486911.cms |title=Cheraman Juma Masjid: A 1,000-year-old lamp burns in this mosque|work=[[The Times of India]] |date=31 May 2015 |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> although some historians say the first mosque was in [[Gujarat]] in between 610 CE to 623 CE.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms |title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 November 2016 |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> In [[Malabar region|Malabar]], the [[Mappila]]s may have been the first community to convert to Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA506|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West|first=Barbara A.|date=2010-05-19|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438119137|language=en}}</ref> Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and many other natives embraced Islam. According to legend, two travellers from India, Moulai [[Abdullah (Ismaili Mustaali Missionary)|Abdullah]] (formerly known as Baalam Nath) and Maulai Nuruddin (Rupnath), went to the court of [[Imam]] [[Al-Mustansir Billah|Mustansir]] (427–487&nbsp;AH)/(1036-1094 CE) and were so impressed that they converted to Islam and came back to preach in India in 467&nbsp;AH/1073 CE. Moulai Ahmed was their companion. [[Abdullah (Ismaili Mustaali Missionary)|Abadullah]] was the first [[List of Dai of Dawoodi Bohra|Wali-ul-Hind]] (saint of India). He came across a married couple named Kaka Akela and Kaki Akela who became his first converts in the [[Taiyabi Ismaili|Taiyabi]] ([[Dawoodi Bohra|Bohra]]) community.

Commercial intercourse between Arabia and India had gone on from time immemorial, with for example the sale of dates and aromatic herbs by Arabs traders who came to Indian shores every spring with the advent of the [[monsoon]] breeze. People living on the western coast of India were as familiar with the annual coming of Arab traders as they were with the flocks of monsoon birds; they were as ancient a phenomenon as the monsoon itself. However, whereas monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of few months, not all traders returned to their homes in the desert; many married Indian women and settled in India.<ref name="A history of the Sikhs-p20">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nsGAQAAIAAJ|title=A history of the Sikhs|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|date=1963|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=20|language=en}}</ref>

The advent of [[Muhammad]] (569–632 CE) changed the [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|idolatrous]] and easy-going Arabs into a nation unified by faith and fired with zeal to spread the gospel of Islam. The merchant seamen who brought dates year after year now brought a new faith with them. The new faith was well received by South India. Muslims were allowed to build mosques, intermarry with Indian women, and very soon an Indian-Arabian community came into being. Early in the 9th century, Muslim missionaries gained a notable convert in the person of the King of Malabar.<ref name="A history of the Sikhs-p20" />

According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh(currently province of Pakistan) and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a [[Companions of the Prophet|companion of Muhammad]], who traveled across Sind to [[Makran]] in the year 649AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported [[Ali]], and died in the [[Battle of the Camel]] alongside Sindhi [[Jats]].<ref>M. Ishaq, "Hakim Bin Jabala - An Heroic Personality of Early Islam", Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, pp. 145-50, (April 1955).</ref> He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of Ali ibn Abu Talib have survived, as reported in Chachnama.<ref>Derryl N. Maclean, "''Religion and Society in Arab Sind''", p. 126, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref>{{efn| Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi's poem in praise of Ali ibn Abu Talib:<br />{{Blockquote|text=({{lang-ar|ليس الرزيه بالدينار نفقدة

"Oh Ali, owing to your alliance (with the prophet) you are truly of high birth, and your example is great, and you are wise and excellent, and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love".<ref>Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, "The Chachnama", p. 43, The Commissioner's Press, Karachi (1900).</ref> |sign=|source=|title=}}}}

During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.<ref>Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "''The Shia Muslims''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day [[Quetta]]) in the year 658.<ref>Ibn Sa'd, 8:346. The raid is noted by Baâdhurî, "fatooh al-Baldan" p. 432, and Ibn Khayyât, Ta'rîkh, 1:173, 183–84, as cited in: Derryl N. Maclean, "''Religion and Society in Arab Sind''", p. 126, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> Sayfi was one of the seven partisans of Ali who were beheaded alongside [[Hujr ibn 'Adi|Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi]]<ref>Tabarî, 2:129, 143, 147, as cited in: Derryl N. Maclean, "''Religion and Society in Arab Sind''", p. 126, Brill, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> in 660AD, near Damascus.

Under the [[Delhi Sultanate]], there was a synthesis of [[Indian civilization]] with that of [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]], and the integration of the Indian subcontinent with a growing world system and wider international networks spanning large parts of [[Afro-Eurasia]], which had a significant impact on [[Indian culture]] and society.<ref name="asher-50-52">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|pages=50–52|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC|page=50}}}}</ref> The time period of their rule included the earliest forms of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]],<ref>A. Welch, "Architectural Patronage and the Past: The Tughluq Sultans of India," Muqarnas 10, 1993, Brill Publishers, pp 311-322</ref><ref>J. A. Page, [https://archive.org/stream/guidetothequtbde031434mbp#page/n15/mode/2up/search/temple Guide to the Qutb], Delhi, Calcutta, 1927, page 2-7</ref> increased growth rates in [[Demographics of India|India's population]] and [[Economic history of India|economy]],<ref name="maddison379">{{cite book|last=Madison|first=Angus|title=Contours of the world economy, 1–2030 AD: essays in macro-economic history|date=6 December 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-922720-4|page=379}}</ref> and the emergence of the [[Hindustani language]].<ref name="brown2008">{{Citation | title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |author1=Keith Brown |author2=Sarah Ogilvie | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 | publisher=Elsevier | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC | quote=... Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi ...}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate was also responsible for repelling the [[Mongol Empire]]'s potentially devastating [[Mongol invasions of India|invasions of India]] in the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref name="asher-50-51">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19|pages=19, 50–51}}</ref> The period coincided with a greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. From the 13th century onwards, India began widely adopting mechanical technologies from the [[Islamic world]], including [[Water wheel|water-raising wheels]] with [[gear]]s and [[pulley]]s, machines with [[cam]]s and [[Crank (mechanism)|cranks]],<ref name="Pacey">{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace | url-access = registration | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/26 26]–29}}</ref> [[papermaking]] technology,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Habib |first1=Irfan |author-link1=Irfan Habib |title=Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500 |date=2011 |publisher=[[Pearson Education India]] |isbn=9788131727911 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA96}}</ref> and the [[spinning wheel]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace | url-access = registration | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/23 23]–24}}</ref>

In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,<ref>{{citation|last=Robb|first=P.|title=A History of India|year=2001|publisher=London: Palgrave|isbn=978-0-333-69129-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete/page/80 80]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete/page/80}}</ref> fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|date=16 June 1998|title=A History of India|edition=1st|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-20546-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC|page = 164}}</ref> The resulting [[Mughal Empire]] did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices<ref>{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|pages = 90–91}}</ref> and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.<ref name="Asher-Talbot-2008-p152">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|page = 152}}</ref> Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under [[Akbar]], the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture<ref name="Asher-Talbot-2008-p158">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|page = 158}}</ref> and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 169}} caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.<ref name="Asher-Talbot-2008-p152"/> The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,<ref name="Asher-Talbot-2008-p152"/> resulting in greater patronage of [[Mughal painting|painting]], literary forms, textiles, and [[Mughal architecture|architecture]].<ref name="Asher-Talbot-2008-p186">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|page = 186}}</ref> The Mughal Empire was the world's largest economy in the 17th century, larger than [[Qing China]] and [[Western Europe]], with Mughal India producing about a quarter of the world's economic and industrial output.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|author-link=Angus Maddison|title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=rHJGz3HiJbcC}}|date=25 September 2003|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-10414-3|page=259}}</ref><ref name="williamson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]], David Clingingsmith|publisher=[[Harvard University]]|date=August 2005|access-date=18 May 2017}}</ref>

Other famous Muslims who fought for independence against [[British Raj|British rule]] were [[Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Mahmud al-Hasan]] of [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], who was implicated in the famous [[Silk Letter Movement]] to overthrow the British through an armed struggle, [[Husain Ahmad Madani]], former Shaikhul Hadith of [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], [[Ubaidullah Sindhi]], [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]], [[Hasrat Mohani]], Syed Mahmud,  [[Ahmadullah Shah]], Professor [[Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah|Maulavi Barkatullah]], [[Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi]], [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]], [[Saifuddin Kitchlew]], [[Vakkom Moulavi|Vakkom Abdul Khadir]], Manzoor Abdul Wahab, [[Bahadur Shah II|Bahadur Shah Zafar]], Hakeem Nusrat Husain, [[Bacha Khan|Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan]], [[Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai]], Colonel Shahnawaz, [[Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari]], [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]], [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, V. M. Obaidullah, S.R. Rahim, [[Badruddin Tyabji]], [[Abid Hasan]] and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.<ref name="zakaria">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMlKSmWRQ8cC|title=Indian Muslims: Where Have They Gone Wrong?|last=Zakaria|first=Rafiq|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=2004|isbn=9788179912010|pages=281–286|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ali">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XQCYl6T1vIC|title=They Too Fought for India's Freedom: The Role of Minorities|last2=Roy|first2=Shantimoy|publisher=Hope India Publications|year=2006|isbn=9788178710914|pages=103–116|last1=Ali|first1=Asghar|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref>

 

After [[Partition of India]] in 1947, two-thirds of the Muslims resided in Pakistan (both east and West Pakistan) but a third resided in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/842925/muslims-in-indian-army|title=Muslims in Indian army|date=2010-03-15|work=Dawn|location=Pakistan|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref> Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East) from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2017/aug/14/when-muslims-left-pakistan-for-india-1642817.html |title=When Muslims left Pakistan for India |date=14 August 2017 |first1=Vivek |last1=Shukla |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> Some critics allege that British haste in the partition process increased the violence that followed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJHTif-WA6oC|title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley|date=2009-09-17|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199745043|language=en}}</ref> Because independence was declared ''prior'' to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sXVCAAAAYAAJ|title=The Making of Pakistan|last=Symonds|first=Richard|date=1950|publisher=National Committee for Birth Centenary Celebrations of Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan|pages=74|language=en}}</ref>

However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.<ref name="Post-Imperial World-p72">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FciqvzTfAuEC|title=Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World|last=Butler|first=L. J.|date=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781860644481|pages=72|language=en}}</ref> Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.<ref name="Post-Imperial World-p72" /> Law and order had broken down many times before Partition with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,<ref name="Post-Imperial World-p72" /> perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9Qe_mLjs8MC|title=Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968|last=Hyam|first=Ronald|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521866491|pages=113|language=en}}</ref> The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DMS3r_BxOYC|title=The Rise and Fall of the British Empire|last=James|first=Lawrence|date=1997-09-15|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9780312169855|language=en}}</ref>

With around 204&nbsp;million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is about the [[Islam by country|world's third-largest]]<ref name=globenewswire-29Aug21>{{citation |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/08/30/2288000/0/en/MRHB-DeFi-and-Coinsbit-India-Partner-to-Bring-Halal-Crypto-to-India-s-200-Million-Muslims.html |title=MRHB DeFi and Coinsbit India Partner to Bring Halal Crypto to India's 200 Million Muslims |date=29 August 2021 |access-date=21 October 2021 |work=[[GlobeNewswire]] |agency=MRHB DeFi}}</ref><ref name="MuslimPopulation2020" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bangladesh-wants-indias-entry-in-oic-as-observer/articleshow/64044678.cms |title=Make India observer in forum of Islamic nations: Bangladesh |date=6 May 2018 |first1=Indrani |last1= Bagchi |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> and the world's largest Muslim-minority population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/minorities/South-Asia/Muslims-of-India.html|title=Muslims of India – World Directory of Minorities|website=faqs.org|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population.<ref name=globenewswire-29Aug21/><ref name="pewforum-17Nov17">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/chart/interactive-data-table-world-muslim-population-by-country/|title=World Muslim Population by Country|date=17 November 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> According to Pew Research Center, there can be 213 million Muslims in 2020, India's 15.5% population.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-04-02|title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/|access-date=2021-06-26|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US}}</ref>

'''Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020<ref name="MuslimPopulation2020">{{cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/muslim-population-by-country/|title=Muslim Population By Country by Population 2020}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html|title=Muslim Population in India - Muslims in Indian States|website=www.indiaonlinepages.com|access-date=2017-10-04|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908034112/http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html|archive-date=8 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=globenewswire-29Aug21/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://go.id/agamadanstatistik/umat |title=Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut |date=15 May 2018 |work=Sensus Penduduk 2018 |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik |location=Jakarta, Indonesia |trans-title=Population by Region and Religion |access-date=3 September 2020 |quote=Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions.}} Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03),Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-05-24|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files//population_census/sailent_feature_%20census_2017.pdf |title=Salient Features of Final Results Census-2017 |work=[[2017 Census of Pakistan]] |publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref>

|{{Flag|Indonesia}}|| 231,070,000 || 12.2%

|{{Flag|Pakistan}}|| 213,161,100 || 11.2%

|{{Flag|Nigeria}}|| 110,263,500 || 5.8%

Muslims represent a majority of the local population in [[Lakshadweep]] (96.2%) and [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] (68.3%). The largest concentration – about 47% of all Muslims in India, live in the three states of [[Islam in Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]], [[Islam in West Bengal|West Bengal]], and [[Bihari Muslims|Bihar]]. High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states of [[Andhra Muslims|Andhra Pradesh]], [[Islam in Assam|Assam]], [[Delhi]], [[Gujarati Muslims|Gujarat]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Karnataka]], [[Islam in Kerala|Kerala]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Marathi Muslims|Maharashtra]], [[Manipur]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Muslims|Telangana]], [[Tripura]], and [[Uttarakhand]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/5-myths-about-muslim-voters-in-modern-india/129628/ |title=5 myths about Muslim voters in modern India |work=[[ThePrint]] |date=5 October 2018 |first1=Rahul |last1=Verma}}</ref>

||[[File:Muslim In India By Percentage.png|alt=|thumb|481x481px|Muslims as percentage of total population in different states of India (2018 Estimate).]]

||[[File:District wise Muslim population percentage India census 2011.png|alt=|thumb|435x480px|Muslims as percentage of total population in different districts of India as per census 2011]]

{{As of|2015}}, Muslims comprise the majority of the population in the only Indian state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and in a Union territory [[Lakshadweep]].<ref name="TheHindu-26Aug15">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|title=India's religions by numbers|date=26 August 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=4 January 2020 |language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In 110 minority-concentrated districts, at least a fifth of the population are Muslim.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/when-the-good-is-not-good-enough/article5733354.ece|title=When the good is not good enough |first1=Faizan |last1=Mustafa |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 August 2014 |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Muslim majority/significant states of India ===

{| class="wikitable"

|+ '' Muslim majority/significant populated states/territory of India as per 2011 census''<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS {{Bare URL spreadsheet|date=April 2022}}</ref>

! Population ([[File:Star and Crescent.svg|18px]])

! (%)

| '''[[Lakshadweep]]'''

| 62,268

| 96.58

| '''[[Islam in Kashmir|Jammu and Kashmir]]'''

| 8,567,485

| 68.31

| '''[[Islam in Assam|Assam]]'''

| 10,679,345

| 34.22

| '''[[Islam in West Bengal|West Bengal]]'''

| 24,654,825

| 27.01

| '''[[Islam in Kerala|Kerala]]'''

| 8,873,472

| 26.56

| '''[[Islam in Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]]'''

| 38,483,967

| 19.26

 

|footnote    = Parts of Assam were not included in the 1981 census data due to violence in some districts.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />Jammu and Kashmir was not included in the 1991 census data due to militant activity in the state.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

 

 

 

'''Social and economic reasons behind population growth'''<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/article/813651/socio-economic-factors-not-religion-influence-indias-fertility-rate-and-population-growth |title=Socio-economic factors, not religion, influence India's fertility rate and population growth |agency=IndiaSpend |first1=Shreya |last1=Shah |work=[[Scroll.in]] |date=11 August 2016 |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

!colspan=3| Census information for 2011: Hindu and Muslim compared.<ref name="TheHindu-25Aug15">{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Muslim-population-growth-slows/article10336665.ece |title=Muslim population growth slows |date=25 August 2015 |first1=S |last1=Rukmini |first2=Vijaita |last2=Singh |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

According to sociologists Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic conditions rather than religious determinism is the main reason for higher Muslim birthrates. Indian Muslims are poorer and less educated compared to their Hindu counterparts.<ref>{{cite book

  |isbn = 978-81-7625-389-5  }}</ref> On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/conquering-a-muslim-myth/article4372042.ece |title=Conquering a Muslim Myth |work=[[The Hindu]] |first1=Prof. Ilias |last1=Ali |date=2 February 2013 |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref> A study conducted by K.C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate.<ref>{{cite book

;Controversy of Muslim population in India

| Claimed by AIMIM leader [[Akbaruddin Owaisi]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://twocircles.net/2013aug18/through_my_speeches_i_made_country_sense_presence_25_crore_indian_muslims_akabruddin_owais |title = Through my speeches I made country sense the presence of 25 crore Indian Muslims: Akabruddin Owaisi |work=[[Two Circles]] |date =18 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821041018/http://twocircles.net/2013aug18/through_my_speeches_i_made_country_sense_presence_25_crore_indian_muslims_akabruddin_owais |archive-date=21 August 2013}}</ref>  

| Claimed by Indian author Shakir Lakhani<ref name=tribune.com.pk-26Oct17>{{Cite news |url=https://tribune.com.pk/article/58687/fudging-the-population-the-missing-90-million-indian-muslims |title = Fudging the population: The missing 90 million Indian Muslims |first1=Shakir |last1=Lakhani |date =26 October 2017 |work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}</ref>  

| Claimed by [[Zakir Naik]]<ref name=theweek.in-22Aug20>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/08/22/indian-muslims-should-form-exclusive-party-consider-moving-to-kerala-zakir-naik.html |title=Indian Muslims should form exclusive party, consider moving to Kerala: Zakir Naik |work=[[The Week (Indian magazine)]] |date=22 August 2020}}</ref>

| Claimed by Congress member Ajay Verma<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.eastcoastdaily.in/2020/02/01/congress-leader-demands-separate-country-for-25-crore-indian-muslims-watch-video.html |title=Congress leader demands separate country for 25 crore Indian Muslims : Watch Video |work=East Coast Daily (India) |date=1 February 2020}}</ref>  

| Claimed by Congress MLA  [[Arif Masood]]<ref name="indiatoday.in-20Jul21">{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/population-control-madhya-pradesh-child-birth-1830422-2021-07-20 |title=Chorus for 'hum do humare do' grows in MP, but over 80 MLAs have more than 3 kids |date=20 July 2021 |first1=Hemender |last1=Sharma |work=[[India Today]]}}</ref>  

There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch of Islam while a substantial minority (over 13%) belong to the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] branch.<ref name="USSD-IRFR">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208640.pdf |title=India 2012 International Religious Freedom Report |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |at=Section I. Religious Demography |date=13 May 2013 |access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> There are also tiny minorities of [[Ahmadiyya]] and [[Quranism|Quranists]] across the country. Many Indian Muslim communities, both [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]], are also considered to be Sufis.

[[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] are a large minority among [[India]]'s Muslims forming about 13% of the total Muslim population.<ref name="USSD-IRFR" /> However, there has been no particular census conducted in India regarding sects, but Indian sources like [[Times of India]] and [[Daily News and Analysis]] reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 to be up to 25% of the entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000<ref name="TOI-20061106" /><ref name="TOI-20061106b">{{cite news |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Only-a-few-people-have-right-to-issue-fatwas/articleshow/334751.cms |title=Only a few people have right to issue fatwas |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 November 2006 |access-date=17 July 2010 }}</ref> to 50,000,000<ref name="DNA-20061106">{{cite news |url= http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_talaq-rights-proposed-for-shia-women_1062327 |title=Talaq rights proposed for Shia women | work=Daily News and Analysis |date=5 November 2006| access-date=2010-06-21}}</ref> of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://twocircles.net/2009oct08/india_third_global_muslim_population_1_57_bn.html|title= India Third in Global Muslim Population|date= 8 October 2009| publisher=[[Twocircles.net]] |access-date=2010-07-03}}</ref> However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30&nbsp;million with [[Sayyid]]s comprising just a tenth of the Shia population.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.alimaan.org/whyindia.html |title= Why India |publisher=Alimaan Charitable Trust |access-date=3 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616134238/http://www.alimaan.org/whyindia.html |archive-date=16 June 2010}}</ref> According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest after [[Iran]].<ref name="IDSA-20081205">{{cite web |last=Roy |first=Meena Singh |url=http://www.idsa.in/event/india-iranrelations_meenasinghroy_051208 |title=India – Iran relations: Converging Interests or Drifting Equations |publisher=[[Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses]] |date=5 December 2008 |access-date=2010-08-21}}</ref><ref name="Trib-20090725">{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090725/edit.htm#4 |title=Obama's Overtures |last=Puri |first=Balraj |date=25 July 2009 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=29 May 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Boloji-20070626">{{cite web |url=http://www.boloji.com/opinion/0360.htm |last=Singh |first=K. Gajendra |title=Imperialism and Divide & Rule Policy |website=boloji.com |date=26 June 2007 |access-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071122084607/https://www.boloji.com/opinion/0360.htm |archive-date=22 November 2007 }}</ref><ref name="IE-20080421">{{cite news |last=Pubby |first=Manu |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/ahmadinejad-on-way-nsa-says-india-to-be-impacted-if-iran-wronged-by-others/299498/ |title=Ahmadinejad on way, NSA says India to be impacted if Iran 'wronged by others' |date=21 April 2008 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=21 July 2010 }}</ref><ref name="TOI-20091110">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-10/india/28070350_1_jundallah-iran-pakistan-india-sistan-balochistan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105070948/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-10/india/28070350_1_jundallah-iran-pakistan-india-sistan-balochistan |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=India, Iran to make common cause over terror from Pak |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=17 July 2010 |first1=Sachin |last1=Parashar |date=10 November 2009 }}</ref><ref name="TOI-20090201">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-01/special-report/28005869_1_india-and-iran-india-iran-south-pars |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105070953/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-01/special-report/28005869_1_india-and-iran-india-iran-south-pars |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=Aspiring powers and a new old friendship |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=12 July 2010 |first1=Ramin |last1=Jahanbegloo |date=1 February 2009}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20040902">{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/3605950.stm |title= India's Polite Refusal| work=BBC News |date=2 September 2004 |access-date=2010-07-01 |first=Vinod |last=Mehta}}</ref>

[[Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee]] was a Bohra and 20th century Islamic scholar from India who promoted modernization and liberalization of Islam through his writings. He argued that with changing time modern reforms in Islam are necessary without compromising on basic "spirit of Islam".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780195693010.do |title=A Modern Approach to Islam: Asaf A. A. Fyzee – Oxford University Press |publisher=Ukcatalogue.oup.com |date=2007-12-20 |isbn=978-0-19-569301-0 |access-date=2015-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e690?_hi=0&_pos=8 |title=Fyzee, Asaf Ali Asghar – Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com |date=2008-05-06 |access-date=2015-10-04}}</ref><ref name="Daftary2014">{{cite book|author=Farhad Daftary|title=Fifty Years in the East: The Memoirs of Wladimir Ivanow|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbCbBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|date=2014|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-78453-152-2|pages=91–}}</ref>

[[Sufism|Sufis]] (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and [[monism]]. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. [[Erwadi|Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed]], [[Moinuddin Chishti|Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti]], [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki]], [[Nizamuddin Auliya]], [[Shah Jalal]], [[Amir Khusrow]], [[Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari]], Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi, [[Ashraf Jahangir Semnani]], [[Waris Ali Shah]], [[Ata Hussain Fani Chishti]] trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the [[artisan]] and [[Dalit|untouchable]] communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. [[Ahmad Sirhindi]], a prominent member of the [[Naqshbandi]] [[Sufism|Sufi]] advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.<ref name="ErnstLawrence2016">{{cite book|author1=C. Ernst|author2=B. Lawrence|title=Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-UYDAAAQBAJ|date= 2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-09581-7}}</ref>

The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] of [[Qadian]]. He claimed to be the promised messiah and [[mahdi]] awaited by the Muslims and obtained a considerable number of followers initially within the United Provinces, the [[Punjab]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/page.php?title=&record=1512 |title=H.H. Risley and E.A. Gait, (1903), Report of the Census of India, 1901, Calcutta, Superintendent of Government Printing, p. 373 |publisher=Chinese Heritage of the Australian Federation Project |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205180023/http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/page.php?title=&record=1512 |archive-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> Ahmadis claim the Ahmadiyya movement to embody the latter day revival of Islam and the movement has also been seen to have emerged as an Islamic religious response to the Christian and [[Arya Samaj]] missionary activity that was widespread in 19th century India. After the death of Ghulam Ahmad, his [[Khalifatul Masih|successors]] directed the Ahmadiyya Community from Qadian which remained the headquarters of the community until 1947 with the creation of [[Pakistan]]. The movement has grown in organisational strength and in its own missionary programme and has expanded to over 200 countries as of 2014 but has received a largely negative response from mainstream Muslims who see it as heretical, due mainly to Ghulam Ahmad's claim to be a prophet within Islam.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8711026.stm |title=Who are the Ahmadi? |work=BBC news |date=28 May 2010}}</ref>

Ahmaddiya have been identified as sects of Islam in [[2011 Census of India]] apart from Sunnis, Shias, Bohras and Agakhanis.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/ahmadiyyas-islam-sects-islam-ahmadiyyas-sect-ahmadiyyas-islam-islamic-sects-islam-india-ahmadiyya-legal-status-2011-census-india-population-india-news-2952701/ |title=Sunnis, Shias, Bohras, Agakhanis and Ahmadiyyas were identified as sects of Islam |date=4 August 2016 |work=[[The Indian Express]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Protest-against-inclusion-of-Ahmediyyas-in-Muslim-census/articleshow/53645457.cms |title=Protest against inclusion of Ahmediyyas in Muslim census |date=11 August 2016 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/ahmadiyya-community-census-india-muslims-2954285/ |title=Minority in a minority |date=5 August 2016 |work=[[The Indian Express]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/in-their-search-for-pure-islam-many-muslim-sects-consider-others-insufficient-or-infidels-2941564.html |title=We need to curb the everyday Jihadism of Indian Muslims in their search for pure Islam |first1=Tufail |last1=Ahmad |date=8 August 2016 |work=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref> India has a significant Ahmadiyya population.<ref name="Number of Ahmadis in India">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,464db4f52,47f237db2,3ae6ad202c,0.html |title=Number of Ahmadis in India |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |date=1 November 1991|access-date=9 March 2009}}</ref> Most of them live in Rajasthan, [[Odisha]], Haryana, Bihar, Delhi, [[Uttar Pradesh]], and a few in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in the area of Qadian. In India, Ahmadis are considered to be Muslims by the Government of India (unlike in neighbouring Pakistan). This recognition is supported by a court verdict (Shihabuddin Koya vs. Ahammed Koya, A.I.R. 1971 Ker 206).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1400223/|title=Shihabuddin Imbichi Koya Thangal vs K.P. Ahammed Koya on 8 December, 1970 Kerala High Court}}</ref><ref name=hoque>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/03/03/index.htm|title=On right to freedom of religion and the plight of Ahmadiyas|author=Hoque, Ridwanul|newspaper=The Daily Star|date=21 March 2004}}</ref> There is no legislation that declares Ahmadis non-Muslims or limits their activities,<ref name="hoque"/> but they are not allowed to sit on the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]], a body of religious leaders India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.<ref name="Naqvi, Jawed">{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/weekly/jawed/20080109.htm|title=Religious violence hastens India's leap into deeper obscurantism|work=Dawn|author=Naqvi, Jawed|date=1 September 2008|access-date=23 December 2009}}</ref> Ahmadiyya are estimated to be from 60,000 to 1&nbsp;million in [[India]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/article/wretched-of-the-land/265665 |title=Wretched of the Land |date=14 June 2010 |first1=Amir |last1=Mir |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621185739/https://www.outlookindia.com/article/wretched-of-the-land/265665 |archive-date=21 June 2015}}</ref>

* Al-Ameen Educational Society

* The [[Ajmer Sharif Dargah]] and [[Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat]] at [[Bareilly]] Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/zG3aMfKAuC26PNQsW8ODZJ/The-sufi-solution.html |title=The sufi solution |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |first1=Mayank Austen |last1=Soofi |date=3 February 2012|access-date=29 July 2017}}</ref>

*The Deobandi movement, another section of the Sunni Muslim population, originate from the [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], an influential religious seminary in the district of [[Saharanpur]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind]], founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, became a political mouthpiece for the Darul Uloom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arts.monash.edu.au/politics/terror-research/proceedings/gtrec-proceedings-2009-10-kamala-dash.pdf|title=Global Terrorism Research Centre (GTReC)|author=Monash Arts Online Presence Team|access-date=6 May 2015 |archive-date=6 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406072943/http://arts.monash.edu.au/politics/terror-research/proceedings/gtrec-proceedings-2009-10-kamala-dash.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan]] is an Indian Muslim women's organisation in [[India]]. It released a draft on 23 June 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act', recommending that [[polygamy]] be made illegal in the [[Law of India|Muslim Personal Law]] of India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/no-second-wife-please/article6158039.ece |title=No second wife, please|work=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 June 2014 |access-date=28 July 2017 |first1=Jyoti |last1=Punwani |language=en}}</ref>

[[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019]] was proposed for the changes in the citizenship and immigration norms of the country by relaxing the requirements for Indian citizenship. The applicability of the amendments are debated in news as it is on religious lines (excluding Muslims).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thewire.in/67272/citizenship-amendment-bill-2016/ |date=21 September 2016 |title=If India Wants to Stay Secular, the New Citizenship Bill Isn't the Way to Go |last=Garg |first=Lovish |work=[[The Wire (India)]]|language=en-GB |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thequint.com/opinion/2016/07/29/narendra-modi-wants-bangladeshi-hindus-in-sonowal-wants-muslims-out |title=Modi Wants Bangladeshi Hindus in, Sonowal Wants Muslims Out |work=[[The Quint]] |first1=Chandan |last1=Nandy |date=29 July 2016 |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/%E2%80%98Citizenship-amendment-bill-communally-motivated%E2%80%99-Activists/article15007768.ece|title='Citizenship amendment bill communally motivated': Activists |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=30 September 2016 |access-date=28 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>

India's Constitution and Parliament have protected the rights of Muslims but, according to some sources,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://harvardkennedyschoolreview.com/the-rising-tide-of-intolerance-in-narendra-modis-india/ |title=The Rising Tide of Intolerance in Narendra Modi's India |first1=Shanoor |last1=Seervai |date=27 July 2016 |work=Kennedy School Review |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-34553015|title=A week of worrying about rising intolerance in India|last=Devichand |first=Mukul |date=17 October 2015|work=BBC News|access-date=27 July 2017 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/US-concerned-about-%E2%80%98rising-intolerance-violence%E2%80%99-in-India/article14517044.ece |title=US concerned about 'rising intolerance, violence' in India |date=30 July 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=27 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref> there has been a growth in a 'climate of fear' and 'targeting of dissenters' under the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and [[First Modi ministry|Modi ministry]], affecting the feelings of security and tolerance amongst Indian Muslims. However, these allegations are not universally supported.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-myth-of-intolerant-india/|title=The myth of Intolerant India |date=4 December 2015 |first1=Arvind P. |last1=Datar |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=28 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

* [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]] (AIMIM), led by [[Asaduddin Owaisi]] active in states of [[Telangana]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttarpradesh]], [[Gujarat]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite news | title=Post Maharashtra win, Owaisi's MIM to contest 100 seats | work=[[The Indian Express]] | date=2 February 2015 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/post-maharashtra-win-owaisis-mim-to-contest-100-seats/ |first1=Lalmani |last1=Verma |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

* [[Indian Union Muslim League]] (IUML), led by [[E. Ahamed]] active in [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite web | title=IUML's crescent and star in question paper evokes protest |work=[[The Indian Express]] | date=18 March 2015 |first1=Shaju |last1=Philip |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/iumls-crescent-and-star-in-question-paper-evokes-protest/ | access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

* [[All India United Democratic Front]] (AIUDF), led by [[Badruddin Ajmal]] active in [[Assam]] state.<ref>{{cite news | title=Ajmal's AIUDF makes foray into Bodo bastion, wins 4 seats | work=[[The Indian Express]] | date=15 April 2015 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/ajmals-aiudf-makes-foray-into-bodo-bastion-wins-4-seats/ |first1=Samudra Gupta |last1=Kashyap |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

[[Ghetto]]isation among Indian Muslims began in the mid-1970s when the first [[Religious violence in India|communal riots]] occurred. This was heightened after the [[1989 Bhagalpur violence]] in Bihar and became a trend after the [[demolition of the Babri Masjid]] in 1992. Soon several major cities developed [[ghetto]]s, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/subverse/Pariahs-in-our-own-home/articleshow/4436167.cms |title=Pariahs in our own home |work=[[The Times of India]] |first1=Ather |last1=Farouqui |date=23 April 2009 |access-date=29 July 2017}}</ref> This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the [[2002 Gujarat riots]], several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banu|first=Musarrath|title=The Ghettoisation of Muslims in Bengaluru: Its Socio-Cultural and Economic Impact|url=https://www.academia.edu/6244911|website=academia.edu}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=COJRDb5RyJUC&pg=PA119&dq=Ghettoisation+of+Indian+muslims&as_brr=0#PPA119,M1 Post Gujarat Riots]  ''Crisis and contention in Indian society'', by T. K. Oommen.  Sage, 2005. {{ISBN|0-7619-3359-X}}. p. 119.</ref><ref>''Human Development and Social Power: Perspectives from South Asia'', by Ananya Mukherjee Reed. Published by Taylor & Francis, 2008. {{ISBN|0-415-77552-3}}. p. 149.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2030055.stm |title=India's Muslims feel backlash|date=6 June 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=29 July 2017}}</ref> This kind of ghettoisation can be seen in [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] and many cities of [[Gujarat]] where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods.

 

An increase in [[ghetto]] living has also shown a strengthening of [[Stereotype|stereotyping]] due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. [[Secularism in India]] is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/in-indias-largest-muslim-ghetto/article7330090.ece |title=In India's largest Muslim ghetto |work=[[The Hindu]] |first1=Basharat |last1=Peer |date=19 June 2015 |access-date=29 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30204806|title=Why segregated housing is thriving in India|last=Biswas|first=Soutik|date=10 December 2014 |work=BBC News|access-date=29 July 2017 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/the-price-of-exclusion/article3232925.ece |title=The price of exclusion |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=31 December 2006 |access-date=29 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>

The [[National Family Health Survey|NFHS]](National Family Health Survey) on 1992-93 showed that 22 per cent of marriages in India were consanguineous, with the highest per cent recorded in J&K, which is a Muslim majority state. Post partition percentage of [[Consanguineous marriages|consanguineous]] marriages in Delhi Sunni Muslims has risen  to 37.84 per cent. As per Nasir, such unions are perceived to be exploitative as they perpetuate the existing power structures within the family.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jairath |first=Vinod K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sffCgAAQBAJ |title=Frontiers of Embedded Muslim Communities in India |date=2013-04-03 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-19680-5 |pages=93–95 |language=en}}</ref>

India has seen three Muslim presidents and many [[Chief Minister (India)|chief ministers]] of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the Centre and at the state level.

The government of India subsidises the cost of the airfare for [[Hajj]] pilgrims. All pilgrims travel on [[Air India]]. <!-- Dubious assertion commented out: but from 2011 pilgrims fly on planes operated by [[Hellenic International Airways]].<ref>{{cite news|last=George|first=Daniel P|title=Haj may cost less; new airline to carry pilgrims |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-17/chennai/29669335_1_haj-pilgrims-flight-tickets-and-accommodation-airline |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108175024/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-17/chennai/29669335_1_haj-pilgrims-flight-tickets-and-accommodation-airline |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 January 2012 |access-date=14 July 2011 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=17 June 2011}}</ref>--> In compliance with [[Supreme Court of India]] and Allahabad High Court directions, the Government of India has proposed that, starting from 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person will be decreased and by 2017 will be ended completely.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Abolish-Haj-subsidy-in-10-years-Supreme-Court/articleshow/13058161.cms |title=Abolish Haj subsidy in 10 years: Supreme Court |work=[[The Times of India]] |first1=Dhananjay |last1=Mahapatra |date=9 December 2012 |access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Ranjan|first=Amitav|title=Haj subsidy cuts start soon|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/haj-subsidy-cuts-start-soon/696844/|access-date=14 July 2011|newspaper=The India Express|date=13 October 2010}}</ref> Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]] and general secretary of the [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind]], declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic [[Sharia]], since the [[Quran]] declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/haj-subsidy-unislamic-use-that-money-on-our-education-health/16740/ |title='Haj subsidy unIslamic, use that money on our education, health' |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=17 November 2006 |first1=Ruchika |last1=Talwar |access-date=10 May 2012}}</ref> Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/newdelhi/Muslim-leaders-back-cutting-Haj-subsidy/Article1-529806.aspx |title=Muslim leaders back cutting Haj subsidy |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=11 April 2010 |first1=Zia |last1=Haq |access-date=10 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121122532/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/newdelhi/Muslim-leaders-back-cutting-Haj-subsidy/Article1-529806.aspx |archive-date=21 January 2012}}</ref>

The former [[Vice-President of India]], [[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]], former Foreign Minister [[Salman Khurshid]] and former Director (Head) of the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Ibrahim was the first Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. [[S. Y. Quraishi]] served as the [[Chief Election Commissioner of India]].<ref name="yahind.com"/> He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include [[Abid Hussain]], [[Ali Yavar Jung]] and [[Asaf Ali]]. [[Zafar Saifullah]] was [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretary]] of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.<ref name="the first 50 years-p252"/> Salman Haidar was the [[Foreign Secretary (India)|Foreign Secretary]] from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.<ref name="apcd.anu.edu.au"/><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/> Influential Muslim politicians in India include [[Sheikh Abdullah]], [[Farooq Abdullah]] and his son [[Omar Abdullah]] (former Chief Minister of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]), [[Mufti Mohammad Sayeed]], [[Mehbooba Mufti]], [[Sikander Bakht]], [[A. R. Antulay]], [[Ahmed Patel]], [[C. H. Mohammed Koya]], [[A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury]], [[Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi]], [[Salman Khurshid]], [[Saifuddin Soz]], [[E. Ahamed]], [[Ghulam Nabi Azad]], [[Syed Shahnawaz Hussain]], [[Asaduddin Owaisi]], [[Azam Khan (politician)|Azam Khan]] and [[Badruddin Ajmal]], [[Najma Heptulla]].

 

Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:<ref name="der Veer">{{cite book |last=van der Veer |first=Peter |title=Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC&q=third%20school%20of%20thought |year=1994 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08256-4 |pages=27–29}}</ref>

# The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the [[Iranian Plateau]] or Arabs.<ref name="Eaton">{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |author-link=Richard M. Eaton |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press |date=1993 |url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft067n99v9/ |access-date=1 May 2007}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2015}}

Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to [[Islamization|Islamize]] the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of the [[Partition of India|partition]] and [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalism]] in India.<ref name="der Veer"/>

Numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyXxEX5PQH8C&pg=PA362|title=Ornament in Indian Architecture|first=Margaret Prosser|last=Allen|page=362|isbn=978-0874133998 |publisher=University of Delaware Press|year=1991}}</ref> Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors,<ref name=Frontline-Jan2001>{{cite news |first1=Richard M. |last1=Eaton |author-link=Richard M. Eaton |title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Part II |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |date=5 January 2001 |pages=70–77 |url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106040012/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2014}} {{citation |url=http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples2.pdf |title=via: ftp.columbia.edu}}</ref> but notes this was not unusual in [[medieval India]] where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.<ref name="Eaton-dec">{{cite journal |last=Eaton|first=Richard M. |title=Temple desecration in pre-modern India, Part I |journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=9 December 2000 |volume=17 |issue=25| publisher=[[The Hindu Group]] |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1725/17250620.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211181300/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1725/17250620.htm |archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="Eaton-sep">{{cite journal|last1=Eaton|first1=Richard M.|title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States|journal=[[Journal of Islamic Studies]]|date=September 2000|volume=11|issue=3|pages=283–319|doi=10.1093/jis/11.3.283|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Eaton-2004">{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|title=Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India|date=2004|publisher=Hope India Publications|location=Gurgaon|isbn=978-8178710273}}</ref> He also notes there were many instances of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources, and that attacks on temples had significantly declined under the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref name=Frontline-Jan2001/>

[[K. S. Lal]], in his book ''[[Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India]]'', claimed that between 1000 and 1500 the Indian population decreased by 30&nbsp;million,<ref>{{citation |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |author-link=K.S. Lal |title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmBuAAAAMAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |isbn=978-81-86471-72-2 |page=343}}: "I have arrived at the conclusion that the population of India in A.D. 1000 was about 200 million and in the year 1500 it was 170 million."</ref> but stated his estimates were tentative and did not claim any finality.<ref>{{citation |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |author-link=K.S. Lal |title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7U8AQAAIAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Research Publications |isbn=978-81-86471-72-2 |page=89}}</ref><ref name=Elst>{{citation |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |author-link=Koenraad Elst |chapter=The Ayodhya Debate |editor=Gilbert Pollet |title=Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact : Proceedings of the 8th International Rāmāyaạ Conference, Leuven, 6–8 July 1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C |year=1995 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-6831-701-5 |page=33}}</ref><ref name=Miller>{{citation |last=Miller |first=Sam |author-link=Sam Miller (journalist) |chapter=A Third Intermission|title=A Strange Kind of Paradise: India Through Foreign Eyes |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FnOAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-14-4819-220-5 |page=80}}</ref> His work has come under [[Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India#Criticism|criticism]] by historians such as [[Simon Digby (oriental scholar)|Simon Digby]] ([[SOAS, University of London]]) and [[Irfan Habib]] for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times.<ref name="Digby1975">{{cite journal |last=Digby |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Digby (oriental scholar) |year=1975 |title=Reviews: K. S. Lal: ''Growth of Muslim population in medieval India (A.D. 1000-1800)'' |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3802960&fulltextType=BR&fileId=S0041977X0004739X |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=176–177 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X0004739X |jstor=614231|s2cid=161748418 }}</ref><ref name="Habib">{{cite journal |last=Habib |first=Irfan |author-link=Irfan Habib |date=January 1978 |title=Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate - An Essay in Interpretation |journal=The Indian Historical Review |volume=IV |issue=2 |pages=287–303}}</ref> Different population estimates by economics historians [[Angus Maddison]] and Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35&nbsp;million during that time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2006}}</ref><ref>Biraben, Jean-Noël (2003). "The rising numbers of humankind", ''Populations & Societies'' '''394'''.</ref> The [[Demographics of India|Indian population]] estimates from other economic historians including [[Colin Clark (economist)|Colin Clark]], John D. Durand and [[Colin McEvedy]] also show there was a population increase in India between 1000 and 1500.<ref name="maddison">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=242 pp. 241–242], [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref><ref name="maddison236">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=237 p. 236], [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref>

During the [[Noakhali riots]] in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.<ref name="khan68-69">{{cite book |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn= 978-0-300-12078-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan |url-access=registration |quote=Noakhali. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan/page/68 68]–69}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fatal flaw in communal violence bill |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/column/fatal-flaw-in-communal-violence-bill/20110602.htm |newspaper=[[Rediff.com]] |date=2 June 2011 |first1=Vivek |last1=Gumaste |access-date=2 August 2011}}</ref>

In the [[1998 Prankote massacre]], 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/20/world/gunmen-kill-25-hindus-in-kashmir-attacks.html |date=20 June 1998 |title=Gunmen Kill 25 Hindus in Kashmir Attacks |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=12 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412024706/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/20/world/gunmen-kill-25-hindus-in-kashmir-attacks.html |first1=John F. |last1=Burns |url-status=live }}</ref>

;Kashmir (1990s)

During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the native [[Kashmiri Pandit|Kashmiri Hindus]] were forced into an exodus from [[Kashmir]], a Muslim-majority region in Northern India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1246_land/page9.shtml |title=Paradise Lost – the Kashmiri Pandits |publisher=[[BBC World Service]] |first1=Shivani |last1=Sharma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109093913/https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1246_land/page9.shtml |archive-date=9 November 2013 <!-- The reason for giving a web archive is to get an idea of the date of the article -->|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.rediff.com/news/2005/jan/19kanch.htm |date=19 January 2005 |title=19/01/90: When Kashmiri Pandits fled Islamic terror |first1=Kanchan |last1=Gupta |work=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Mosques issued warnings, telling them to leave Kashmir, convert to Islam or be killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/kashmiri-pandits-offered-three-choices-by-radical-islamists/ |title=Kashmiri Pandits offered three choices by radical Islamists |first1=By Col (Dr) Tej Kumar |last1=Tikoo |date=19 January 2021 |work=Indian Defence Review}}</ref> Approximately 300,000–350,000 pandits left the valley during the mid-80s and the 90s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ |title=CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2013-03-28}}</ref> Many of them have been living in abject conditions in refugee camps of [[Jammu]].<ref name="rediff1">{{cite news |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/column/kashmiri-pandits-remain-refugees-in-their-own-nation/20120119.htm |title=23 years on, Kashmiri Pandits remain refugees in their own nation |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=19 January 2012 |access-date=28 March 2013}}</ref>

;Gujarat (2002)

One of the most violent events in recent times took place during the [[2002 Gujarat riots|Gujarat riots]] in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.<ref name="India's Great Divide">{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story.html |archive-date=6 August 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030806223353/http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story.html |date=4 August 2003 |first1=Alex |last1=Perry |title=India's Great Divide |access-date=4 April 2007 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> There were also allegations made of state involvement.<ref name="India's Great Divide"/><ref>{{cite news |date=13 November 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505143121/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/002200411132124.htm |archive-date=5 May 2007 |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/002200411132124.htm |title=Demand for CBI probe into Zaheera's u-turn |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=usurped |access-date=4 April 2007}}</ref> The riots were in retaliation to the [[Godhra train burning]] in which 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed site of the [[Babri Masjid]], were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2203/stories/20050211004203200.htm |title=Still a burning question |first1=Dionne |last1=Bunsha |date=11 May 2005 |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |access-date=28 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427105825/https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article30203511.ece |archive-date=27 April 2020}}</ref> In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Banerjee-panel-illegal-Gujarat-HC/articleshow/1457456.cms |title=Banerjee panel illegal: Gujarat HC |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=20 March 2006 |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref>

[[Image:Ahmedabad riots1.jpg|right|thumb|The skyline of [[Ahmedabad]] filled with smoke as buildings and shops are set on fire by [[2002 Gujarat violence|rioting mobs]]. The riots, which took place following the [[Godhra train burning]] incident, killed more than 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus, including those killed in the Godhra train fire. These figures were reported to the Rajya Sabha by the Union Minister of State for Home Affairs Sriprakash Jaiswal in May 2005.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gujarat riot death toll revealed |work=BBC News |date=11 May 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4536199.stm }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=BJP cites govt statistics to defend Modi |agency=Press Trust of India |publisher=ExpressIndia (part of [[The Indian Express]] group) |date=12 May 2005 |url=http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=46626 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527160301/http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=46626 |archive-date=27 May 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=254 Hindus, 790 Muslims killed in post-Godhra riots |agency=Press Trust of India |publisher=Indiainfo.com |date=11 May 2005 |url=http://news.indiainfo.com/2005/05/11/1105godhra-rs.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226131020/http://news.indiainfo.com/2005/05/11/1105godhra-rs.html |archive-date=26 February 2009 }}</ref>]]

In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by the [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a dark age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".<ref name=Guardian26Jun04>{{cite news |last1=Ramesh |first1=Randeep |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jun/26/india.schoolsworldwide |title=Another rewrite for India's history books |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=26 June 2004 |access-date=29 July 2017 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In one textbook, it was purported that the [[Taj Mahal]], the [[Qutb Minar]] and the [[Red Fort]] – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".<ref name=Guardian26Jun04/>

;West Bengal (2010)

;Assam (2012)

;Delhi (2020)

Although [[Islam]] does not recognize any [[caste]]s, the caste system among South Asian Muslims refers to units of social stratification that have developed among Muslims in South Asia.<ref>{{cite news

|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/deep-focus/Being-Muslim-in-India-means-Syeds-spit-on-Julahas-in-an-egalitarian-community/articleshow/5935797.cms |title=Being Muslim in India means Syeds spit on Julahas in an 'egalitarian community' |work=[[The Times of India]] |first1=Mohammed |last1=Wajihuddin |date=16 May 2010}}</ref>

}}</ref> Ashrafs claim to be derived from their foreign ancestry.<ref name="pratap_caste"/><ref name="zarina_social_strat" /> They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/inclusive-lessons/article20663394.ece |title=Inclusive lessons |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 November 2017 |first1=Shahana |last1=Munazir}}</ref><ref name="zarina_social_strat" />

In addition to the ashraf/ajlaf divide, there is also the ''arzal'' caste among Muslims,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|work=BBC News|date=10 May 2016}}</ref> who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb [[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]] as the equivalent of untouchables.<ref name="Ambedkar-Chapter10">{{citation |chapter-url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html |last = Ambedkar |first = Bhimrao |author-link = B.R. Ambedkar |title=Pakistan or the Partition of India |edition=2 |chapter=10, Social Stagnation |publisher=Thackers Publishers}}</ref> The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.<ref name="Ambedkar-Chapter10"/><ref>{{cite web

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070803023637/http://www.idsn.org/Documents/asia/pdf/Bangladesh_full_report.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 3 August 2007}}</ref> They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/story/12109.html |title=Dereserve these myths |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516075059/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/12109.html |archive-date=16 May 2008|date=7 September 2006 |first1=Tanweer |last1=Fazal |work=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>

While some scholars theorize that Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus,<ref name="Sikand"/><ref name="Muslim Communities" /> Dr. Babasaheb [[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]] argued otherwise, arguing the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".<ref name="Ambedkar-Chapter10"/> He was critical of Ashraf antipathy towards the Ajlaf and Arzal and attempts to palliate sectarian divisions. He condemned the Indian Muslim community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries such as [[Turkey]] did during the early decades of the twentieth century.<ref name="Ambedkar-Chapter10"/>

Out of the 12 [[President of India|Presidents of the Republic of India]], three were Muslims – [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]], [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] and [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]. Additionally, 4 Muslims: [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]], [[Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi]], [[Mirza Hameedullah Beg]] and [[Altamas Kabir]] held the office of the [[Chief Justice of India]]. [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]] also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the [[President of India]], the [[Vice-President of India]] and the [[Chief Justice of India]].<ref name="M. Hidayatullah">{{cite web|url=http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/judges/bio/mhidayatullah.htm|title=M. Hidayatullah|publisher=[[Supreme Court of India]]|access-date=8 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106034450/http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/judges/bio/mhidayatullah.htm|archive-date=6 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="EBC article on J. Hidayatullah">{{cite web|url=http://www.ebc-india.com/lawyer/articles/92v4a2.htm |title=Full Court Reference in Memory of The Late Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah |first1=P.D. |last1=Desai |date=1992 |work=Supreme Court Cases Journal |publisher=Eastern Book Company, Lucknow |access-date=8 June 2008 }}</ref>

The former [[Vice-President of India]], [[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]], former Foreign Minister [[Salman Khurshid]] are Muslims. Dr. [[S. Y. Quraishi]] and [[Syed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi]] both served as the [[Chief Election Commissioner of India]] .<ref name="yahind.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.yahind.com/news/directory.php?id=408|title=S.Y. Quraishi appointed as election commissioner of India from YaHind.Com|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref> Prominent Indian Muslim bureaucrats and diplomats include [[Abid Hussain]], [[Ali Yavar Jung]] and [[Asaf Ali]]. [[Zafar Saifullah]] was [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretary]] of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.<ref name="the first 50 years-p252">{{cite book |page=252 |title=Independent India: the first fifty years |first1=Hiranmay |last1=Karlekar |publisher=Indian Council for Cultural Relations and Oxford University Press |date=1998}}</ref> Salman Haidar was [[Foreign Secretary (India)|Indian Foreign Secretary]] from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.<ref name="apcd.anu.edu.au">{{cite web |url=http://apcd.anu.edu.au/transforum/2004/participants.html |title=2004 Transnational Policy Forum Participants |website=Asia-Pacific College of Diplomacy |publisher=Australian National University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060505102848/http://apcd.anu.edu.au/transforum/2004/participants.html |archive-date=5 May 2006}}</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/nol/shared/spl/hi/programmes/analysis/transcripts/15_03_07.txt|title=Anchor Aweigh?|work=[[BBC Radio 4]] |date=15 March 2007 }}</ref> Numerous Muslims have achieved high rank in the [[Indian Police Service]], with several attaining the rank of [[Director general of police]] and serving as commanders of both state and [[Central Armed Police Forces]]. In 2013, IPS officer [[Syed Asif Ibrahim]] became the first Muslim Director of the Intelligence Bureau, the seniormost appointment in the service. There have been seven Muslim Chief Ministers of [[List of state and union territory capitals in India|Indian states]] (other than [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]):

Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include [[Dilip Kumar|Yusuf Khan]] (stage name Dilip Kumar),<ref>Tanuja Chandra (3 March 2004) [http://sify.com/entertainment/movies/bollywood/celebcolumns/fullstory.php?id=13418077 Dilip Kumar: Silent Revolutionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428030606/http://sify.com/entertainment/movies/bollywood/celebcolumns/fullstory.php?id=13418077 |date=28 April 2004 }} Sify Movies. Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Shah Rukh Khan]],<ref>Zubair Ahmed (23 September 2005) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4274774.stm Who's the real Shah Rukh Khan?] BBC News Retrieved on 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Aamir Khan]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/interview/6383.html |title=Aamir speaks out on alienation as a Muslim |work=IndiaGlitz |date=5 August 2005 |access-date=30 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130191313/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/interview/6383.html |archive-date=30 November 2005}}</ref> [[Saif Ali Khan]],<ref name=sak>{{cite news |first1=Deepa |last1=Gahlot |date=July 1998 |url=http://www.sabrang.com/cc/comold/august98/saif.htm |title='Religion played a major role in my upbringing' |work=Communalism Combat |publisher=[[Sabrang Communications]] |access-date=3 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-21/news-interviews/27923991_1_saif-muslim-societies |first1=Subhash K |last1=Jha |date=21 August 2008 |archive-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509215025/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-21/news-interviews/27923991_1_saif-muslim-societies |title='I went to a Muslim builder,' says Saif |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=30 March 2009}}</ref> [[Madhubala]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.topnews.in/interesting-facts-and-figures-madhubala-2140744 |title=Interesting Facts and Figures : Madhubala |work=TopNews (India) |first1=Mohit |last1=Joshi |date=17 March 2009 |access-date=30 March 2009}}</ref> [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]],<ref>PTI (24 April 2017) [http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/04/24/watch-nawazuddin-siddiqui-explains-that-he-isnt-just-a-muslim_a_22052880/ Watch: Nawazuddin Siddiqui Explains That He Isn't Just A Muslim, But A Bit Of All Religions] ''HuffPost''. Retrieved 24 April 2017.</ref> [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Johnny Walker (actor)|Johnny Walker]], [[Shabana Azmi]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130509215016/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-17/india/27919758_1_indian-democracy-shabana-azmi-muslims Indian democracy unfair to Muslims: Shabana Azmi] ''The Times of India''. 17 August 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2009.</ref> [[Waheeda Rehman]],<ref>[http://www.bollywood501.com/classic_f/waheeda_rehman/ Waheeda Rehman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905115303/http://www.bollywood501.com/classic_f/waheeda_rehman/ |date=5 September 2010 }} Bollywood501. Retrieved 4 March 2009.</ref> [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]], [[Parveen Babi]], [[Feroz Khan (actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Meena Kumari]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Mammootty]], [[Nargis]], [[Irrfan Khan]], [[Farida Jalal]], [[Arshad Warsi]], [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]], [[Zeenat Aman]], [[Farooq Sheikh]] and [[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]].

Though Muslims are under-represented in the [[Indian Armed Forces]], as compared to [[Hindu]]s and [[Sikh]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/arvind-kala-hiding-what-s-well-known-106030401044_1.html|title=Arvind Kala: Hiding what's well-known|last=Kala|first=Arvind|date=2006-03-04|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief Marshal [[I. H. Latif]] was Deputy [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)]] during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] and later served as [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)|Chief of the Air staff]] of the [[Indian Air Force]] from 1973 to 1976.<ref>[http://rajbhavan.maharashtra.gov.in/previous/latifbiodata.htm Air Chief Marshal Idris Hasan Latif, PVSM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518201546/http://rajbhavan.maharashtra.gov.in/previous/latifbiodata.htm |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>Civil-military relations: regional perspectives, Morris Janowitz, Inter-university Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, Sage Publications, 1981. p. 118</ref> Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer (1923–2008) commanded IAF Agra and was decorated for his service during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, eventually rising to the rank of [[air marshal]] and ending his career as Director-General of Civil Aviation from 1979 to 1980.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/air-marshal-jaffar-zaheer-principled-indian-air-force-officer-806294.html |title=Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer: Principled Indian Air Force officer |date=23 October 2011 |work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> [[Indian Army]]'s [[Abdul Hamid (soldier)|Abdul Hamid]] was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, the [[Param Vir Chakra]], for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during the [[Battle of Asal Uttar]] in 1965.<ref>[Maj Gen Cardozo, Ian (2003). Param Vir. New Delhi: Lotus Collection. {{ISBN|81-7436-262-2}}]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/PVC/photo_6.htm|title=The Param Vir Chakra Winners' home page for Company Quarter Master Havildar Abdul Hamid|access-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215807/http://indianarmy.nic.in/PVC/photo_6.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awarded [[Maha Vir Chakra]] for their actions during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/HEROISM/MVC.html|title=Maha Vir Chakra|access-date=6 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610015036/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/HEROISM/MVC.html|archive-date=10 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include:  

*Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command: 1992–93),<ref>{{cite news |url=http://muslimmirror.com/eng/lieutenant-general-p-m-hariz-took-over-as-commander-in-chief-of-the-southern-command/ |title=Lieutenant General P. M. Hariz took over as Commander-In-Chief of the Southern Command |work=Muslim Mirror |location=India |date=29 September 2016 |access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref>  

*Major General Mohammed Amin Naik.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.merinews.com/article/a-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army/132377.shtml |title=A high-profile 'Naik' of Indian Army |work=Merinews |date=13 April 2008 |first1=Rajesh |last1=Bhat |access-date=14 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028182723/http://www.merinews.com/article/a-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army/132377.shtml |archive-date=28 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam|Abdul Kalam]], one of India's most respected scientists and the father of the [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme]] (IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11th [[President of India]].<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/Abdulkalam/Abdulkalam.htm |title=Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309080244/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/Abdulkalam/Abdulkalam.htm |date= 9 March 2007 |archive-date=9 March 2007 |work=Vigyan Prasar Science Portal}}</ref> His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as the ''Missile Man of India''<ref>R. K. Pruthi.[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee3PR5HFBCAC&pg=PA61&dq=%22Abdul+Kalam%22+%22missile+man%22&ei=uqziSKuQMIScswOT2KHeDg&sig=ACfU3U2i12OOsXcnaYcA4pzz7lf9jA3umA#PPA61,M1 ''President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.''] Anmol Publications, 2002. {{ISBN|978-81-261-1344-6}}; Ch. 4. Missile Man of Idia. pp. 61–76</ref> and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known as ''People's President''. [[Syed Zahoor Qasim]], former Director of the [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography]], led India's first scientific expedition to [[Antarctica]] and played a crucial role in the establishment of [[Dakshin Gangotri]]. He was also the former Vice Chancellor of [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archives.nic.in/techfocus/doc3/int.htm |title=Interview: Dr SZ Qasim |access-date=15 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916052340/http://archives.nic.in/techfocus/doc3/int.htm |archive-date=16 September 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director of [[Deccan College of Medical Sciences]] and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090228/dplus.htm#3 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)]] |title=Hope hangs on stem cell therapy |date=27 February 2009 |first1=Neena |last1=Sharma |access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref> In the field of [[Yunani medicine]], one can name [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]], Hakim Abdul Hameed and [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]]. [[Salim Ali]], was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India".

In January 2018, Jamitha reportedly became the first woman to lead a [[Jumu'ah]] prayer service in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/woman-imam-leads-friday-prayer-service-in-kerala-claims-to-be-first-in-india/story-teJA1BKyUyqaNOIV6kNB5O.html |quote=Breaking gender stereotypes, a 34-year-old woman has led Jumu’ah, a Friday prayer service of Muslims, in Malappuram in Kerala, claimed to be the first in the history of the country. Jamitha, the general secretary of Quran Sunnat Society, took the role of the 'imam' of the prayers held at the office of the Society in the Muslim-dominated district on Friday. |title=Woman Imam leads Friday prayer service in Kerala, claims to be first in India |agency=Press Trust of India |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=27 January 2018}}</ref>

==References==

===Notes===

===Citations===

{{Refbegin|2}}  

*{{cite book|title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries|first=André|last=Wink|volume=3 of Al-Hind Series|year=2004|publisher=BRILL|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C|isbn=9004135618|access-date=24 April 2014}}