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 Amidst these economic changes, [[high technology]] and instantaneous [[telecommunication]] enable select cities to become centers of the [[knowledge economy]].<ref>Castells, M. (ed) (2004). ''The network society: a cross-cultural perspective''. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)</ref><ref>Flew, T. (2008). ''New media: an introduction'', 3rd edn, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Harford, T. (2008) ''The Logic of Life''. London: Little, Brown.</ref> A new [[smart city]] paradigm, supported by institutions such as the [[RAND Corporation]] and [[IBM]], is bringing computerized [[Surveillance issues in smart cities|surveillance]], data analysis, and [[E-governance|governance]] to bear on cities and city-dwellers.<ref>Taylor Shelton, Matthew Zook, & Alan Wiig, "[https://academic.oup.com/cjres/article/doi/10.1093/cjres/rsu026/304403/The-actually-existing-smart-city The 'actually existing smart city']", ''Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy, and Society'' 8, 2015; {{doi|10.1093/cjres/rsu026}}.</ref> Some companies are building brand new [[land use planning|masterplanned]] cities from scratch on [[greenfield land|greenfield]] sites.
+== Urbanization ==
+{{Main|Urbanization}}
+[[Urbanization]] is the process of migration from rural into urban areas, driven by various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring [[Market (place)|markets]] and small-scale manufacturing.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/26447633/The_Urbanization_and_Political_Development_of_the_World_System_A_comparative_quantitative_analysis The Urbanization and Political Development of the World System:A comparative quantitative analysis. ''History & Mathematics'' 2 (2006): 115–153].</ref><ref name="FreyZimmer2001">William H. Frey & Zachary Zimmer, "Defining the City"; in Paddison (2001).</ref> With the [[British Agricultural Revolution|agricultural]] and [[industrial revolution|industrial]] revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration and through [[Demographic transition|demographic expansion]]. In [[England]] the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891.<ref name="urbanization">Christopher Watson, "[http://www.icup.org.uk/reports/ICUP601.pdf Trends in urbanization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305100017/http://icup.org.uk/reports/icup601.pdf |date=2016-03-05 }}", ''[http://www.icup.org.uk/icupindex.asp?CID=1 Proceedings of the First International Conference on Urban Pests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010005338/http://www.icup.org.uk/icupindex.asp?CID=1 |date=2017-10-10 }}'', ed. K.B. Wildey and William H. Robinson, 1993.</ref> In 1900, 15% of the world population lived in cities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Annez|first1=Patricia Clarke|last2=Buckley|first2=Robert M.|chapter=Urbanization and Growth: Setting the Context |chapter-url=http://www2.lawrence.edu/fast/finklerm/chapter1urban.pdf|title=Urbanization and Growth|editor1-last=Spence|editor1-first=Michael|editor2-last=Annez|editor2-first=Patricia Clarke|editor3-last=Buckley|editor3-first=Robert M.|isbn=978-0-8213-7573-0|year=2009}}</ref> The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.<ref name="MoholyNagy1968p136" />
+Urbanization rapidly spread across the Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], reported in 2014 that for the first time more than half of the world population lives in cities.<ref name="SenguptaUN2014">Somini Sengupta, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/11/world/more-than-half-the-global-population-growth-is-urban-united-nations-report-finds.html U.N. Finds Most People Now Live in Cities]"; ''New York Times'', 10 July 2014. Referring to: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division; ''[https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/ World Urbanization Prospects: 2014 Revision] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706115325/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/ |date=2018-07-06 }}''; New York: United Nations, 2014.</ref>{{efn|Intellectuals such as [[H.G. Wells]], [[Patrick Geddes]] and [[Kingsley Davis]] foretold the coming of a mostly urban world throughout the twentieth century.<ref name=BrennerSchmid2013>Neil Brenner & Christian Schmid, "[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-2427.12115/pdf The 'Urban Age' in Question]"; ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research'' 38(3), 2013; {{doi|10.1111/1468-2427.12115}}.</ref><ref>McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.55.</ref> The United Nations has long anticipated a half-urban world, earlier predicting the year 2000 as the turning point<ref>"[https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Archive/Files/studies/United%20Nations%20(1980)%20-%20Patterns%20of%20Urban%20and%20Rural%20Population%20Growth.pdf Patterns of Urban and Rural Population Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113035655/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Archive/Files/studies/United%20Nations%20(1980)%20-%20Patterns%20of%20Urban%20and%20Rural%20Population%20Growth.pdf |date=2018-11-13 }}", Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, Population Studies No. 68; New York, United Nations, 1980; p. 15. "If the projections prove to be accurate, the next century will begin just after the world population achieves an urban majority; in 2000, the world is projected to be 51.3 per cent urban."</ref><ref>Edouart Glissant (Editor-in-Chief), UNESCO "Courier" ("[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000634/063438eo.pdf The Urban Explosion]"), March 1985.</ref> and in 2007 writing that it would occur in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2007/2007WUP_Highlights_web.pdf|title=World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-date=13 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813042845/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2007/2007WUP_Highlights_web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other researchers had also estimated that the halfway point was reached in 2007.<ref>Mike Hanlon, "[http://newatlas.com/go/7334/ World Population Becomes More Urban Than Rural]"; ''New Atlas'', 28 May 2007.</ref> Although the trend is undeniable, the precision of this statistic is dubious, due to reliance on national censuses and to the ambiguities of defining an area as urban.<ref name=BrennerSchmid2013 /><ref name=HugoEtAl2003>Graeme Hugo, Anthony Champion, & Alfredo Lattes, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3115228 Toward a New Conceptualization of Settlements for Demography]", ''Population and Development Review'' 29(2), June 2003.</ref>}} [[File:Historical global urban - rural population trends.png|thumb|left|Graph showing urbanization from 1950 projected to 2050.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/|title=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, CD-ROM Edition|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706115325/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/|archive-date=2018-07-06|url-status=dead}}</ref>]] Latin America is the most urban continent, with four fifths of its population living in cities, including one fifth of the population said to live in [[shantytown]]s ([[favela]]s, [[campamento (Chile)|poblaciones callampas]], etc.).<ref>Paulo A. Paranagua, "[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/11/latin-america-urbanisation-city-growth Latin America struggles to cope with record urban growth]" (), ''The Guardian'', 11 September 2012. Referring to [[UN-Habitat]], ''[http://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/SOLAC-ProjectOutput.pdf The State of Latin American and Caribbean Cities 2012: Towards a new urban transition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113035703/http://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/SOLAC-ProjectOutput.pdf |date=2018-11-13 }}''; Nairobi: United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2012.</ref> [[Batam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Mogadishu]], [[Somalia]], [[Xiamen]], [[China]] and [[Niamey]], [[Niger]], are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%.<ref>Helen Massy-Beresford, "[https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/nov/18/where-is-the-worlds-fastest-growing-city-batam-niamey-xiamen Where is the fastest growing city in the world?]"; ''The Guardian'', 18 November 2015.</ref> In general, the [[developed country|more developed countries]] of the "[[Global North]]" remain more urbanized than the [[less developed countries]] of the "[[Global South]]"—but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting.<ref name="FreyZimmer2001" /> The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion citydwellers (and 300 million fewer countrydwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.<ref name="SenguptaUN2014" /><ref>Mark Anderson & Achilleas Galatsidas, "[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/10/urban-population-growth-africa-asia-united-nations Urban population boom poses massive challenges for Africa and Asia]" ''The Guardian'' (Development data: Datablog), 10 July 2014.</ref>
+[[File:2006megacities.svg|thumb|right|240px|Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006.]]
+[[Megacities]], cities with population in the multi-millions, have proliferated into the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 15. "Global cities need to be distinguished from megacities, defined here as cities with more than 8 million people. […] Only New York and London qualified as megacities 50 years ago. By 1990, just over 10 years ago, 20 megacities existed, 15 of which were in less economically developed regions of the world. In 2000, the number of megacities had increased to 26, again all except 6 are located in the less developed world regions."</ref><ref>Frauke Kraas & Günter Mertins, "Megacities and Global Change"; in Kraas et al. (2014), p. 2. "While seven megacities (with more than five million inhabitants) existed in 1950 and 24 in 1990, by 2010 there were 55 and by 2025 there will be—according to estimations—87 megacities (UN 2012; Fig. 1). "</ref> Economic globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign [[Financial capital|capital]] arrange for rapid industrialization, as well as [[offshoring|relocation of major businesses]] from Europe and North America, attracting [[immigrant]]s from near and far.<ref>Frauke Kraas & Günter Mertins, "Megacities and Global Change"; in Kraas et al. (2014), pp. 2–3. "Above all, globalisation processes were and are the motors that drive these enormous changes and are also the driving forces, together with transformation and liberalisation policies, behind the economic developments of the last c. 25 years (in China, especially the so-called socialism with Chinese characteristics that started under Deng Xiaoping in 1978/1979, in India essentially during the course of the economic reform policies of the so-called New Economic Policy as of 1991; Cartier 2001; Nissel 1999). Especially in megacities, these reforms led to enormous influx of foreign direct investments, to intensive industrialization processes through international relocation of production locations and depending upon the location, partially to considerable expansion of the services sector with increasing demand for office space as well as to a reorientation of national support policies—with a not to be mistaken influence of transnationally acting conglomerates but also considerable transfer payments from overseas communities. In turn, these processes are flanked and intensified through, at times, massive migration movements of national and international migrants into the megacities (Baur et al. 2006).</ref> A deep gulf divides rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in [[gated community|gated communities]] and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.<ref>Shipra Narang Suri & Günther Taube, "Governance in Megacities: Experiences, Challenges and Implications for International Cooperation"; in Kraas et al. (2014), p. 196.</ref>
+Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for residential and commercial use, and with development underground.<ref>Stephen Graham & Lucy Hewitt, "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stephen_Graham11/publication/258175637_Getting_off_the_ground_On_the_politics_of_urban_verticality/links/57cebebb08ae83b3746222d1.pdf Getting off the ground: On the politics of urban verticality]; ''Progress in Human Geography'' 37(1), 2012; {{doi|10.1177/0309132512443147}}.</ref><ref>Eduardo F.J. de Mulder, Jacques Besner, & Brian Marker, "Underground Cities"; in Kraas et al. (2014), pp. 26–29.</ref>
+Urbanization can create rapid demand for [[water resources management]], as formerly good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and the volume of [[sewage]] begins to exceed manageable levels.<ref name="Bakker2003" />