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 [[Metropolitan areas]] include [[suburbs]] and [[exurbs]] organized around the needs of [[commuting|commuters]], and sometimes [[edge city|edge cities]] characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into [[metropolitan statistical areas]] for purposes of [[demography]] and [[marketing]].) Some cities are now part of a continuous urban landscape called [[urban agglomeration]], [[conurbation]], or [[megalopolis]] (exemplified by the [[northeast megalopolis|BosWash]] corridor of the [[Northeastern United States]].)<ref>Chaunglin Fang & Danlin Yu, "[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204617300439 Urban agglomeration: An evolving concept of an emerging phenomenon]"; ''Landscape and Urban Planning'' 162, 2017.</ref>
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+==History==
+{{Main|History of the city}}
+{{Further|Urban history|Historical urban community sizes|List of largest cities throughout history}}
+[[File:Oldest arch 4.JPG|thumb|right|An [[arch]] from the ancient [[Sumer]]ian city [[Ur]], which flourished in the [[third millennium BC]], can be seen at present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in [[Iraq]]]]
+[[File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mohenjo-daro]], a city of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in [[Pakistan]], which was rebuilt six or more times, using bricks of standard size, and adhering to the same grid layout—also in the third millennium BC.]]
+[[File:Teotihuacán 2012-09-28 00-07-11.jpg|thumb|This aerial view of what was once downtown [[Teotihuacan]] shows the [[Pyramid of the Sun]], [[Pyramid of the Moon]], and the processional avenue serving as the spine of the city's street system.]]
+The cities of [[Jericho]], [[Aleppo]], [[Faiyum]], [[Yerevan]], [[Athens]], [[Damascus]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] are among those laying claim to [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|the longest continual inhabitation]].
+Cities, characterized by [[population density]], [[symbol]]ic function, and [[urban planning]], have existed for thousands of years.<ref>Nick Compton, "What is the oldest city in the world?", ''The Guardian'', 16 February 2015.</ref> In the conventional view, civilization and the city both followed from the [[Neolithic Revolution|development of agriculture]], which enabled production of surplus food, and thus a social [[division of labour]] (with concomitant [[social stratification]]) and [[trade]].<ref>{{Harv |Bairoch|1988| pp=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{Harv |Pacione|2001| p=16}}</ref> Early cities often featured [[granary|granaries]], sometimes within a temple.<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 26. "Early cities also reflected these preconditions in that they served as places where agricultural surpluses were stored and distributed. Cities functioned economically as centers of extraction and redistribution from countryside to granaries to the urban population. One of the main functions of this central authority was to extract, store, and redistribute the grain. It is no accident that granaries—storage areas for grain—were often found within the temples of early cities."</ref> A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing),<ref>Jennifer R. Pournelle, "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257139948_From_KLM_to_Corona_A_Bird%27s_Eye_View_of_Cultural_Ecology_and_Early_Mesopotamian_Urbanization KLM to CORONA: A Bird's Eye View of Cultural Ecology and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization"; in ''Settlement and Society: Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams''] ed. Elizabeth C. Stone; Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, and Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2007.</ref> to use as communal seasonal shelters,<ref name="Perlman16">[[Fredy Perlman]], ''[[Against His-Story, Against Leviathan]]'', Detroit: Black & Red, 1983; p. 16.</ref> to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization,<ref name="Mumfurd1961war" /><ref name="Ashworth1991p12">Ashworth (1991), pp. 12–13.</ref>  or to their inherent economic function.<ref name="Jacobs 1969 23">{{Harv |Jacobs|1969| p=23}}</ref><ref>[[Peter J. Taylor|P.J. Taylor]], "Extraordinary Cities I: Early 'City-ness' and the Invention of Agriculture"; ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research'' 36(3), 2012; {{doi|10.1111/j.1468-2427.2011.01101.x}}; see also GaWC Research Bulletins [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/rb/rb359.html 359] and [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/rb/rb360.html 360].</ref><ref>Michael E. Smith, Jason Ur, & Gary M. Feinman, "[https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/13364827/Smith%20etal%202014%20IJURR.pdf?sequence=1 Jane Jacobs' 'Cities First' Model and Archaeological Reality]", ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research'' 38, 2014; {{doi|10.1111/1468-2427.12138}}.</ref> Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as [[Alexander the Great]] founded and created them with zeal.<ref>McQuillan (1937/1987), §1.03. "The ancients fostered the spread of urban culture; their efforts were constant to bring their people within the complete influence of municipal life. The desire to create cities was the most striking characteristic of the people of antiquity, and ancient rulers and statesmen vied with one another in satisfying that desire."</ref>
+=== Ancient times ===
+{{Further|Cities of the Ancient Near East|Polis|City-state|Late Antiquity#Cities}}
+[[Tell es-Sultan|Jericho]] and [[Çatalhöyük]], dated to the [[eighth millennium BC]], are among the [[proto-cities|earliest proto-cities]] known to archaeologists.<ref name="Perlman16" /><ref>Southall (1998), p. 23.</ref> While the [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] city of [[Uruk]] (ancient Iraq), from the mid 4th millennia BCE, is considered by some, the first true City, with its name attributed, the [[Uruk period]], to the era.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=Oct 2003 |title=Uruk: The First City |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/uruk/hd_uruk.htm |access-date=2022-03-05 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Uruk (article) |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/big-history-project/agriculture-civilization/first-cities-states/a/uruk |access-date=2022-03-05 |website=Khan Academy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What Science Has Learned about the Rise of Urban Mesopotamia |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/uruk-period-mesopotamia-rise-of-sumer-171676 |access-date=2022-03-05 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref>
+In the [[fourth millennium BC|fourth]] and [[third millennium BC]], complex civilizations flourished in the river valleys of [[Mesopotamia]], [[India]], [[China]], and [[Egypt]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=2014|page=204}}</ref><ref>Jhimli Mukherjee Pandeyl, "Varanasi is as old as Indus valley civilization, finds IIT-KGP study", ''Times of India'' 25 February 2016.</ref> Excavations in these areas have found the [[ruins]] of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion. Some had large, [[Urban density|dense populations]], but others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations.
+Among the early Old World cities, [[Mohenjo-daro]] of the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day [[Pakistan]], existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a [[Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation|sophisticated sanitation system]].<ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998) ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. [[Oxford University Press]], Karachi and New York.</ref> [[Ancient Chinese urban planning|China's planned cities]] were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosms]].<ref>Southall (1998), pp. 38–43.</ref>
+The [[List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities|Ancient Egyptian cities]] known physically by archaeologists are not extensive.<ref name="Smith2002" /> They include (known by their Arab names) [[El Lahun]], a workers' town associated with the pyramid of [[Senusret II]], and the religious city [[Amarna]] built by [[Akhenaten]] and abandoned. These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and [[social stratification|stratified]] fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.<ref>Moholy-Nagy (1968), pp. 158–161.</ref>
+In Mesopotamia, the civilization of [[Sumer]], followed by [[Assyria]] and [[Babylon]], gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostering multiple languages written in [[cuneiform]].<ref>[[Robert McCormick Adams Jr.]], ''[https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/heartland_of_cities.pdf Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates]''; University of Chicago Press, 1981; {{ISBN|0-226-00544-5}}; p. 2. "Southern Mesopotamia was a land of cities. It became one precociously, before the end of the fourth millennium B.C. Urban traditions remained strong and virtually continuous through the vicissitudes of conquest, internal upheaval accompanied by widespread economic breakdown, and massive linguistic and population replacement. The symbolic and material content of civilization obviously changed, but its cultural ambience remained tied to cities."</ref> The [[Phoenicia]]n trading empire, flourishing around the turn of the [[first millennium BC]], encompassed [[List of Phoenician cities|numerous cities]] extending from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Cydon]], and [[Byblos]] to [[Carthage]] and [[Cádiz]].
+In the following centuries, independent [[city-state]]s of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], especially [[Classical Athens|Athens]], developed the ''[[polis]]'', an association of male landowning [[citizenship|citizens]] who collectively constituted the city.<ref name="tws2Y21">{{Cite book | last = Pocock | first = J.G.A. | title = The Citizenship Debates | publisher = The University of Minnesota | series = Chapter 2 – The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in ''Queen's Quarterly'' 99, no. 1) | year = 1998 | location = Minneapolis, MN | page = 31 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i6U7CTuCJLYC&pg=PA31 | isbn = 978-0-8166-2880-3}}</ref> The [[agora]], meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the polis.<ref name="InternationalDictionary">{{cite book |title = International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe | last=Ring, Salkin, Boda | first=Trudy, Robert, Sharon | publisher = Routledge|date = January 1, 1996 | page = 66 | isbn=978-1-884964-02-2}}</ref> [[Rome]] was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of [[Roman Empire|its empire]], Rome transformed and [[List of cities founded by the Romans|founded]] many cities (''[[Colonia (Roman)|coloniae]]''), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 41–42. "Rome created an elaborate urban system. Roman colonies were organized as a means of securing Roman territory. The first thing that Romans did when they conquered new territories was to establish cities."</ref>
+In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the [[Andes]] and [[Mesoamerica]]. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the [[Norte Chico civilization]], [[Chavín culture|Chavin]] and [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] cultures, followed by major cities in the [[Huari culture|Huari]], [[Chimu]] and [[Inca]] cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the [[Norte Chico (Peruvian region)|Norte Chico region]] of north-central coastal [[Peru]]. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC.<ref name="Shady1997">{{cite book |last= Shady Solís |first=Ruth Martha |author-link=Ruth Shady |title= La ciudad sagrada de Caral-Supe en los albores de la civilización en el Perú | url=http://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/Bibvirtual/Libros/Arqueologia/ciudad_sagrada/caratula.htm |access-date=2007-03-03 |year=1997 |publisher=UNMSM, Fondo Editorial |location=Lima|language=es}}</ref> Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the [[Olmec]] and spreading to the [[Maya city|Preclassic Maya]], the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] of Oaxaca, and [[Teotihuacan]] in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the [[Aztec]], [[Andean civilization]], [[Maya peoples|Mayan]], [[Mississippian culture|Mississippians]], and [[Pueblo]] peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as [[Mexico City]], in the same location as [[Tenochtitlan]]; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in [[New Mexico]], such as [[Acoma Pueblo]] near the [[Albuquerque metropolitan area]] and [[Taos Pueblo]] near [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]]; while others like [[Lima]] are located nearby ancient [[Peru]]vian sites such as [[Pachacamac]].
+[[Jenné-Jeno]], located in present-day Mali and dating to the third century BC,  lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class—but nevertheless had specialized production and relations with a hinterland.<ref>McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. "Early Urban Configurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities and Landscapes of Power," Chapter 5.</ref> Pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa.<ref name="Magnavita">{{cite journal|last=Magnavita|first=Sonja|title=Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world|url=http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en|journal=Afriques|issue=4|year=2013|access-date=December 13, 2013|doi=10.4000/afriques.1145|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other early urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao.<ref>''[http://markuswiener.com/book_reviews.html?products_id=93&products_name=History%20of%20African%20Cities%20South%20of%20the%20Sahara History of African Cities South of the Sahara] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124191535/http://markuswiener.com/book_reviews.html?products_id=93&products_name=History%20of%20African%20Cities%20South%20of%20the%20Sahara |date=2008-01-24 }}'' By Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch. 2005. {{ISBN|1-55876-303-1}}</ref>
+===Middle Ages===
+[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|[[Vyborg]] in [[Leningrad Oblast]], [[Russia]] has existed since the 13th century]]
+[[File:Holy Roman Empire 1648 Imperial cities.png|thumb|Imperial Free Cities in the Holy Roman Empire 1648]]
+[[File:Haarlem-City-Map-1550.jpg|thumb|This map of [[Haarlem]], the Netherlands, created around 1550, shows the city completely surrounded by a [[defensive wall|city wall]] and [[moat|defensive canal]], with its square shape inspired by [[Jerusalem]].]]
+In the [[Fall of the Roman Empire|remnants of the Roman Empire]], [[Late Antiquity#Cities|cities of late antiquity]] gained independence but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to [[Constantinople]] and to the [[Early Muslim conquests|ascendant Islamic civilization]] with its major cities [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 43. "Capitals like Córdoba and Cairo had populations of about 500,000; Baghdad probably had a population of more than 1 million. This urban heritage would continue despite the conquests of the Seljuk Turks and the later Crusades. China, the longest standing civilization, was in the midst of a golden age as the Tang dynasty gave way—after a short period of fragmentation—to the Song dynasty. This dynasty ruled two of the most impressive cities on the planet, Xian and Hangzhou. / In contrast, poor Western Europe had not recovered from the sacking of Rome and the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire. For more than five centuries a steady process of deurbanization—whereby the population living in cities and the number of cities declined precipitously—had converted a prosperous landscape into a scary wilderness, overrun with bandits, warlords, and rude settlements."</ref> From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, [[Constantinople]], capital of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cameron|first=Averil|title=The Byzantines|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59c6PSa5JCAC|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2|access-date=24 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Laiou|first=Angeliki E.|title=The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1)|pages=130–131|year=2002|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|editor=Angeliki E. Laiou|chapter=Writing the Economic History of Byzantium|chapter-url=http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/EHB.html|access-date=6 June 2012|archive-date=18 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218231151/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/EHB.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Ottoman Empire]] gradually gained [[List of cities conquered by the Ottoman Empire|control over many cities]] in the Mediterranean area, including [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople in 1453]].
+In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], beginning in the 12th. century, [[free imperial city|free imperial cities]] such as [[Nuremberg]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Basel]], [[Zurich]], [[Nijmegen]] became a privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lay or secular lord or having been granted self-governanace by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire,  became part of the [[Imperial Estates]] governing the empire with the emperor through the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/free-and-imperial-cities|title=Free and Imperial Cities – Dictionary definition of Free and Imperial Cities |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>
+By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy [[medieval commune]]s developed into [[Italian city-states|city-states]] including the [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Republic of Genoa]]. In Northern Europe, cities including [[Lübeck]] and [[Bruges]] formed the [[Hanseatic League]] for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later [[Dutch–Hanseatic War|challenged]] and eclipsed by the [[Burgundian Netherlands|Dutch]] commercial [[History of urban centers in the Low Countries|cities]] of [[Ghent]], [[Ypres]], and [[Amsterdam]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 47–50.</ref>  Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.
+In the first millennium AD, the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] capital of [[Angkor]] in [[Cambodia]] grew into the most extensive [[Pre-industrial society|preindustrial settlement]] in the world by area,<ref name="Evans PNAS">Evans ''et al.'', [http://www.pnas.org/content/104/36/14277 A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia], Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the US, August 23, 2007.</ref><ref name="BBC News 2007">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6945574.stm Map reveals ancient urban sprawl]", ''BBC News'', 14 August 2007.</ref> covering over 1,000 [[sq km]] and possibly supporting up to one million people.<ref name="Evans PNAS" /><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/metropolis-angkor-the-worlds-first-megacity-461623.html Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919133524/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/metropolis-angkor-the-worlds-first-megacity-461623.html |date=19 September 2011 }}, The Independent, August 15, 2007</ref>
+===Early modern===
+In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in the seventeenth century.<ref>Curtis (2016), pp. 5–6. "In the modern international system, cities were subjugated and internalized by the state, and, with industrialization, became the great growth engines of national economies."</ref><ref name="Blomley2013" /> Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] trade. However, most towns remained small.
+During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories, and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances and urbanism.
+===Industrial age===
+[[File:Tampere 1837.jpg|thumb|The industrial-based city of [[Tampere]] on the shores of the [[Tammerkoski]] rapids in 1837.]]
+The [[industrial revolution|growth of modern industry]] from the late 18th century onward led to massive [[urbanization]] and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. [[File:Old Gyumri 03.PNG|thumb|left|[[Diorama]] of old [[Gyumri]], [[Armenia]] with the [[Holy Saviour's Church, Gyumri|Holy Saviour's Church]] (1859–1873)]] [[File:Szent Bertalan utca a Kossuth Lajos utca felé nézve. Fortepan 721.jpg|thumb|Small city [[Gyöngyös]] in Hungary in 1938.]] England led the way as [[London]] became the capital of a [[British empire|world empire]] and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for [[manufacturing]].<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 53–54. "England was clearly at the center of these changes. London became the first truly global city by placing itself within the new global economy. English colonialism in North America, the Caribbean, South Asia, and later Africa and China helped to further fatten the wallets of many of its merchants. These colonies would later provide many of the raw materials for industrial production. England's hinterland was no longer confined to a portion of the world; it effectively became a global hinterland."</ref> In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the [[History of rail transport|introduction of railroads]] reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas.
+Industrialized cities became deadly places to live, due to health problems resulting from [[overcrowding]], [[occupational hazard]]s of industry, contaminated water and air, [[History of water supply and sanitation#Modern age|poor sanitation]], and communicable diseases such as [[typhoid]] and [[cholera]]. [[Factories]] and [[slum]]s emerged as regular features of the urban landscape.<ref>Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 54–55.</ref>
+===Post-industrial age===
+In the second half of the twentieth century, [[deindustrialization]] (or "[[economic restructuring]]") in the West led to [[poverty]], [[homelessness]], and [[urban decay]] in formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a "[[Rust Belt]]" and cities such as [[Decline of Detroit|Detroit]], Michigan, and [[Gary, Indiana]] began to [[Shrinking cities|shrink]], contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion.<ref>Steven High, ''[https://archive.org/details/industrialsunset0000high/page/5 Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984]''; University of Toronto Press, 2003; {{ISBN|0-8020-8528-8}}. "It is now clear that the deindustrialization thesis is part myth and part fact. Robert Z. Lawrence, for example, uses aggregate economic data to show that manufacturing employment in the United States did not decline but actually increased from 16.8 million in 1960, to 20.1 million in 1973, and 20.3 million in 1980. However, manufacturing employment was in relative decline. Barry Bluestone noted that manufacturing represented a decreasing proportion of the U.S. labour force, from 26.2 per cent in 1973 to 22.1 per cent in 1980. Studies in Canada have likewise shown that manufacturing employment was only in relative decline during these years. Yet mills and factories did close, and towns and cities lost their industries. John Cumbler submitted that 'depressions do not manifest themselves only at moments of national economic collapse' such as in the 1930s, but 'also recur in scattered sites across the nation in regions, in industries, and in communities.'"</ref> Such cities have shifted with varying success into the [[service economy]] and [[public-private partnerships]], with concomitant [[gentrification]], uneven [[urban renewal|revitalization efforts]], and selective cultural development.<ref name="Kaplan2004p164">Kaplan (2004), pp. 160–165. "Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations. For example, in St. Louis, Anheuser-Busch, Monsanto, and Ralston Purina played prominent roles. The leadership involved cooperation between public and private interests. The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development."</ref> Under the [[Great Leap Forward]] and subsequent [[Five-year plans of China|five-year plans]] continuing today, the [[People's Republic of China]] has undergone concomitant [[urbanization in China|urbanization]] and [[Chinese industrialization|industrialization]] and to become the world's leading [[manufacturing|manufacturer]].<ref>James Xiaohe Zhang, "Rapid urbanization in China and its impact on the world economy"; 16th Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, "New Challenges for Global Trade in a Rapidly Changing World", Shanhai Institute of Foreign Trade, June 12–14, 2013.</ref><ref>Ian Johnson, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/world/asia/chinas-great-uprooting-moving-250-million-into-cities.html China's Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities]"; ''New York Times'', 15 June 2013.</ref>
+Amidst these economic changes, [[high technology]] and instantaneous [[telecommunication]] enable select cities to become centers of the [[knowledge economy]].<ref>Castells, M. (ed) (2004). ''The network society: a cross-cultural perspective''. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)</ref><ref>Flew, T. (2008). ''New media: an introduction'', 3rd edn, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Harford, T. (2008) ''The Logic of Life''. London: Little, Brown.</ref> A new [[smart city]] paradigm, supported by institutions such as the [[RAND Corporation]] and [[IBM]], is bringing computerized [[Surveillance issues in smart cities|surveillance]], data analysis, and [[E-governance|governance]] to bear on cities and city-dwellers.<ref>Taylor Shelton, Matthew Zook, & Alan Wiig, "[https://academic.oup.com/cjres/article/doi/10.1093/cjres/rsu026/304403/The-actually-existing-smart-city The 'actually existing smart city']", ''Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy, and Society'' 8, 2015; {{doi|10.1093/cjres/rsu026}}.</ref> Some companies are building brand new [[land use planning|masterplanned]] cities from scratch on [[greenfield land|greenfield]] sites.