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| == History == | | == History == |
| {{Main|History of Brazil|Timeline of Brazilian history}} | | {{Main|History of Brazil}} |
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| === Pre-Cabraline era ===
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| | image1 = Parque Nacional da Serra da Capivara (31729373313).jpg
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| | caption1 = [[Rock art]] at [[Serra da Capivara National Park]], one of the largest and oldest concentrations of prehistoric sites in the [[Americas]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Discoveries Challenge Beliefs on Humans' Arrival in the Americas|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/28/world/americas/discoveries-challenge-beliefs-on-humans-arrival-in-the-americas.html|website=New York Times|date=27 March 2014|access-date=31 May 2014|first=Simon|last=Romero}}</ref>
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| | image2 = Burian urn, AD 1000-1250, Marajoara culture - AMNH - DSC06177 b.jpg
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| | caption2 = Burial urn, [[Marajoara culture]], [[American Museum of Natural History]]. That culture appeared to flourish between 400 AD and 1400 AD, based on archeological studies.<ref name=Mann />
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| Some of the earliest human remains found in the [[Americas]], [[Luzia Woman]], were found in the area of [[Pedro Leopoldo]], [[Minas Gerais]] and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.<ref>About.com, http://gobrazil.about.com/od/ecotourismadventure/ss/Peter-Lund-Museum.htm</ref><ref name="LevineCrocitti1999">{{cite book|author1=Robert M. Levine|author2=John J. Crocitti|title=The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R28K2JA9PM8C&pg=PA11|access-date=12 December 2012|year=1999|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-2290-0|pages=11–}}</ref>
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| The earliest [[pottery]] ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the [[Amazon basin]] of Brazil and [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near [[Santarém, Pará|Santarém]] and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.<ref name="Eighth Millennium Pottery from a Prehistoric Shell Midden in the Brazilian Amazon">Science Magazine, 13 December 1991 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/254/5038/1621.abstract</ref> The [[Marajoara culture]] flourished on [[Marajó]] in the Amazon delta from 400 CE to 1400 CE, developing sophisticated pottery, [[social stratification]], large populations, [[mound building]], and complex social formations such as [[chiefdom]]s.<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Charles C. |author-link=Charles C. Mann |title=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus |orig-year=2005 |year=2006 |publisher=Vintage Books |pages=[https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 326–33] |isbn=978-1-4000-3205-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 }}</ref>
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| Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people,<ref>{{cite book |last=Levine |first=Robert M. |title=The History of Brazil |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-6255-3 |page=32 }}</ref> mostly semi-nomadic, who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the [[Tupí people|Tupis]], [[Guaraní people|Guaranis]], [[Gê peoples|Gês]], and [[Arawak peoples|Arawaks]]). The Tupí people were subdivided into the [[Tupiniquim people|Tupiniquins]] and [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambás]], and there were also many subdivisions of the other groups.{{sfnp|Levine|2003|p=31}}
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| Before the arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs.<ref name="Fausto">{{cite book |last=Fausto |first=Carlos |title=Os Índios antes do Brasil |trans-title=The Indians before Brazil |language=pt |editor-first=Jorge |editor-last=Zahar |year=2000 |isbn =978-85-7110-543-0 |pages=45–46, 55 }}</ref> These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]] rituals on [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref>Gomes, Mercio P. ''The Indians and Brazil'' University Press of Florida 2000 {{ISBN|0-8130-1720-3}} pp. 28–29</ref>{{sfnp|Fausto|2000|pp=78–80}} While heredity had some weight, leadership status was more subdued over time, than allocated in succession ceremonies and conventions.<ref name="Fausto" /> [[Slavery]] among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into [[kinship]] relations.{{sfnp|Fausto|2000|p=50}}
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| === Portuguese colonization ===
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| {{Main|Colonial Brazil|War of the Emboabas|Inconfidência Mineira}}
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| [[File:Desembarque de Pedro Álvares Cabral em Porto Seguro em 1500 by Oscar Pereira da Silva (1865–1939).jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landing in [[Porto Seguro]] in 1500, ushering in more than 300 years of [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] rule of [[Colonial Brazil]].]]
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| Following the 1494 [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the land now called Brazil was claimed for the [[Portuguese Empire]] on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]].<ref name="Boxer, p. 98">Boxer, p. 98.</ref> The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the [[Tupi–Guarani]] family and fought among themselves.<ref name="Boxer, p. 100">Boxer, p. 100.</ref> Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, [[colonization]] effectively began in 1534, when King [[John III of Portugal|John III of Portugal]] divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous [[Captaincies of Brazil|Captaincy Colonies of Brazil]].<ref>Boxer, pp. 100–101.</ref><ref name="Skidmore, p. 27">Skidmore, p. 27.</ref>
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| However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the [[Governorate General of Brazil]] in the city of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], which became the capital of a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America.<ref name="Skidmore, p. 27" /><ref>Boxer, p. 101.</ref> In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing [[opportunistic]] alliances in order to gain advantages against each other.<ref>Meuwese, Mark "Brothers in Arms, Partners in Trade: Dutch-Indigenous Alliances in the Atlantic World, 1595–1674" Koninklijke Brill NV 2012 {{ISBN|978-90-04-21083-7}} ''Chapter III''</ref><ref>Metcalf, Alida C. "Go-betweens And the Colonization of Brazil: 1500–1600" University of Texas Press 2005, pp. 70, 79, 202 [https://books.google.com/books?id=lWuNIISvBqIC&pg=PA202 View on Google Books]</ref>{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012}}<ref>Minahan, James B. "Ethnic Groups of the Americas" ABC-CLIO 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-61069-163-5}} p. 300, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8jVig0ysnu8C&pg=PA300 View on Google Books]</ref> By the mid-16th century, [[Sugar#Sugarcane|cane sugar]] had become Brazil's most important export,<ref name="Boxer, p. 100" /><ref>Skidmore, p. 36.</ref> while slaves purchased in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] in the [[Slavery in Africa#Atlantic slave trade|slave market of Western Africa]]<ref>Richard Middleton and Anne Lombard "Colonial America: A History to 1763" Wiley-Blackwell Publishing 1st edition 1992 {{ISBN|978-1-4443-9628-7}} Chapter 2, Section 4 (final, last page and half of previous one) [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hexv5SmqLgC&pg=PT54 View on Google Books]</ref> (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in [[Portuguese Angola|Angola]] and [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]]), had become its largest import,<ref>Boxer, p. 110</ref><ref>Skidmore, p. 34.</ref> to cope with [[Plantation economy|plantations]] of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.<ref name="Boxer, p. 102">Boxer, p. 102.</ref><ref>Skidmore, pp. 32–33.</ref> Portuguese Brazil received more than 2.8 million slaves from Africa between the years of 1500 to 1800.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Stuart A. P. |title=The Library An Illustrated History |date=2009 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-60239-706-4 |page=101}}</ref>
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| [[File:Antônio Parreiras - Prisão de Tiradentes, 1914.jpg|thumb|left|Painting showing the arrest of [[Tiradentes]]; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known [[Inconfidência Mineira|movement for independence]] in Colonial Brazil. Painting of 1914.]]
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| By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline<ref>Boxer, p. 164.</ref> and the discovery of gold by [[bandeirantes]] in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a [[Brazilian Gold Rush]]<ref>Boxer, pp. 168, 170.</ref> which attracted thousands of new [[Settler colonialism|settlers]] to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world.<ref>Boxer, p. 169.</ref> This increased level of immigration in turn caused [[War of the Emboabas|some conflicts]] between newcomers and old settlers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=George C.|title=Dictionary of Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OIzreCGlHxIC&pg=PT186|edition=1st|year=1986|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4381-2916-7|page=174}}</ref>
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| Portuguese expeditions known as [[Bandeirantes|Bandeiras]] gradually advanced the Portugal colonial [[Treaty of Tordesillas|original frontiers]] in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders.<ref>{{cite book|author1=George Richard Potter|author2=Henry Clifford Darby|author3=Harold Fullard|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1BY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA498|edition=1st|volume=3|year=1957|publisher=CUP Archive|page=498}}</ref><ref>Corrado, Jacopo "The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism" [[Cambria Press]] 2008 {{ISBN|978-1-60497-529-1}} pp. 95 (Brazil) and 145, note 5 [https://books.google.com/books?id=BKKf4PYI-IIC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q=tordesilha%20bandeira%20portugal%20brazil%20advance View on Google Books]</ref> In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French [[France Antarctique|in Rio during the 1560s]], [[Equinoctial France|in Maranhão during the 1610s]], and the [[Dutch Brazil|Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco]], during the [[Dutch–Portuguese War]], after the end of [[Iberian Union]].<ref>Bethell, Leslie "Colonial Brazil" Cambridge University Press 1987 pp. 19, 74, 86, 169–70</ref>
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| The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the [[monopoly]] of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of [[slave rebellion]] and resistance, such as the [[Palmares (quilombo)|Quilombo of Palmares]],<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. "Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels" Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois 1992 {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}} Chapter 4 [https://books.google.com/books?id=YTnY5h0NE3sC&pg=PA103 View on Google Books]</ref> and to repress all movements for [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomy]] or [[independence]], such as the [[Inconfidência Mineira|Minas Conspiracy]].<ref>MacLachlan, Colin M. "A History of Modern Brazil: The Past Against the Future"; Scholarly Resources Inc. 2003 p. 3 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8m3RcnkKwJgC&pg=PA3 View on Google Books]</ref>
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| === United Kingdom with Portugal ===
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| {{Main|United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves}}
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| [[File:Aclamação do rei Dom João VI no Rio de Janeiro.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Acclamation of [[John VI of Portugal|King João VI]] of the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]], 6 February 1818]]
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| In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of [[continental Portugal]], causing [[John VI of Portugal|Prince Regent João]], in the name of [[Maria I of Portugal|Queen Maria I]], to move the royal court from [[Lisbon]] to [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|Rio de Janeiro]].<ref name="Boxer, p. 213">Boxer, p. 213</ref> There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local [[stock exchange]]s<ref>Marta Barcellos & Simone Azevedo; ''Histórias do Mercado de Capitais no Brasil'' ("Financial Markets' Histories in Brazil") (Portuguese) Campus Elsevier 2011 {{ISBN|85-352-3994-4}} Introduction (by Ney Carvalho), Intro. p. xiv</ref> and its [[Banco do Brasil|National Bank]], additionally ending the Portuguese [[monopoly]] on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the [[Portuguese conquest of French Guiana]].<ref>Bueno, p. 145.</ref>
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| With the end of the [[Peninsular War]] in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a [[colony]]. In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown established the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves]], thus creating a [[pluricontinental]] transatlantic monarchic state.<ref name="Mosher2008">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey C. Mosher|title=Political Struggle, Ideology, and State Building: Pernambuco and the Construction of Brazil, 1817–1850|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_yszWOZUCkC&pg=PA9|year=2008|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-3247-1|page=9}}</ref> However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (''v.'' [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]]). In 1821, acceding to the demands of revolutionaries who had taken the city of [[Porto]],<ref name="Adelman2006">{{cite book|author=Jeremy Adelman|title=Sovereignty and Revolution in the Iberian Atlantic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvFpURNsBRIC&pg=PA334|year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12664-7|pages=334–}}</ref> D. João VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, [[Pedro I of Brazil|Prince Pedro de Alcântara]], as Regent of the [[Kingdom of Brazil]].<ref>Lustosa, pp. 109–110</ref>
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| === Independent empire ===
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| {{Main|Independence of Brazil|Empire of Brazil}}
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| [[File:Independence of Brazil 1888.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|left|Declaration of the [[War of Independence of Brazil|Brazilian independence]] by Prince Pedro (later Emperor [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I]]) on 7 September 1822.]]
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| Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased and the [[Portuguese Cortes]], guided by the new political regime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony.<ref>Lustosa, pp. 117–19</ref> The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, [[Brazilian Declaration of Independence|declaring the country's independence from Portugal]] on 7 September 1822.<ref>Lustosa, pp. 150–153</ref> A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first [[Emperor of Brazil]], with the royal title of Dom [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I]], resulting in the foundation of the [[Empire of Brazil]].<ref>Vianna, p. 418</ref>
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| The [[Brazilian War of Independence]], which had already begun along this process, spread through the northern, northeastern regions and in [[Cisplatina]] province.<ref>Diégues 2004, pp. 168, 164, 178</ref> The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824;<ref>Diégues 2004, pp. 179–80</ref> Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August 1825.<ref>Lustosa, p. 208</ref>
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| On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of [[Confederation of the Equator|republican secession]]{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|pp=82–83}} and unreconciled to the way that absolutists in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to [[Liberal Wars|reclaim his daughter's crown]], abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the royal title of Dom [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]).<ref>Lyra (v. 1), p. 17</ref>
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| [[File:Pedro Américo - D. Pedro II na abertura da Assembléia Geral.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]], [[List of monarchs of Brazil|Emperor of Brazil]] between 1831 and 1889.]]
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| As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, a [[Regency (government)|regency]] was set up by the National Assembly.<ref>Carvalho 2007, p. 21</ref> In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the [[Cabanagem]] in [[Grão-Pará Province]], the [[Malê Revolt]] in [[Salvador da Bahia]], the [[Balaiada]] ([[Maranhão]]), the [[Sabinada]] ([[Bahia]]), and the [[Ragamuffin War]], which began in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and was supported by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]. These emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent [[nation state]].{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 2, 2.1 to 2.3}} This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the [[Praieira revolt]] in [[Pernambuco]], was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the [[Dom Pedro II#Early coronation|premature coronation of Pedro II]] in 1841.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999}}
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| During the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the issue of slavery. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abandoned in 1850,<ref>[[Leslie Bethell|Bethell, Leslie]] "The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade" [[Cambridge University Press]] 1970, ''"Cambridge Latin American Studides"'', Chapters 9 to 12. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2LsNTUPI_6sC View on Google Books]</ref> as a result of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Aberdeen Act]], but only in [[Lei Áurea|May 1888]] after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of [[Slavery in Brazil|slavery in the country]], was the institution formally abolished.<ref>Scott, Rebecca and others, ''The Abolition of Slavery and the Aftermath of Emancipation in Brazil'', Duke University Press 1988 {{ISBN|0-8223-0888-6}} [[Seymour Drescher]], Chap. 2: "Brazilian Abolition in Comparative Perspective"</ref>
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| The foreign-affairs policies of the monarchy dealt with issues with the countries of the [[Southern Cone]] with whom Brazil had borders. Long after the [[Cisplatine War]] that resulted in independence for [[Uruguay]],<ref>Levine, Robert M. "The history of Brazil" Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 1999, p. 62, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8RpIxe2utj8C&pg=PA62 View on Google Books]</ref> Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the [[Platine War]], the [[Uruguayan War]] and the devastating [[Paraguayan War]], the largest [[war effort]] in Brazilian history.<ref>Lyra (v.1), pp. 164, 225, 272</ref>{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 2, p. 83, and 2.6 "The Paraguayan War"}}
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| Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's [[form of government]],{{sfn|Ermakoff|2006|p=189}} on 15 November 1889, in disagreement with the majority of [[Imperial Brazilian Army|Army]] officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smallman |first=Shawn C. |title=Fear in Memory in the Brazilian Army and Society |publisher=[[University of North Carolina]] Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8078-5359-7 |chapter=The Overthrow of the Empire |pages=16–18 }}</ref> 15 November is now [[Republic Day]], a national holiday.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://brazilian.report/opinion/2017/11/15/brazils-press-republic-day/ |title=Brazil's Proclamation of the Republic through the press |date=15 November 2017 |work=The Brazilian Report |access-date=13 November 2018 |language=en-US }}</ref>
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| === Early republic ===
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| {{Main|First Brazilian Republic|Vargas Era#Estado Novo|Second Brazilian Republic}}
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| [[File:Proclamação da República by Benedito Calixto 1893.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|''[[Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)|Proclamation of the Republic]]'', 1893, oil on canvas by [[Benedito Calixto]].]]
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| The early republican government was nothing more than a military dictatorship, with army dominating affairs both in Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power.{{sfnp|Smallman|2002|loc=end of Chapter 1, from p. 18 "Military rule"}} Not until 1894, following [[encilhamento|an economic]] crisis and [[Revolta da Armada|a military one]], did civilians take power, remaining there until October 1930.{{sfnp|Smallman|2002|pp=21–26}}<ref>Triner, Gail D. "Banking and Economic Development: Brazil, 1889–1930" Palgrave 2000, pp. 69–74 {{ISBN|0-312-23399-X}}</ref><ref>Needell, Jeffrey D. "A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-the-Century Rio de Janeiro" Cambridge University Press 2010, pp. 10, 12</ref>
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| If in relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries,<ref>David R. Mares; "Violent peace: militarized interstate bargaining in Latin America" [[Columbia University]] Press 2001 Chapter 5 p. 125</ref> only broken by the [[Acre War]] (1899–1902) and [[Brazil during World War I|its involvement]] in [[World War I]] (1914–1918),<ref>Bradford Burns 1993, p. 305</ref><ref>M.Sharp, I. Westwell & J.Westwood; "History of World War I, Volume 1" Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2002, p. 97</ref><ref>{{Citation |title= Uma história diplomática do Brasil, 1531–1945 |pages= 265–69}}</ref> followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the [[League of Nations]];<ref>Charles Howard Ellis; "The origin, structure & working of the League of Nations" The LawBook Exchange Ltd 2003 pp. 105, 145</ref> Internally, from the ''crisis of Encilhamento''<ref>{{Citation |author= Viscount of Taunay |title= O encilhamento: scenas contemporaneas da bolsa em 1890, 1891 e 1892 |publisher= Melhoramentos |year=1893}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Nassif |first = Luís |title= Os cabeças-de-planilha |publisher= Ediouro |year= 2007 | isbn = 978-85-00-02094-0 |pages= 69–107}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first= Ney O. Ribeiro |last= de Carvalho |title= O Encilhamento: anatomia de uma bolha brasileira |publisher= Bovespa |year= 2004 |isbn = 978-85-904019-1-9}}</ref> and the [[Revolta da Armada|Armada Revolts]],<ref>{{Citation |first = Hélio L |last = Martins |title= A Revolta da Armada |publisher= BibliEx |year= 1997}}</ref> a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various rebellions, both civilian<ref>{{Citation |first = Edmundo |last = Moniz |title= Canudos: a luta pela terra |publisher= Global |year= 1984}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Sevcenko |first = Nicolau |title= A Revolta da Vacina | publisher= Cosac Naify |year= 2010 | isbn = 978-85-7503-868-0}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first = Aureliano P |last = de Moura |title= Contestado: a guerra cabocla |publisher= Biblioteca do Exército |year= 2003}}</ref> and military.<ref>{{Citation |first = Arthur |last = Thompson |title= Guerra civil do Brazil de 1893–1895 |publisher= Ravaro |year= 1934}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Roland |first = Maria Inês |title= A Revolta da Chibata |publisher= Saraiva |year= 2000 | isbn = 978-85-02-03095-4}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first = Maria CS |last = Forjaz |title= Tenentismo e politica |publisher= Paz e Terra |year= 1977}}</ref>
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| {{Multiple image
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| | image1 = 50º Aniversário da República Brasileira.png
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| | caption1 = In half of the first 100 years of republic, the [[Brazilian Army|Army]] ruled directly or through figures like [[Getúlio Vargas|Vargas]] (center).
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| | image2 = Massarosaw.jpg
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| | caption2 = Soldiers of the [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|FEB]], the only [[Latin America]]n military force in [[World War II]], in [[Massarosa]], [[Italy]], 1944.
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| Little by little, [[Rebellions and revolutions in Brazil#1st Republican period (1889–1930)|a cycle of general instability]] sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate [[Getúlio Vargas]], supported by most of the military, successfully led the [[Revolution of 1930]].<ref>Levine; Robert M. & Crocitti; John J. ''The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics'', Duke University Press 1999, IV – The Vargas Era</ref><ref>Keen, Benjamin / Haynes, Kate ''A History of Latin America; Volume 2'', Waldsworth Cengage Learning 2004, pp. 356–57</ref> Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with their own supporters.<ref>McCann; Frank D. ''Soldiers of the Patria: A History of the Brazilian Army, 1889–1937'', [[Stanford University]] Press 2004, p. 303 {{ISBN|0-8047-3222-1}}</ref><ref>Ibidem Williams 2001</ref>
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| In the 1930s, three failed attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the [[Constitutionalist Revolution]] in 1932, led by the [[São Paulo (state)|Paulista]] [[oligarchy]]. The second was a [[Brazilian uprising of 1935|Communist uprising]] in November 1935, and the last one a ''putsch'' attempt by [[Brazilian Integralism|local fascists]] in May 1938.<ref>E. Bradford Burns; ''A History of Brazil'' Columbia University Press 1993 p. 352 {{ISBN|978-0-231-07955-6}}</ref><ref>Dulles, John W.F. ''Anarchists and Communists in Brazil, 1900–1935'' University of Texas Press 2012 {{ISBN|0-292-74076-X}}</ref><ref>Frank M. Colby, Allen L. Churchill, Herbert T. Wade & Frank H. Vizetelly; ''The New international year book'' Dodd, Mead & Co. 1989, p. 102 "The Fascist Revolt"</ref> The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which the Congress transferred more power to the executive. The 1937 ''coup d'état'' resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election, formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]] era, which was noted for government brutality and censorship of the press.<ref>Bourne, Richard ''Getulio Vargas of Brazil, 1883–1954'' C. Knight 1974, p. 77</ref>
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| Foreign policy during the Vargas years was marked by the antecedents{{clarify|date=September 2019}} and [[World War II]]. Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country entered on the [[Allies of World War II|allied side]],<ref>Scheina, Robert L. ''Latin America's Wars Vol.II: The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900–2001''. Potomac Books, 2003 {{ISBN|1-57488-452-2}} Part 9; Ch. 17 – World War II, Brazil, and Mexico, 1942–45</ref><ref>Thomas M. Leonard & John F. Bratzel; ''Latin America during World War II'' Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. 2007 p. 150</ref> after suffering [[Submarine warfare#Atlantic ocean|retaliation]] by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], in a strategic dispute over the South Atlantic.<ref>Mónica Hirst & Andrew Hurrell; ''The United States and Brazil: A Long Road of Unmet Expectations'', Taylor & Francis Books 2005 {{ISBN|0-415-95066-X}} pp. 4–5</ref> In addition to [[Battle of the Atlantic#South Atlantic (May 1942 – September 1943)|its participation in the battle of the Atlantic]], Brazil also sent an [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|expeditionary force]] to fight in the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]].<ref>{{Citation |first1=Celso |last1=Castro |first2=Vitor |last2=Izecksohn |first3=Hendrik |last3=Kraay |pages=13–14 |title=Nova história militar brasileira |publisher=Fundação Getúlio Vargas |year=2004 |isbn=978-85-225-0496-1}}</ref>
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| With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15 years earlier.<ref>McCann 2004, p. 441</ref> Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.<ref>Roett; Riordan ''Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society'', GreenWood Publishing Group 1999, pp. 106–08 {{ISBN|0-275-95899-X}}</ref><ref>Keen & Haynes 2004, pp. 361–62</ref>
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| === Contemporary era ===
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| {{Main|Military dictatorship in Brazil|History of Brazil since 1985}}
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| | image1 = Construção do Congresso Nacional Esplanada dos Ministérios 1959-10.jpg
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| | caption1 = Construction of the building of [[National Congress of Brazil]] in [[Brasília]], the new capital, 1959.
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| |image2 = Tanques ocupam a Avenida Presidente Vargas, 1968-04-04.jpg
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| |caption2 =[[M41 Walker Bulldog|M41s]] along the [[Avenida Presidente Vargas]] during the [[Brazilian military government|military government]].
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| Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide.<ref>Skidmore, p. 201</ref> [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the [[Opposition (politics)|political opposition]] that allowed him to govern without major crises.<ref>Skidmore, pp. 202–203</ref> The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,<ref>Skidmore, p. 204</ref> but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of [[Brasília]], inaugurated in 1960.<ref>Skidmore, pp. 204–205</ref>
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| Kubitschek's successor, [[Jânio Quadros]], resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.<ref>Skidmore, pp. 209–210</ref> His vice-president, [[João Goulart]], assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition<ref>Skidmore, p. 210</ref> and was [[1964 Brazilian coup d'état|deposed in April 1964]] by a coup that resulted in a [[Brazilian military government|military regime]].<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 397</ref>
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| The new regime was intended to be transitory<ref>Gaspari, ''A Ditadura Envergonhada'', pp. 141–42.</ref> but gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the [[AI-5|Fifth Institutional Act]] in 1968.<ref name="Gaspari p.35">Gaspari, ''A Ditadura Envergonhada'', p. 35.</ref> Oppression was not limited to those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society,{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA395 395], last paragraph}}<ref>Richard Young, Odile Cisneros "Historical Dictionary of Latin American Literature and Theater" Scare Crow Press 2011, p. 224, 2nd § [https://books.google.com/books?id=i0ZyleoLY5UC&pg=PA224 View on Google Books]</ref> inside and outside the country through the infamous "[[Operation Condor]]".<ref>Laurence Burgorgue-Larsen & Amaya Úbeda de Torres "The Inter-American Court of Human Rights: Case Law and Commentary" Oxford University Press 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-19-958878-7}} p. 299 [https://books.google.com/books?id=fQpnBsRWNlYC&pg=PA299 View on Google Books]</ref>{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA396 396]}} Despite its brutality, like other [[authoritarianism|authoritarian regimes]], due to an economic boom, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached a peak in popularity in the early 1970s.{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA395 395–97]}}
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| Slowly, however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas,<ref>Bradford Burns 1993, p. 457</ref> plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals [[Ernesto Geisel]] and [[Golbery do Couto e Silva]].{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 6 "The military government and the transition to democracy (1964–1984)"}} With the enactment of the [[Amnesty law#Brazil|Amnesty Law]] in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy, which was completed during the 1980s.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999}}
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| Civilians returned to power in 1985 when [[José Sarney]] assumed the presidency. He became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic crisis and [[hyperinflation]] he inherited from the military regime.<ref>Fausto (2005), pp. 464–65.</ref> Sarney's unsuccessful government led to the [[Brazilian presidential election, 1989|election in 1989]] of the almost-unknown [[Fernando Collor de Mello|Fernando Collor]], subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.<ref>Fausto (2005), pp. 465, 475.</ref>
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| Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, [[Itamar Franco]], who appointed [[Fernando Henrique Cardoso]] Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful [[Plano Real]],<ref>Skidmore, p. 311.</ref> that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally stabilized the Brazilian economy.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Epilogue}}<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 482.</ref> Cardoso won the [[Brazilian presidential election, 1994|1994 election]], and [[Brazilian presidential election, 1998|again in 1998]].<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 474.</ref>
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| | caption1 = [[Ulysses Guimarães]] holding the [[Constitution of Brazil|Constitution of 1988]] in his hands.
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| |image2 =1-real-2019-25-anos.png
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| |caption2 =Coin of [[Brazilian real|1 real]] commemorating 25 years of [[Real Plan]], which brought stability to the [[Economy of Brazil|Brazilian economy]] after [[Hyperinflation in Brazil|years of hyperinflation]].
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| The [[peaceful transition of power]] from Cardoso to his main opposition leader, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] ([[Brazilian presidential election, 2002|elected in 2002]] and [[Brazilian presidential election, 2006|re-elected in 2006]]), was seen as proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability.<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 502.</ref><ref>Zirin, 2014. Chapter 3</ref> However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from corruption, [[police brutality]], inefficiencies of the political [[The Establishment|establishment]] and [[public service]], [[2013 protests in Brazil|numerous peaceful protests]] erupted in Brazil from the middle of first term of [[Dilma Rousseff]], who had succeeded Lula after winning election [[Brazilian presidential election, 2010|in 2010]] and again [[Brazilian presidential election, 2014|in 2014]] by narrow margins.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/22/urban-protest-changing-global-social-network "Global protest grows as citizens lose faith in politics and the State"] article on "the Guardian"</ref><ref>Zirin, 2014. Chapter 7 & Conclusion.</ref>
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| Rousseff [[Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff|was impeached]] by the [[Brazilian Congress]] in 2016, halfway into her second term,<ref name="auto1">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/31/dilma-rousseff-impeached-president-brazilian-senate-michel-temer |title=Dilma Rousseff impeached by Brazilian senate |author=Jonathan Watts & Donna Bowater |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/world/americas/brazil-impeachment-coup.html Article of] New York Times about the denouement of Rousseff's impeachment process.</ref> and replaced by her Vice-President [[Michel Temer]], who assumed full presidential powers after Rousseff's impeachment was accepted on 31 August. Large street [[2015–16 protests in Brazil|protests for and against her]] took place during the impeachment process.<ref>[http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/28879ada-0499-11e6-96e5-f85cb08b0730.html#axzz46ZJ07xgT Article] in ''[[Financial Times]]'' (18 April 2016) about the political ambiance in Brazil on the day vote for the Deputies chamber decision about open an impeachment procedure against President Dilma. 2nd to 4th paragraph.</ref> The charges against her were fueled by political and economic crises along with evidence of involvement with politicians (from all the primary political parties) in several [[bribery]] and [[tax evasion]] schemes.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/20/opinion/dilma-rousseffs-impeachment-isnt-a-coup-its-a-cover-up.html Article] at [[The New York Times]], 19 April 2016, On the Brazilian political context that led to the approval of impeachment proceedings against Dilma Rousseff.</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-panama-tax-brazil-idUSKCN0X11C1 Article] at [[Reuters]] on the involvement of Brazilian politicians in tax evasion schemes unveiled by the [[Panama Papers]]. 4 April 2016.</ref>
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| In 2017, the Supreme Court requested the investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers of President [[Michel Temer]]'s cabinet who were allegedly linked to the [[Operation Car Wash|Petrobras corruption scandal]].<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/brazil-politics-probes-idUSL1N1HJ1NO? "Brazil supreme court judge orders probe into nine ministers – paper"]. Reuters. 11 April 2017.</ref> President Temer himself was also accused of [[Corruption in Brazil|corruption]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/26/world/americas/brazil-temer-corruption-charge-joesley-batista.html "President Michel Temer of Brazil Is Charged With Corruption"]. ''The New York Times''. 26 June 2017.</ref> According to a 2018 poll, 62% of the population said that corruption was Brazil's biggest problem.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/09/20/a-scary-election-in-brazil|title=A scary election in Brazil|work=The Economist|access-date=1 October 2018|language=en}}</ref>
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| Through the [[Operation Car Wash]], the [[Federal Police of Brazil]] has since acted on the deviations and corruption of the PT and allied parties at that time. In the fiercely disputed [[2018 Brazilian general election|2018 elections]], the controversial conservative candidate [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the [[Social Liberal Party (Brazil)|Social Liberal Party]] (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round [[Fernando Haddad]], of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers Party]] (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://veja.abril.com.br/politica/jair-bolsonaro-e-eleito-presidente-do-brasil/|title=Jair Bolsonaro é eleito presidente do Brasil|website=veja.abril.com.br}}</ref>
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| In the early 2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the [[United States]].<ref name="BBCGuerin">{{cite news|last=Guerin|first=Orla|title=Covid-19 pandemic: 'Everything you should not do, Brazil has done'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-57733540|access-date=2 August 2021|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=9 July 2021|location=[[Brasília]]}}</ref> Experts have largely blamed the situation on the leadership of President Bolsonaro, who throughout the pandemic has repeatedly downplayed the threat of COVID-19 and dissuaded states and cities from enforcing quarantine measures, prioritizing the nation's economy.<ref name="BBCGuerin"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Phillips|first=Tom|title=Bolsonaro's 'genocidal' Covid response has led to Brazilian catastrophe, Dilma Rousseff says|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/10/brazil-bolsonaro-dilma-rousseff-coronavirus-crisis|access-date=2 August 2021|work=[[The Guardian]]|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group|Guardian News & Media Limited]]|date=10 April 2021|location=[[Rio de Janeiro]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Covid: Brazil's Bolsonaro calls governors 'tyrants' over lockdowns|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-56479614|access-date=2 August 2021|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=22 March 2021}}</ref>
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| == Geography == | | == Geography == |