List of Things Considered Haram in Islam

For the legal category itself, see Haram.

A number of acts, practices, foods, transactions and other matters are treated as haram (Arabic: حَرَام, romanized: ḥarām, "prohibited" or "forbidden") in Islam. In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), haram is one of the five legal rulings (al-ahkam al-khamsa) traditionally used to classify human actions, the others being obligatory (wajib or fard), recommended (mustahabb or mandub), permissible (mubah) and discouraged (makruh).

The Quran and the sunnah are the principal textual sources used in determining prohibited acts. In the Quran the verb harrama is used with God as subject to declare specified foods, usury, homicide and other matters impermissible. The Quran contains explicit prohibitions concerning, among other matters, certain foods, intoxicants, gambling, unlawful sexual intercourse, riba, theft, unjust consumption of wealth, false accusation, backbiting and shirk. Reports attributed to Muhammad in the hadith literature supply further prohibitions and details, including rules on clothing, adornment, conduct and transactions.

Whether a particular act is classified as haram can differ among legal schools and scholars. Some prohibitions rest on explicit Quranic verses or widely transmitted hadith; others are derived through juristic reasoning (ijtihad) and the principles of usul al-fiqh. Lists of prohibited matters are therefore not uniform across legal traditions, and some practices remain disputed.

This article summarises matters commonly treated as prohibited in the Quran, hadith and classical jurisprudence. It is not an exhaustive catalogue, and it does not state a single binding list for all Muslims.

General principles

In Islamic legal theory, an act classified as haram is forbidden by the sharia. The ruling is part of the fivefold classification of actions developed by jurists. Writers on the subject often distinguish inherent prohibition (al-haram li-dhatihi), where the act is treated as forbidden in itself (for example murder or zina), from contingent prohibition (al-haram li-ghayrihi), where an otherwise lawful act becomes forbidden because of an external factor (for example property acquired by theft).

The Quran warns against declaring things lawful or unlawful without a textual basis. Quran 16:116 instructs believers not to invent false claims that one thing is lawful and another unlawful. Quran 5:87 instructs believers not to prohibit good things that God has made lawful, while Quran 5:88 commands them to eat what is lawful and good.

Classical theory also employs a presumption of permissibility (asalat al-ibaha) for worldly matters: things are treated as lawful until a reliable prohibition is established. The presumption is commonly linked to verses such as Quran 2:29 and Quran 5:87.

Prohibitions are generally treated as suspended in cases of necessity (darura). Quran 2:173 and Quran 5:3 provide that a person compelled to consume otherwise prohibited food, without desire and without exceeding what is necessary, is not regarded as sinful. Later jurists extended the necessity principle more broadly, while differing on its limits.

Summary table

The following table lists representative matters commonly treated as haram in Sunni and Shia legal literature. It is illustrative rather than complete. Where schools or modern scholars differ, that is noted.

Representative matters commonly treated as haram

Matter	Principal textual basis	Notes
Associating partners with God (shirk)	Quran, including Quran 4:48 and Quran 7:33	Often described as the gravest sin; listed among the "destructive sins" in 89
Magic or sorcery (sihr)	Quran Quran 2:102; 89	Scope of the term and the reality of magical effect have been debated
Unlawful killing	Quran Quran 17:33; 89	Killing with legally recognised justification is treated separately
Zina (unlawful sexual intercourse)	Quran Quran 17:32, Quran 24:2	Classical law distinguished the status of married and unmarried offenders and imposed strict evidentiary rules
Theft	Quran Quran 5:38	Classical hudud rules required defined conditions before the prescribed penalty applied
Riba	Quran Quran 2:275–Quran 2:279; 89	Application to modern banking and finance is disputed among contemporary jurists
Consuming an orphan's property	Quran Quran 4:10; 89	Also listed among the destructive sins
False accusation of unchastity (qadhf)	Quran Quran 24:4; 89	Quran prescribes a penalty where four witnesses are not produced
Fleeing the battlefield without justification	89	Listed among the destructive sins
Carrion, flowing blood, pork, and animals dedicated to other than God	Quran Quran 2:173, Quran 5:3	Necessity exception in the same verses
Animals killed by strangulation, blow, fall, goring, or wild beasts (unless slaughtered before death)	Quran Quran 5:3	Part of the dietary list in al-Ma'ida
Intoxicants (khamr)	Quran Quran 2:219, Quran 5:90–Quran 5:91	Classical majority extended the ruling from wine to intoxicants generally; some Hanafi discussions distinguished grape wine from other drinks
Gambling (maysir, qimar)	Quran Quran 2:219, Quran 5:90–Quran 5:91	—
Unjust consumption of wealth; bribery	Quran Quran 2:188, Quran 4:29	Basis for later rulings on corruption and fraudulent trade
Backbiting, excessive suspicion, and spying	Quran Quran 49:12	—
Mockery and insulting nicknames	Quran Quran 49:11	—
Marriage within prohibited degrees	Quran Quran 4:23	Includes specified blood, affinal and foster relations
Marriage during the waiting period (iddah)	Quran Quran 2:228, Quran 2:234	—
Hunting land game while in ihram	Quran Quran 5:95	Circumstantial prohibition during pilgrimage
Gold jewellery and pure silk for men	1720 and parallel reports	Generally permitted for women in classical law
Tattooing and specified forms of altering creation	5931; 2125	Includes tattooing, filing the teeth, and specified plucking; application to modern surgery is disputed
Display of women's adornment (tabarruj) before non-mahram men	Quran Quran 24:31, Quran 33:33	Classical and modern jurists differ on whether face makeup, perfume and nail polish fall under the prohibition when a woman goes out
Woman wearing perfume so that non-mahram men smell it	; 444	Reports condemn passing by people so that they smell a woman's fragrance
Travel of a woman without a mahram (classical majority)	Hadith reports on travel with a mahram	Some modern scholars relax the rule where the route is safe; others retain it
Seclusion (khulwah) of an unrelated man and woman	Hadith reports on seclusion	Standard rule in classical manuals
Magic, astrology and soothsaying	Quran Quran 2:102; 89	Listed by Iranica among social customs treated as haram
Occupations built on a prohibited object (wine trade, prostitution, usury)	Derived from the prohibition of the underlying act	Income from a forbidden thing is itself treated as forbidden in classical law
Gold and silver utensils	Hadith reports used in classical manuals	Discussed in Qaradawi's treatment of household items
Keeping dogs without a recognised purpose	Hadith reports on dogs	Hunting, herding and guard dogs commonly excepted
Music and musical instruments	Hadith reports of contested interpretation	Status ranges from prohibited to permissible with conditions; see Islam and music
Tobacco and smoking	No explicit Quranic or early hadith text	Modern fatwas range from discouraged to prohibited; see Islamic views on smoking

Prohibitions mentioned in the Quran

The Quran does not present a single consolidated list of prohibited acts. Prohibitions and condemnations appear in different passages. Matters commonly identified from the text include:

• associating partners with God (shirk);
• unlawful killing;
• zina;
• theft;
• riba;
• intoxicants and gambling;
• specified foods and methods of killing animals;
• unjust consumption of wealth;
• using wealth to influence judgment wrongly;
• false accusation of unchastity;
• backbiting, spying and excessive suspicion;
• mockery and insult;
• oppression and transgression;
• hunting land game during ihram;
• marriage within specified prohibited relationships.

Quran 7:33 groups several of these themes, stating that God has forbidden "immorality", sin, unjust aggression, associating partners with God, and speaking about God without knowledge.

Food and drink

Main article: Islamic dietary laws

Animals and animal products

Quran 2:173 prohibits carrion, blood, the flesh of swine and animals dedicated to other than God, while providing an exception in cases of necessity. Quran 5:3 gives a more detailed list. Items specified there include:

• dead animals (carrion);
• blood;
• the flesh of swine;
• animals dedicated to other than God;
• animals killed by strangulation;
• animals killed by a violent blow;
• animals killed by a fall;
• animals killed by goring;
• animals partly eaten by wild animals, except where they are slaughtered before death;
• animals sacrificed on stone altars;
• animals associated with divining practices.

Quran 5:4–Quran 5:5 set out rules concerning lawful food, including, subject to the conditions in the verses, food of the People of the Book.

Jurists developed further rules from the sunnah and analogical reasoning, including restrictions on predators with fangs and birds with talons. The status of horse, mule and donkey meat has been discussed, with differences among schools.

Intoxicants

Intoxicants are addressed in several Quranic passages. Quran 2:219 states that intoxicants and gambling contain some benefit but that their sin is greater than their benefit. Quran 4:43 forbids approaching prayer while intoxicated. Quran 5:90–Quran 5:91 describe intoxicants, gambling, stone altars and divining arrows as "defilement from the work of Satan" and command believers to avoid them.

The prohibition of khamr was applied in most schools to intoxicating substances generally. Some Hanafi discussions historically distinguished wine made from grapes or dates from other fermented drinks, though later Hanafi practice commonly treated intoxication itself as prohibited. Contemporary discussions extend the category to other intoxicating drugs by analogy.

Gambling

Gambling (maysir, later also qimar) is prohibited in the same passages as intoxicants, notably Quran 2:219 and Quran 5:90–Quran 5:91. The latter verses associate it with hostility and with diversion from remembrance of God and from prayer.

Sexual conduct

Zina

Zina is the classical legal term for unlawful sexual intercourse, including fornication and adultery. Quran 17:32 states: "And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is ever an immorality and is evil as a way." Quran 24:2 prescribes a punishment for fornication under conditions established in Islamic criminal procedure. Classical jurists treated the wording "do not approach" as covering both the act and means leading to it.

Islamic jurisprudence distinguished legal consequences for married and unmarried offenders and required stringent proof, typically four eyewitnesses to the act or a repeated confession. Those evidentiary rules limited application of the prescribed penalty in practice.

Same-sex sexual activity

The Quran recounts the story of the people of Lot in several passages, including Quran 7:80–Quran 7:81, Quran 26:165–Quran 26:166 and Quran 27:54–Quran 27:55. Classical jurists generally treated male same-sex penetrative intercourse as prohibited. Classification of other same-sex acts, and the applicable penalty, varied among schools; some treated non-penetrative acts as discretionary offences (ta'zir) rather than as hadd offences.

Modern Muslim views on homosexuality are diverse and are treated separately in LGBT people and Islam.

Marriage and family

Main article: Islamic marital jurisprudence

Prohibited degrees

Quran 4:23 lists people whom a Muslim may not marry. The verse includes mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal and maternal aunts, nieces, foster mothers and foster sisters, mothers-in-law, specified stepdaughters, and daughters-in-law, and it forbids combining two sisters in marriage. Foster relations created by breastfeeding (rada) are treated as creating the same bars as corresponding blood relations.

Interfaith marriage

Quran 2:221 prohibits marriage with polytheists until they believe. Quran 5:5 permits Muslim men to marry chaste women from the People of the Book. Classical jurisprudence generally did not permit a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim man. Application of these rules has differed by school and by modern statutory systems.

Waiting period

Islamic law recognises an iddah after certain forms of divorce and after widowhood. A woman observing an applicable waiting period may not enter a new marriage during that period. Waiting periods are specified in Quran 2:228 and Quran 2:234.

Polygyny and polyandry

Quran 4:3 permits a man to marry up to four wives provided he deals justly among them; if he fears he cannot do so, the verse directs him to marry only one. Classical jurisprudence did not permit a woman to have more than one husband at the same time.

Inheritance

Quran 4:7–Quran 4:14 prescribe shares of inheritance for specified relatives. Deliberately depriving an heir of a prescribed share, or manipulating bequests in order to defeat those shares, is treated as prohibited in classical law. Quran 4:11–Quran 4:12 also limit testamentary disposition relative to the fixed shares.

Financial and commercial prohibitions

Riba

Riba is prohibited in several Quranic passages. Quran 2:275 states that God has permitted trade and forbidden riba. Quran 2:278–Quran 2:279 instruct believers to give up outstanding riba and warn of consequences for continuing to take it. Quran 3:130 forbids consuming riba "doubled and multiplied".

Jurists differed over the precise definition of riba and over the application of the prohibition to particular contracts. Contemporary debates concern bank interest, inflation-adjusted loans and modern financial instruments; some scholars treat conventional interest as riba, while others distinguish commercial interest from exploitative usury.

Unjust consumption of wealth and bribery

Quran 4:29 prohibits believers from consuming one another's wealth unjustly and permits trade by mutual consent. Quran 2:188 prohibits consuming wealth wrongfully and condemns using wealth to influence authorities in order to take property unjustly. These verses form a principal Quranic basis for later rulings against bribery, embezzlement and corruption.

Fraud, deception and unlawful sale

Fraudulent and deceptive commercial practices are prohibited in jurisprudence on the basis of Quranic injunctions to fulfil contracts and to acquire wealth lawfully, together with hadith reports condemning deception in sale (ghash) and excessive uncertainty (gharar). Classical manuals also prohibit sale of certain forbidden objects, such as wine, carrion and idols, when the intended use is itself prohibited.

Theft

Theft is prohibited, and Quran 5:38 prescribes a penalty within the framework of Islamic criminal law. Classical jurists confined the prescribed penalty to cases meeting defined conditions, including a minimum value (nisab), taking from a secure place, and the absence of certain doubts or necessities. Other forms of misappropriation were often treated under discretionary punishment.

Violence, injustice and related offences

Unlawful killing

Quran 17:33 states that a life made sacred should not be killed except by way of justice. Unlawful killing is also included among the seven destructive sins in a report in ^[89].

Oppression

The Quran repeatedly condemns zulm (wrongdoing or oppression) and transgression. Quran 7:33 includes unjust aggression among matters forbidden by God.

Speech and interpersonal conduct

False accusation

Quran 24:4 prescribes a punishment for those who accuse chaste women of unchastity without producing four witnesses. False accusation of chaste believing women is also listed among the seven destructive sins in 89.

Backbiting, suspicion and spying

Quran 49:12 instructs believers to avoid much suspicion, forbids spying, and prohibits backbiting, comparing it to eating the flesh of one's dead brother.

Mockery and insult

Quran 49:11 prohibits one group from mocking another and prohibits offensive nicknames.

Parents, orphans and vulnerable people

Parents

Quran 17:23–Quran 17:24 command kindness to parents and forbid even an expression of contempt toward them. Jurists treated undutifulness to parents (uquq al-walidayn) as a major sin.

Property of orphans

Quran 4:10 warns those who consume the property of orphans unjustly. The same act is listed among the destructive sins in 89.

Clothing, adornment and bodily alteration

Main article: Islamic clothing

Modesty

Quran 24:30 instructs believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity. Quran 24:31 instructs believing women to lower their gaze, guard their chastity, not display their adornment (zinah) except what is apparent of it, and to draw their coverings over their chests. Quran 33:33 addresses the wives of Muhammad and tells them not to display themselves as in the former times of ignorance (tabarruj al-jahiliyyah). Quran 33:59 instructs the wives of Muhammad, his daughters and believing women to draw their outer garments around themselves.

Early exegetes disagreed on the phrase "except what is apparent of it" in 24:31. One line, associated with Ibn Abbas, Anas, Sa'id ibn Jubayr, Ata and al-Awza'i, took it to include the face and hands and ordinary items such as kohl and a ring. Another line, associated with Ibn Mas'ud, restricted "what is apparent" to the outer garment. Yusuf al-Qaradawi followed the first reading for the face and hands, but wrote that modern cheek, lip and nail cosmetics used when going out in order to attract men fall outside that exception and are prohibited in that setting.

The precise requirements of covering (awrah) differ by school. Many jurists required women to cover the body except the face and hands in public; others required covering the face as well. There is no single Quranic mandate for a particular garment such as the burqa.

Makeup, perfume and nail polish

Ordinary cosmetics are not named in the Quran. Jurists discuss them under adornment (zinah) and tabarruj.

The basic position in much of the later literature is that adornment is permitted in principle, and that the issue is where and for whom it is shown. Qaradawi treated kohl and a ring as part of the "apparent" adornment allowed by 24:31, and treated heavy modern face, lip and nail cosmetics worn in public to attract non-mahram men as prohibited. The Malaysian Federal Territories Mufti's Department stated that neutral, non-excessive lipstick or powder worn without the intention of tabarruj and without causing fitnah is permissible, while thick makeup worn to attract unrelated men is prohibited. Salafi fatwa sites such as IslamQA treat face cosmetics worn when going out with the face uncovered as a form of prohibited adornment, while permitting their use before mahrams and other women.

A report in , graded hasan by al-Albani, states that a woman who puts on perfume and then passes by people so that they smell her fragrance is described with the term zaniyah. ^[444] reports that a woman who perfumes herself with incense should not attend the night prayer with the congregation. On that basis many jurists prohibit a woman from going out wearing perfume that non-mahram men can smell, while permitting unscented cleanliness products.

Nail polish is a modern product. It is generally classified as adornment. A separate issue is wudu: a widespread contemporary view is that an impermeable layer on the nails prevents water from reaching them, so ablution performed over ordinary nail polish is invalid, following Quran 5:6. Some writers analogise nail coatings to henna and treat ablution as valid; that view is a minority in published fatwas.

Alcohol as an ingredient in cosmetics is a further modern dispute. Many Hanafi fatwas distinguish wine-derived alcohol from synthetic or non-grape alcohol and permit topical use of the latter; other scholars treat all intoxicating alcohol as prohibited in any quantity. International fiqh and medical-ethics discussions have also addressed alcohol in medicines and sanitizers separately from drinking khamr.

Gold and silk for men

A report recorded in ^[1720], classified in that collection as hasan sahih, states that silk and gold were made unlawful for the men of the community and lawful for its women. Classical jurisprudence generally prohibited men from wearing gold jewellery and pure silk clothing while permitting both to women, with some exceptions (for example silk used for medical reasons).

Tattoos and related practices

Reports in ^[5931] and ^[2125] condemn tattooing, requesting tattoos, removing facial hair for beautification in specified ways, and filing the teeth for beautification. The application of these reports to contemporary cosmetic surgery, hair removal and body art is discussed by modern jurists and is not uniform.

Cross-gender imitation

Hadith collections contain reports in which Muhammad condemns men who imitate women and women who imitate men, including ^[2784]. Jurists differed on whether the prohibition concerned clothing, mannerisms, or both, and on how it applies to later social conditions.

Seclusion and women's travel

Classical manuals prohibit khulwah, the seclusion of an adult man and an unrelated adult woman. They also commonly required a woman travelling beyond a defined distance to be accompanied by a mahram. Modern fatwas split: some retain the mahram condition; others permit travel without one when the route is safe and the purpose is lawful, while still requiring hijab and forbidding perfume and public adornment on the journey.

Occupations, images and household items

Encyclopaedia Iranica lists as generally haram any occupation or transaction whose object is itself prohibited, including dealing in wine, prostitution and usury. Qaradawi's manual, the main modern work in the halal wa haram genre, also treats gold and silver utensils, statues, and keeping dogs without a recognised purpose (hunting, herding or guarding) as prohibited on the basis of hadith reports, while recording exemptions and school differences for children's toys, incomplete figures and photographs.

Circumstantial prohibitions

Some acts that are otherwise lawful become prohibited in particular states. Quran 5:95 prohibits hunting land game while a person is in ihram during pilgrimage. Food that is ordinarily lawful may become prohibited if it falls under a specified forbidden category or if another legal bar applies (for example, eating during the fasting hours of Ramadan for one who is obliged to fast).

Major sins and the legal category of haram

The concept of major sins (kaba'ir) overlaps with, but is not identical to, the legal category of haram. A well-known report in 89 lists seven destructive sins (al-sab' al-mubiqat):

1. associating anything with God;
2. magic;
3. killing a person whom God has declared inviolable, except with just cause;
4. consuming the property of an orphan;
5. consuming riba;
6. turning back when the army advances;
7. slandering chaste, unwary believing women.

A parallel report appears in ^[6857]. Other acts are classified as major sins in the Quran, in additional hadith, and in later moral and legal literature. Al-Dhahabi's Kitab al-Kaba'ir compiled a much longer list, often presented in later popular works as "seventy major sins," including abandonment of prayer, zakat, fasting and hajj, disrespect to parents, cutting kinship ties, lying about God and the Messenger, and homosexual intercourse. Ibn Abbas is reported to have said that the major sins are closer to seventy than to seven. The lists are moral compilations; they are not a closed legal code, and not every haram act is classed as a major sin.

Gender-specific rulings

Most prohibitions in Islamic law are stated as applying to men and women alike unless a source establishes a distinction. The following table summarises distinctions commonly drawn in classical jurisprudence.

Gender-specific rulings commonly cited in classical jurisprudence

Matter	Men	Women
Gold adornment	Generally prohibited according to relevant hadith	Generally permitted according to relevant hadith
Pure silk clothing	Generally prohibited according to relevant hadith	Generally permitted according to relevant hadith
Lowering the gaze	Required by Quran 24:30	Required by Quran 24:31
Guarding chastity	Required by Quran 24:30	Required by Quran 24:31
Dress and covering	Subject to Quranic verses and juristic rules on male awrah	Subject to Quranic verses and juristic rules on female awrah; interpretations differ
Plural marriage	Polygyny permitted under conditions in Quran 4:3	Polyandry not permitted in classical law
Interfaith marriage (classical rules)	Marriage to chaste women among the People of the Book generally permitted	Marriage to a non-Muslim man generally not permitted
Makeup and visible adornment in public	Not the subject of a parallel public-adornment ban in the same terms	Restricted or prohibited before non-mahram men under rules on zinah and tabarruj; details differ
Perfume detectable by non-mahram men	No equivalent widely cited ban	Prohibited in reports used by later jurists
Long-distance travel	No mahram requirement	Classical majority required a mahram; some modern scholars accept a safe route without one
Seclusion with an unrelated adult of the opposite sex	Prohibited	Prohibited

The gold and silk distinction is stated in 1720 and parallel reports.

Matters subject to differing interpretations

Some practices are described as haram by certain scholars or schools and disputed by others. Disagreement may concern the authenticity or interpretation of a hadith, the scope of a general Quranic principle, or the classification of a new practice.

Subjects on which well-known differences exist include:

• music and musical instruments;
• masturbation;
• smoking and tobacco;
• certain forms of visual representation and sculpture;
• particular cosmetic procedures;
• contemporary financial instruments and insurance;
• some forms of dress;
• some forms of entertainment;
• particular foods or ingredients whose status depends on transformation (istihalah), contamination, or method of preparation;
• chess and some other games.

Such matters are generally distinguished in jurisprudence from prohibitions for which there is explicit and widely accepted textual evidence.

Necessity and repentance

The Quran recognises necessity in relation to some prohibitions. Quran 2:173 and Quran 5:3 state that a person compelled by necessity to consume otherwise prohibited food is not considered sinful if the person does not desire the prohibited act and does not exceed what is necessary. Later legal theory discussed necessity, hardship (mashaqqa) and public interest (maslaha) as grounds for exception or mitigation.

Islamic scripture also contains numerous references to repentance (tawba) and forgiveness. Quran 39:53 states that God forgives sins for those who turn in repentance. Jurisprudence distinguishes repentance for rights due to God from cases involving the rights of other people, in which restitution may also be required.

See also

• Haram
• Halal
• Ahkam
• Sharia
• Islamic ethics
• Women in Islam
• Hijab
• Shirk (Islam)
• Islam and music

Further reading

• Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (2008). Shari'ah Law: An Introduction. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-565-3.
• Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (2003). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 978-0-946621-81-9. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
• Qaradawi, Yusuf (1994) [1960]. The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam. American Trust Publications. ISBN 978-0-89259-016-2.
• Hallaq, Wael B. "Forbidden". Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Brill.
• "Ḥalāl o Ḥarām". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
• Schacht, Joseph (1966). An Introduction to Islamic Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825473-7.
• Hallaq, Wael B. (1997). A History of Islamic Legal Theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59986-3.
• Reinhart, A. Kevin (1995). Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2289-2.
• Faruki, Kemal (1966). "Al-Ahkam Al-Khamsah: The Five Values". Islamic Studies. 5 (1): 43–98.
• Peters, Rudolph (2005). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79670-5.
• al-Dhahabi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad. The Major Sins (al-Kaba'ir).