Chindians: Difference between revisions

What links here Related changes Page information Get shortened URL
Created by 103.109.110.185
Last edited February 26, 2026
← Older edit
VisualWikitext
UpdateBot (talk | contribs)
Bots
22,126 edits
robot: Update article (please report if you notice any mistake or error in this edit)
cleaned up layout for clarity and updated info after review
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|People of mixed Chinese and Indian ancestry}}
{{Short description|People of mixed Chinese and Indian ancestry}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}{{EngvarB|date=April 2020}}
{{Missing information|the origin and connotations of the term|date=December 2009}}
{{About|people of Chinese and Indian descent|the geopolitical term|Chindia}}
{{About|people of Chinese and Indian descent|the geopolitical term|Chindia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = People of Chinese and Indian origins
| group           = People of Chinese and Indian origins
| popplace = {{hlist|Mainly: [[Singapore]]|[[Malaysia]]}}
| native_name      = Chindians
{{hlist|Also: [[China]] ([[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]])|[[India]]|[[Indonesia]]|[[Philippines]]|[[South Africa]]|[[Fiji]]|[[Mauritius]]|[[Guyana]]|[[Suriname]]|[[Jamaica]]|[[Trinidad and Tobago]]}}
| popplace         = {{hlist|Mainly: [[Singapore]]|[[Malaysia]]}}
| langs     = {{hlist|[[English language|English]]|[[Malay language|Malay]]|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]|[[Hindi]]|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]|[[Urdu]]|[[Caribbean Hindustani]]|[[Fiji Hindi]]|[[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]]|[[Cantonese]]}} Other [[languages of India]] and other [[languages of China]]
{{hlist|Also: [[China]] ([[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]])|[[India]]|[[Thailand]]|[[Indonesia]]|[[Philippines]]|[[South Africa]]|[[Fiji]]|[[Mauritius]]|[[Guyana]]|[[Suriname]]|[[Jamaica]]|[[Trinidad and Tobago]]|[[Martinique]]}}
| rels     = {{hlist|[[Hinduism]]|[[Christianity]]|[[Buddhism]]|[[Islam]]}}
| langs           = {{hlist|[[English language|English]]|[[French language|French]]|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]|[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]|[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]|[[Thai language|Thai]]|[[Malay language|Malay]]|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]|[[Sranan Tongo]]|[[Guyanese Creole]]|[[Jamaican Patois]]|[[Trinidadian Creole]]|[[Hindi]]|[[Urdu]]|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]|[[Antillean Creole|Martinican Creole]]|[[Mauritian Creole]]|[[Caribbean Hindustani]]|[[Fiji Hindi]]|[[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]]|[[Cantonese]]|[[Penang Hokkien]]|[[Singaporean Hokkien]]}}  
| related-c = {{hlist|[[Indian Singaporeans]]|[[Chinese Singaporeans]]|[[Malaysian Indians]]|[[Malaysian Chinese]]|[[Indian Indonesians]]|[[Chinese Indonesians]]|[[Indian Filipino]]s|[[Chinese Filipino]]s|[[Indians in China]]|[[Chinese people in India]]}}
Other [[languages of India]] and other [[languages of China]]
| rels             = {{hlist|[[Hinduism]]|[[Christianity]] ([[Independent Catholicism|Catholicism]], [[Protestantism]])|[[Buddhism]]|[[Taoism]]|[[Confucianism]]|[[Islam]]}}
| related-c       = {{hlist|[[Indian Singaporeans]]|[[Chinese Singaporeans]]|[[Indians in Thailand]]|[[Thai Chinese]]|[[Malaysian Indians]]|[[Malaysian Chinese]]|[[Indian Indonesians]]|[[Chinese Indonesians]]|[[Indian Filipino]]s|[[Chinese Filipino]]s|[[Indians in China]]|[[Chinese people in India]]|[[Sino-Mauritians]]}}
}}
}}
'''Chindian''' ({{lang-zh|c=中印人|p=Zhōngyìnrén|cy=Jūngyanyàn}}; {{lang-ta|சிந்தியன்}}; [[Hindi]]: चीनी भारतीय (Chini Bhartiya)) is an informal term used to refer to a person of mixed [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and [[Indian people|Indian]] ancestry; i.e. from any of the host of ethnic groups native to modern [[List of ethnic groups in China|China]] and [[South Asian ethnic groups|India]]. There are a considerable number of Chindians in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]. In Maritime Southeast Asia, people of Chinese and Indian origin immigrated in large numbers during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="Narayanan" /> There are also a sizeable number living in [[Hong Kong]] and smaller numbers in other countries with large [[overseas Chinese]] and [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]], such as [[Jamaica]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Suriname]] and [[Guyana]] in the [[Caribbean]], as well as in [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]].
A '''Chindian''' ({{langx|hi|चीनी-भारतीय}}; {{lang-zh|c=中印人|p=Zhōngyìnrén|cy=Jūngyanyàn}}; {{langx|ta|சிந்தியன்}}; {{langx|te|చిండియన్స్}}) is an informal term used to refer to a person of mixed ancestry originating from [[India]] and [[China]]. This includes individuals from the various ethnic groups native to modern-day [[List of ethnic groups in China|China]] and [[South Asian ethnic groups|India]].  
 
There are a considerable number of Chindians in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] due to their shared history as part of [[British Malaya]]. People of Chinese and Indian origins had emigrated to [[Southeast Asia]] in large numbers during the 19th and 20th centuries, leading to significant cultural interaction and intermarriage. Sizeable populations also reside in [[Hong Kong]], owing to its history as [[British Hong Kong]], and in other nations with large [[overseas Chinese]] and [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]] communities, such as [[Jamaica]], [[Martinique]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Suriname]], and [[Guyana]] in the [[Caribbean]], as well as more recently in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Mauritius]].<ref name="Narayanan">{{Cite news |last=Sheela Narayanan |date=17 October 2008 |title=Go ahead, call me Chindian |url=http://www.asiaone.com/Just%2BWoman/News/High%2BLife/Story/A1Story20081017-94498.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821122928/http://www.asiaone.com/Just%2BWoman/News/High%2BLife/Story/A1Story20081017-94498.html |archive-date=21 August 2009 |work=[[AsiaOne]]}}</ref>
 
== Etymology ==
The term "Chindian" is a [[Blend word|portmanteau]] for both "[[Chinese people|Chinese]]" and "[[Indian people|Indian]]" people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Babcock |first=Joshua |date=2023 |title=Seeing (or perceiving) difference in multiracial Singapore: Habits of looking in a raciolinguistic image economy |url=https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/aman.13901 |journal=American Anthropologist |language=en |volume=125 |issue=4 |pages=783–796 |doi=10.1111/aman.13901 |issn=1548-1433}}</ref>


==Countries==
==Countries==
Line 17: Line 24:
{{Main|Indians in China}}
{{Main|Indians in China}}


[[Zhang Qian]] (d. 113&nbsp;BC) and [[Sima Qian]] (145-90&nbsp;BC) make likely references to "[[Shendu]] ("Sindhu" in [[Sanskrit]]), and during [[Yunnan]]'s annexation by [[Han Dynasty]] in the first century an Indian "Shendu" community was living there.<ref>Tan Chung (1998). [http://ignca.nic.in/ks_41019.htm ''A Sino-Indian Perspective for India-China Understanding''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070606221357/http://ignca.nic.in/ks_41019.htm|date=2007-06-06}}</ref> During [[Chinese Buddhism|transmission of Buddhism from India to China]] from the first century onwards, many Indian scholars and monks travelled to China, such as [[Batuo]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 464-495&nbsp;AD)—founder of the [[Shaolin Monastery]]—and [[Bodhidharma]]—founder of [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] Buddhism and there was also a large Tamil Indian trader community in [[Quanzhou|Quanzhou City]] and [[Jinjiang district]] who built more than a dozen Hindu temples or shrines, including two grand big temples in Quanzhou city.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krishnan |first=Ananth |date=19 July 2013 |title=Behind China's Hindu temples, a forgotten history |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/behind-chinas-hindu-temples-a-forgotten-history/article4932458.ece |via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> During [[Colonial India|colonial era]], Indians were among the crew of the Portuguese ships trading on the Chinese coast beginning in the sixteenth century<ref>{{Citation |last=Boxer |first=Charles Ralph |title=South China in the sixteenth century: being the narratives of Galeote Pereira, Fr. Gaspar da Cruz, O.P. [and] Fr. Martín de Rada, O.E.S.A. (1550-1575) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImoTAAAAIAAJ |page=37 |year=1953 |series=Issue 106 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society |publisher=Printed for the Hakluyt Society |last2=Pereira |first2=Galeote |last3=Cruz |first3=Gaspar da |last4=Rada |first4=Martín de |author-link=C. R. Boxer}}</ref> and Indians from [[Portuguese India|Portuguese Indian Colonies]] (notably [[Goa]]) settled in [[Macau]] in small numbers.
There are around 45,000–48,000 Indian nationals/expatriates living in mainland China as of 2015.<ref name="estimate2015">{{Cite news |date=12 May 2015 |title=India and China need a push to encourage more people to live across the borde |work=The Economic Times |url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-commentary/india-and-china-need-a-push-to-encourage-more-people-to-live-across-the-border/}}</ref>
 
There are 45-48,000 Indian nationals/expatriates living in mainland China as of 2015,<ref name="estimate2015">{{Cite news |date=12 May 2015 |title=India and China need a push to encourage more people to live across the borde |work=The Economic Times |url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-commentary/india-and-china-need-a-push-to-encourage-more-people-to-live-across-the-border/}}</ref> most of whom are students, traders and professionals employed with Indian IT companies and banks. There are three Indian community associations in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India Times - India is hot in China |url=http://www.indiatimes.com/India-is-hot-in-China/photostory/6067975.cms}}</ref>


====Hong Kong====
====Hong Kong====
[[South Asians in Hong Kong|Indians have been living in Hong Kong]] long before the [[partition of India]] into the nations of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. They migrated to [[Hong Kong]] as traders, police officers and army officers during colonial rule.
25,000 of the [[Islam in Hong Kong|Muslims in Hong Kong]] trace their roots back to what is now [[Pakistan]]. Around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, Muslims of mixed Chinese ([[Tanka people|Tanka]]) and Indian/Pakistani ancestry, descended from early Indian/Pakistani male immigrants who took local Chinese wives and brought their children up as Muslims and many remained there after the handover from Britain to China in 1997 as part of the [[Hong Kong|SAR]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Weiss |first=Anita M. |title=South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity |date=July 1991 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=417–53 |postscript=. |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00013895|s2cid=145350669 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first1=Ina Baghdiantz |last1=McCabe |first2=Gelina |last2=Harlaftis |first3=Iōanna Pepelasē |last3=Minoglou |title=Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History |page=256 |year=2005 |publisher=[[Berg Publishers]] |isbn=1-85973-880-X}}</ref> These "local Indians" were not completely accepted by either the Chinese or Indian communities.<ref>{{Citation |last=Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember |first=Ian A. Skoggard |title=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World |page=511 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=0-306-48321-1}}</ref>
 
2,700 Indian troops in Hong Kong arrived with [[British occupation]] on 26 January 1841,<ref>Kwok S. T., Narain, K. (2003).''Co-Prosperity in Cross-Culturalism: Indians in Hong Kong''.P.18</ref> who later played an important role in setting up of the [[University of Hong Kong]] (HKU)<ref>Kwok S. T., Narain, K. (2003).''Co-Prosperity in Cross-Culturalism: Indians in Hong Kong''.P.32</ref> and the [[Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation]] (HSBC).<ref>Kwok S. T., Narain, K. (2003).''Co-Prosperity in Cross-Culturalism: Indians in Hong Kong''.P.22</ref> 25,000 of the [[Islam in Hong Kong|Muslims in Hong Kong]] trace their roots back to what is now Pakistan. Around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, Muslims of mixed Chinese ([[Tanka people|Tanka]]) and Indian/Pakistani ancestry, descended from early Indian/Pakistani male immigrants who took local Chinese wives and brought their children up as Muslims.<ref>{{Citation |last=Weiss |first=Anita M. |title=South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity |date=July 1991 |work=Modern Asian Studies |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=417–53 |postscript=. |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00013895}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Ina Baghdiantz McCabe |first=Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou |title=Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History |page=256 |year=2005 |publisher=[[Berg Publishers]] |isbn=1-85973-880-X}}</ref> These "local Indians" were not completely accepted by either the Chinese or Indian communities.<ref>{{Citation |last=Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember |first=Ian A. Skoggard |title=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World |page=511 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=0-306-48321-1}}</ref>


===India===
===India===
{{See also|Chinese people in India#Chinese Indians|label 1 = Chinese Indians}}
{{See also|Chinese people in India#Chinese Indians|label 1 = Chinese Indians}}
There are [[Chinese people in India#Chinese Indians|tiny communities of Chinese who migrated to India]] during the [[British Raj]] and became naturalised citizens of India and there are 189,000 estimated total ethnic Chinese of Chindian or full Chinese ancestry.<ref name="afp">{{Cite web |date=4 January 2011 |title=:: OVERSEAS COMPATRIOT AFFAIRS COMMISSION, R.O.C. :: |url=http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104195124/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |archive-date=4 January 2011}}</ref> The community living in [[Chinatown, Kolkata|Kolkata]] numbers around 4,000 and 400 families in [[Chinatown, Mumbai|Mumbai]], where there are Chinatowns.<ref name=afp /><ref name="declining">{{Cite news |last=Krishnan |first=Murali |date=17 October 2013 |title=India's dwindling Chinatown |publisher=Deutsche Welle |url=http://www.dw.de/indias-dwindling-chinatown/a-17165098}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Someshwar |first=Savera R |date=2007-01-23 |title=Happy Indian Chinese New Year |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jan/23speca.htm |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref><ref name="Mandarin">{{Cite news |date=3 November 2015 |title=Mumbai's 3rd generation Chinese eye global jobs, learn Mandarin |agency=TOI |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Mumbais-3rd-generation-Chinese-eye-global-jobs-learn-Mandarin/articleshow/49636835.cms}}</ref> Chinese Indians also contributed to the development of fusion [[Indian Chinese cuisine]] (Chindian cuisine),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sankar |first=Amal |date=December 2017 |title=Creation of Indian–Chinese cuisine: Chinese food in an Indian city |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=268–273 |doi=10.1016/j.jef.2017.10.002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which is now an integral part of the Indian culinary scene.<ref name="Kapoor">{{Cite book |last=Sanjeev Kapoor |title=Chinese Cooking ( Non-Veg) |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7991-310-9 |page=7}}</ref>
There are [[Chinese people in India#Chinese Indians|tiny communities of Chinese who migrated to India]] during the [[British Raj]] and became naturalised citizens of India and there are 189,000 estimated total ethnic Chinese of Chindian or full Chinese ancestry.<ref name="afp">{{Cite web |date=4 January 2011 |title= Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. |url=http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104195124/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |archive-date=4 January 2011}}</ref> The community living in [[Chinatown, Kolkata|Kolkata]] numbers around 4,000 and 400 families in [[Chinatown, Mumbai|Mumbai]], where there are Chinatowns.<ref name=afp /><ref name="declining">{{Cite news |last=Krishnan |first=Murali |date=17 October 2013 |title=India's dwindling Chinatown |publisher=Deutsche Welle |url=http://www.dw.de/indias-dwindling-chinatown/a-17165098}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Someshwar |first=Savera R |date=2007-01-23 |title=Happy Indian Chinese New Year |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jan/23speca.htm |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref><ref name="Mandarin">{{Cite news |date=3 November 2015 |title=Mumbai's 3rd generation Chinese eye global jobs, learn Mandarin |agency=TOI |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Mumbais-3rd-generation-Chinese-eye-global-jobs-learn-Mandarin/articleshow/49636835.cms}}</ref> Chinese Indians also contributed to the development of fusion [[Indian Chinese cuisine]] (Chindian cuisine),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sankar |first=Amal |date=December 2017 |title=Creation of Indian–Chinese cuisine: Chinese food in an Indian city |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=268–273 |doi=10.1016/j.jef.2017.10.002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which is now an integral part of the Indian culinary scene.<ref name="Kapoor">{{Cite book |last=Sanjeev Kapoor |title=Chinese Cooking (Non-Veg) |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7991-310-9 |page=7}}</ref>


There are an estimated 5,000–7,000 Chinese expatriates living in India as of 2015, having doubled in number in recent years.<ref name="expatriates">{{Cite news |date=28 August 2015 |title=Why India remains a difficult terrain for 7,000 Chinese expatriates living in the country |work=The Economic Times |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/why-india-remains-a-difficult-terrain-for-7000-chinese-expatriates-living-in-the-country/articleshow/48703439.cms}}</ref> Most work on 2- to 3-year contracts for the growing number of Chinese brands and companies doing business in India.<ref name=expatriates/>
There are an estimated 5,000–7,000 Chinese expatriates living in India as of 2015, having doubled in number in recent years.<ref name="expatriates">{{Cite news |date=28 August 2015 |title=Why India remains a difficult terrain for 7,000 Chinese expatriates living in the country |work=The Economic Times |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/why-india-remains-a-difficult-terrain-for-7000-chinese-expatriates-living-in-the-country/articleshow/48703439.cms}}</ref> Most work on 2 to 3 year contracts for the growing number of Chinese brands and companies doing business in India.<ref name=expatriates/>


====British India====
====British India====


During the [[British Raj]], some Chinese "convicts" deported from the [[Straits Settlements]] were sent to be jailed in [[Madras]] in India. The "Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1" reported an incident where the Chinese convicts escaped and killed the police sent to apprehend them: "Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On 28 July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party and at length, on 15 September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghát, half way down the Sispára ghát path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madras (India : Presidency), Madras (India : State) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3wat-7xgdcC&pg=PA263 |title=Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1 |publisher=Printed by the Superintendent, Government Press |year=1908 |location=MADRAS |page=263 |quote=Mr. Chisholm was the architect of the new buildings. The CHAP. X. boys' part is designed in the Italian Gothic style, and is a two- Educational storeyed construction forming three sides of a quadrangle Institutions. a feature of which is the campanile, 130 feet in height. The girls were at first placed in the building intended for the hospital. * Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On 28 July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession, and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party and at length, on 15 September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghat, half way down the Sisp^ra'gha't path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons. In 1884 the benefits of the Lawrence Asylum were extended by the admission to it of the orphan children of Volunteers who had served in the Presidency for seven years and upwards, it being however expressly provided that children of British soldiers were not to be superseded or excluded by this concession. In 1899 the standard of instruction in the Asylum was raised to the upper secondary grade. In 1901 the rules of the institution, which had been twice altered since 1864 to meet the changes which had occurred, were again revised and considerably modified. They are printed in full in the annual reports. In 1903 owing to the South Indian Railway requiring for its new terminus at Egmore the buildings then occupied by the Civil Orphan Asylums of Madras, Government suggested that these should be moved to the premises on the Poonamallee Road in which the Military Female Orphan Asylum was established and that the girls in the latter, who numbered about 100, should be transferred to the Lawrsnce Asylum. The transfer was}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=W. Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luXS-8vTrJQC&pg=PA263 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1994 |isbn=81-206-0546-2 |edition=reprint |volume=1 of Madras district gazetteers |page=263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnURimXbB98C&pg=PA263 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1984 |page=26}}</ref> Other Chinese convicts in Madras who were released from jail then settled in the [[Nilgiri mountains]] near [[Naduvattam]] and married [[Tamils|Tamil]] [[Paraiyan]] women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by [[Edgar Thurston]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkwLAAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 39 |publisher=A. K. Bose |year=1959 |editor-last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |page=309 |quote=TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WRTAAAAYAAJ |title=Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Government press |year=1909 |page=99 |quote=99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight}} [http://itex.coastal.cheswick.com/report/pg/42992/src/iPad/large/l/ipad-ll.pdf Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O4VLY1KcltcC&pg=PA218 |title=The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1107600683 |edition=reissue |page=218}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=RADHAKRISHNAN |first=D. |date=19 April 2014 |title=Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism/article5926889.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419092818/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism/article5926889.ece |archive-date=19 April 2014}} [http://www.samachar.com/Unravelling-Chinese-link-can-boost-Nilgiris-tourism-oetcKTbeaeb.html Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.bulletin247.com/english-news/show/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140518114441/http://www.bulletin247.com/english-news/show/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=18 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=A |date=16 May 2012 |title=Chinese in Madras |work=The New Indian Express |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article276543.ece?service=print}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=A |date=16 May 2012 |title=Quinine factory and Malay-Chinese workers |work=The New Indian Express |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article181569.ece?service=print}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |year=2013 |title=Chinese connection to the Nilgiris to help promote tourism potential |work=travel News Digest |url=http://www.travelnewsdigest.in/?p=14601}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=W. Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWE3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA184 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Logos Press |year=1908 |isbn=9780865903777 |edition=reprint |volume=1 of Madras District Gazetteers |page=184}} [https://archive.org/stream/NilgirisFrancis/Untitled#page/n189/mode/2up Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Madras (India : State) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3wat-7xgdcC&pg=PA184 |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |year=1908 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=W. Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnURimXbB98C&pg=PA184 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1908 |page=184}}</ref> Paraiyan is also anglicised as "pariah".
During the [[British Raj]], some Chinese "convicts"{{Clarify|reason=Why is this in quotes?|date=September 2024}} deported from the [[Straits Settlements]] were sent to be jailed in [[Madras]] in India. The "Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1" reported an incident where the Chinese convicts escaped and killed the police sent to apprehend them: "Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On 28 July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party and at length, on 15 September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghát, half way down the Sispára ghát path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madras (India : Presidency), Madras (India : State) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3wat-7xgdcC&pg=PA263 |title=Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1 |publisher=Printed by the Superintendent, Government Press |year=1908 |location=MADRAS |page=263 |quote=Mr. Chisholm was the architect of the new buildings. The CHAP. X. boys' part is designed in the Italian Gothic style, and is a two- Educational storeyed construction forming three sides of a quadrangle Institutions. a feature of which is the campanile, 130 feet in height. The girls were at first placed in the building intended for the hospital. * Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On 28 July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession, and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party and at length, on 15 September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghat, half way down the Sisp^ra'gha't path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons. In 1884 the benefits of the Lawrence Asylum were extended by the admission to it of the orphan children of Volunteers who had served in the Presidency for seven years and upwards, it being however expressly provided that children of British soldiers were not to be superseded or excluded by this concession. In 1899 the standard of instruction in the Asylum was raised to the upper secondary grade. In 1901 the rules of the institution, which had been twice altered since 1864 to meet the changes which had occurred, were again revised and considerably modified. They are printed in full in the annual reports. In 1903 owing to the South Indian Railway requiring for its new terminus at Egmore the buildings then occupied by the Civil Orphan Asylums of Madras, Government suggested that these should be moved to the premises on the Poonamallee Road in which the Military Female Orphan Asylum was established and that the girls in the latter, who numbered about 100, should be transferred to the Lawrsnce Asylum. The transfer was}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=W. Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luXS-8vTrJQC&pg=PA263 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1994 |isbn=81-206-0546-2 |edition=reprint |volume=1 of Madras district gazetteers |page=263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnURimXbB98C&pg=PA263 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1984 |page=26}}</ref> Other Chinese convicts in Madras who were released from jail then settled in the [[Nilgiri mountains]] near [[Naduvattam]] and married [[Tamils|Tamil]] [[Paraiyan]] women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by [[Edgar Thurston]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkwLAAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 39 |publisher=A. K. Bose |year=1959 |editor-last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |page=309 |quote=TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WRTAAAAYAAJ |title=Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Government press |year=1909 |page=99 |quote=99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight }} [http://itex.coastal.cheswick.com/report/pg/42992/src/iPad/large/l/ipad-ll.pdf Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518185926/http://itex.coastal.cheswick.com/report/pg/42992/src/iPad/large/l/ipad-ll.pdf |date=18 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O4VLY1KcltcC&pg=PA218 |title=The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1107600683 |edition=reissue |page=218}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=RADHAKRISHNAN |first=D. |date=19 April 2014 |title=Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism/article5926889.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419092818/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism/article5926889.ece |archive-date=19 April 2014}} [http://www.samachar.com/Unravelling-Chinese-link-can-boost-Nilgiris-tourism-oetcKTbeaeb.html Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism |url=http://www.bulletin247.com/english-news/show/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140518114441/http://www.bulletin247.com/english-news/show/unravelling-chinese-link-can-boost-nilgiris-tourism |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=18 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=A |date=16 May 2012 |title=Chinese in Madras |work=The New Indian Express |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article276543.ece?service=print|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518141112/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article276543.ece?service=print|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=A |date=16 May 2012 |title=Quinine factory and Malay-Chinese workers |work=The New Indian Express |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article181569.ece?service=print|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518140859/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article181569.ece?service=print|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |year=2013 |title=Chinese connection to the Nilgiris to help promote tourism potential |work=travel News Digest |url=http://www.travelnewsdigest.in/?p=14601}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=W. Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWE3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA184 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Logos Press |year=1908 |edition=reprint |volume=1 of Madras District Gazetteers |page=184}} [https://archive.org/stream/NilgirisFrancis/Untitled#page/n189/mode/2up Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Madras (India : State) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3wat-7xgdcC&pg=PA184 |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |year=1908 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=W. Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnURimXbB98C&pg=PA184 |title=The Nilgiris |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1908 |page=184}}</ref> Paraiyan is also anglicised as "pariah".


Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvgSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA31 |title=Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3 |publisher=Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press |year=1897 |location=MADRAS |page=31 |quote=ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ca6wmDzhMDoC&pg=PA31 |title=Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2004 |isbn=81-206-1857-2 |volume=2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)) |page=31}}</ref> Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvgSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Bulletin ..., Volumes 2-3 |publisher=Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press |year=1897 |location=MADRAS |page=32 |quote=The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78-5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child (68"1 ; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78-7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ca6wmDzhMDoC&pg=PA32 |title=Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba - Summary of Results |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2004 |isbn=81-206-1857-2 |volume=2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)) |page=32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=81-206-0288-9 |edition=illustrated |page=99 |quote=The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to "cut him tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan,}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=81-206-0288-9 |edition=illustrated |page=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-206-0288-5 |edition=illustrated |page=99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India), Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5g1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA31 |title=Note on tours along the Malabar coast |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |year=1897 |volume=2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India) |page=31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PIcQcIM7UQoC&pg=RA1-PA1 |title=Bulletin, Volumes 1-2 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |year=1894 |page=31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://archive.org/stream/bulletin2189799gove#page/30/mode/2up |title=Bulletin |publisher=Madras : Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press |year=1894 |volume=v. 2 1897-99 |page=31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.goethals.in/goethalnews/2001Oct-DecGNews.htm |title=Madras Government Museum Bulletin |year=1897 |volume=II |location=Madras |page=31 |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022820/http://www.goethals.in/goethalnews/2001Oct-DecGNews.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead |issue=1}}</ref> Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ec4AAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4 |publisher=A.K. Bose |year=1954 |page=273 |quote=Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahadeb Prasad Basu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpQzAAAAIAAJ |title=An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population |publisher=Punthi Pustak |year=1990 |isbn=9788185094335 |page=84 |quote=Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iY1RAQAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volumes 34-35 |publisher=A. K. Bose |year=1954 |page=272 |quote=(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ec4AAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4 |publisher=A.K. Bose |year=1954 |page=272 |quote=(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=81-206-0288-9 |edition=illustrated |page=100 |quote=the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1 ; 80-1 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8).}}</ref> A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkwLAAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 39 |publisher=A. K. Bose |year=1959 |editor-last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |page=309 |quote=d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* ( Received on 21 September 1959 ) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan}}</ref>
Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvgSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA31 |title=Bulletin ..., Volumes 2–3 |publisher=Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press |year=1897 |location=MADRAS |page=31 |quote=ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ca6wmDzhMDoC&pg=PA31 |title=Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2004 |isbn=81-206-1857-2 |volume=2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)) |page=31}}</ref> Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvgSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Bulletin ..., Volumes 2–3 |publisher=Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press |year=1897 |location=MADRAS |page=32 |quote=The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78–5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child (68"1; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78–7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ca6wmDzhMDoC&pg=PA32 |title=Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2004 |isbn=81-206-1857-2 |volume=2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)) |page=32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=81-206-0288-9 |edition=illustrated |page=99 |quote=The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to "cut him tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan,}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=81-206-0288-9 |edition=illustrated |page=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-206-0288-5 |edition=illustrated |page=99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India)|author2=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5g1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA31 |title=Note on tours along the Malabar coast |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |year=1897 |volume=2–3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India) |page=31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PIcQcIM7UQoC&pg=RA1-PA1 |title=Bulletin, Volumes 1–2 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press |year=1894 |page=31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Museum (Madras, India) |url=https://archive.org/stream/bulletin2189799gove#page/30/mode/2up |title=Bulletin |publisher=Madras : Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press |year=1894 |volume=v. 2 1897–99 |page=31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.goethals.in/goethalnews/2001Oct-DecGNews.htm |title=Madras Government Museum Bulletin |year=1897 |volume=II |location=Madras |page=31 |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022820/http://www.goethals.in/goethalnews/2001Oct-DecGNews.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead |issue=1}}</ref> Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ec4AAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4 |publisher=A.K. Bose |year=1954 |page=273 |quote=Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahadeb Prasad Basu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpQzAAAAIAAJ |title=An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population |publisher=Punthi Pustak |year=1990 |isbn=9788185094335 |page=84 |quote=Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iY1RAQAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volumes 34–35 |publisher=A. K. Bose |year=1954 |page=272 |quote=(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ec4AAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4 |publisher=A.K. Bose |year=1954 |page=272 |quote=(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edgar Thurston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQpuAAAAMAAJ |title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |last2=Rangachari |first2=K. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1987 |isbn=81-206-0288-9 |edition=illustrated |page=100 |quote=the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1; 80-1; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8).}}</ref> A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkwLAAAAIAAJ |title=Man in India, Volume 39 |publisher=A. K. Bose |year=1959 |editor-last=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) |page=309 |quote=d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan}}</ref>


According to Alabaster there were lard manufacturers and shoemakers in addition to carpenters. Running tanneries and working with [[leather]] was traditionally not considered a respectable profession among [[caste system|upper-caste]] [[Hindus]] and work was relegated to lower caste ''muchis'' and ''[[chamar]]s''. There was a high demand, however, for high quality leather goods in [[British Raj|colonial India]], one that the Chinese were able to fulfill. Alabaster also mentions licensed [[opium den]]s run by native Chinese and a ''Cheena Bazaar'' where contraband was readily available. Opium, however, was not illegal until after India's Independence from Great Britain in 1947. Immigration continued unabated through the turn of the century and during [[World War I]] partly due to political upheavals in China such as the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. Around the time of the First World War, the first Chinese-owned tanneries sprang up.<ref name="Banglapedia">{{Cite book |last=Haraprasad |first=Ray |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |year=2012 |editor-last=Islam |editor-first=Sirajul |editor-link=Sirajul Islam |edition=Second |chapter=Chinese, The |editor-last2=Jamal |editor-first2=Ahmed A. |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Chinese,_The}}</ref>
According to Alabaster there were lard manufacturers and shoemakers in addition to carpenters. Running tanneries and working with [[leather]] was traditionally not considered a respectable profession among caste [[Hindus]] and work was relegated to lower caste ''muchis'' and ''[[chamar]]s''. There was a high demand, however, for high quality leather goods in [[British Raj|colonial India]], one that the Chinese were able to fulfill. Alabaster also mentions licensed [[opium den]]s run by native Chinese and a ''Cheena Bazaar'' where contraband was readily available. Opium, however, was not illegal until after India's Independence from Great Britain in 1947. Immigration continued unabated through the turn of the century and during [[World War I]] partly due to political upheavals in China such as the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. Around the time of the First World War, the first Chinese-owned tanneries sprang up.<ref name="Banglapedia">{{Cite book |last=Haraprasad |first=Ray |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |year=2012 |editor-last=Islam |editor-first=Sirajul |editor-link=Sirajul Islam |edition=Second |chapter=Chinese, The |editor-last2=Jamal |editor-first2=Ahmed A. |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Chinese,_The}}</ref>


In [[Assam]], local Assamese women married Chinese migrants during British colonial times. It later became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, as the majority of these Chinese in Assam were mixed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CHOWDHURY |first=RITA |date=18 November 2012 |title=The Assamese Chinese story |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-assamese-chinese-story/article4106422.ece}}</ref>
In [[Assam]], local Assamese women married Chinese migrants during British colonial times. It later became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, as the majority of these Chinese in Assam were mixed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CHOWDHURY |first=RITA |date=18 November 2012 |title=The Assamese Chinese story |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-assamese-chinese-story/article4106422.ece}}</ref>


===Singapore===
===Singapore===
In Singapore, the majority of interracial marriages occur between Chinese women and Indian men. The [[government of Singapore]] classifies them as their father's ethnicity. According to government statistics, 2.4% of Singapore's population are [[multiracial people|multiracial]], mostly Chindians. The highest number of interethnic marriages was in 2007, when 16.4% of the 20,000 marriages in Singapore were interethnic, again mostly between Chinese and Indians.<ref name="Narayanan">{{Cite news |last=Sheela Narayanan |date=17 October 2008 |title=Go ahead, call me Chindian |work=[[AsiaOne]] |url=http://www.asiaone.com/Just%2BWoman/News/High%2BLife/Story/A1Story20081017-94498.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821122928/http://www.asiaone.com/Just%2BWoman/News/High%2BLife/Story/A1Story20081017-94498.html |archive-date=21 August 2009}}</ref> Singapore only began to allow mixed-race persons to register two racial classifications on their [[identity cards]] in 2010. Parents may choose which of the two is listed first.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hoe |first=Yeen Nie |title=Singaporeans of mixed race allowed to 'double barrel' race in IC |date=12 January 2010 |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/1030142/1/.html |publisher=Channel NewsAsia}}</ref> More than two races may not be listed even if the person has several different ethnicities in their ancestry. Like in Malaysia, most Chindians in Singapore are offspring of interracial relationships between Indian males and Chinese females.<ref name="daniels" />
{{See also|Demographics of Singapore}}
The [[government of Singapore]] classifies individuals based on their father's ethnicity. Hence, a Chindian with an Indian father is recorded simply as "Indian" in censuses and demographics, while one with a Chinese father is recorded as "Chinese." Singapore only began allowing mixed-race persons to register two racial classifications (e.g. Indian–Chinese) on their [[National Registration Identity Card|identity cards]] in 2010. Parents may choose the order in which these races are listed, with the first being considered the individual's "main" race. Regardless of the complexity of a person's ancestry, no more than two races may be officially listed.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hoe |first=Yeen Nie |title=Singaporeans of mixed race allowed to 'double barrel' race in IC |date=12 January 2010 |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/1030142/1/.html |publisher=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=10 June 2010 |archive-date=6 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206100917/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/1030142/1/.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to Singapore's 2017 marriage statistics, Indian grooms marrying Chinese brides accounted for 5% of all inter-ethnic marriages.<ref>{{cite web |last=Tan |first=Theresa |date=11 July 2018 |title=Love is colour blind – interracial marriages in Singapore on the rise |url=https://www.herworld.com/life/weddings/real-weddings/love-colour-blind-interracial-marriages-singapore-rise |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251014170403/https://www.herworld.com/life/weddings/real-weddings/love-colour-blind-interracial-marriages-singapore-rise |archive-date=14 October 2025 |access-date=14 October 2025 |website=Her World |publisher=[[The Straits Times]]}}</ref>


===Malaysia===
===Malaysia===
In Malaysia, the majority of [[interracial marriage]]s occur between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian". The [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian government]], however, considers them to be an unclassified ethnicity, using the father's ethnicity as the informal term. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian male and Chinese female, the majority of Chindian offspring in Malaysia are usually classified as "[[Malaysian Indians|Malaysian Indian]]" by the Malaysian government.<ref name="daniels">{{Citation |last=Daniels |first=Timothy P. |title=Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia |page=189 |year=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-94971-8}}</ref>
{{See also|Demographics of Malaysia}}
In Malaysia, the offspring of such marriages are also informally known as "Chindians." However, the [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian government]] follows a similar protocol to Singapore, generally classifying individuals according to their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages involve an Indian male and a Chinese female, most Chindians in Malaysia are officially categorised simply as [[Malaysian Indians|Indians]] by the state in censuses and demographics.<ref name="daniels">{{Citation |last=Daniels |first=Timothy P. |title=Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia |page=189 |year=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-94971-8}}</ref>


===Guyana===
===Guyana===
In Guyana, Chinese men married Indian women due to the lack of Chinese women in the early days of settlement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian L. Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cx_9-X_-smoC&pg=PA272 |title=Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838-1900 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |year=1995 |isbn=077351354X |edition=illustrated |volume=22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history |pages=272–273 |issn=0846-8869}}</ref> [[Creole peoples#Caribbean|Creole]] sexual relationships and marriages with Chinese and Indians were rare,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian L. Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35u9AAAAIAAJ |title=Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838-1891 |publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=0677219806 |edition=illustrated |volume=4 of Caribbean studies |page=181 |issn=0275-5793}}</ref> however it has become more common for Indian women and Chinese men to establish sexual relations with each other and some Chinese men took their Indian wives back with them to China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian L. Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35u9AAAAIAAJ |title=Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838-1891 |publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=0677219806 |edition=illustrated |volume=4 of Caribbean studies |page=182 |issn=0275-5793}}</ref> Indian women and children were brought alongside Indian men as [[coolies]] while Chinese men made up 99% of Chinese coolies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lisa Yun |url=https://archive.org/details/cooliespeakschin0000yunl |title=The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves in Cuba |publisher=Temple University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1592135837 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cooliespeakschin0000yunl/page/8 8] |quote=indian coolie woman chinese men. |url-access=registration}}</ref>
In Guyana, Chinese men married Indian women due to the lack of Chinese women in the early days of settlement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian L. Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cx_9-X_-smoC&pg=PA272 |title=Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |year=1995 |isbn=077351354X |edition=illustrated |volume=22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history |pages=272–273 |issn=0846-8869}}</ref> [[Creole peoples#Caribbean|Creole]] relationships and unions between Chinese and Indians were rare in the beginning,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian L. Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35u9AAAAIAAJ |title=Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891 |publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=0677219806 |edition=illustrated |volume=4 of Caribbean studies |page=181 |issn=0275-5793}}</ref> though it became less so later on as some Chinese men established relationships and intermarried with Indian women due to the scarcity of Chinese women. There were selective instances where Chinese men took their Indian wives back with them to China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brian L. Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35u9AAAAIAAJ |title=Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891 |publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=0677219806 |edition=illustrated |volume=4 of Caribbean studies |page=182 |issn=0275-5793}}</ref> Indian women and children were brought alongside Indian men as [[coolies]] while Chinese men made up 99% of Chinese coolies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lisa Yun |url=https://archive.org/details/cooliespeakschin0000yunl |title=The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves in Cuba |publisher=Temple University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1592135837 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cooliespeakschin0000yunl/page/8 8] |quote=indian coolie woman chinese men. |url-access=registration}}</ref>
 
There are few accounts of unions and marriages between the Chinese and the Indians in Guyana. An account of the era told by women in British Guiana is of a single Chinese man who was allowed to temporarily borrow a Hindu Indian woman by her Indian husband who was his friend, so the Chinese man could sire a child with her, after a son was born to her the Chinese man kept the boy while she was returned to her Indian husband, the boy was named William Adrian Lee.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kirkpatrick |first=Margery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yVdLAAAAYAAJ |title=From the Middle Kingdom to the New World: Aspects of the Chinese Experience in Migration to British Guiana |date=1993 |publisher=M. Kirkpatrick |isbn=978-976-8136-27-5 |language=en}}</ref> An Indian woman named Mary See married a Chinese man surnamed Wu in Goedverwagting and founded their own family after he learned how to process sugar cane.<ref name=":0" />
 
The contrast with the female to male ratio among Indian and Chinese immigrants has been compared by historians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walton Look Lai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJCxAAAAIAAJ |title=Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0801844657 |edition=illustrated |series=Johns Hopkins studies in Atlantic history and culture |page=46}}</ref>
 
In Guyana, while marriages between Indian women and black African men is socially shameful to Indians, Chinese-Indian marriages are considered acceptable as reported by Joseph Nevadomsky in 1983.<ref>{{cite book|author=Preethy Sarah Samuel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5j25gvLg5HUC&q=guyana+chinese+marry+indian+women&pg=PA38|title=Cultural Continuity Or Assimilation in the Familial Domain of the Indo-Guyanese|others=Wayne State University. Sociology|year=2000|isbn=978-0-549-38762-6|edition=illustrated|page=38|access-date=1 June 2006}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> "Chiney-dougla" is the Indian Guyanese term for mixed Chinese-Indian children.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8JQAQAAIAAJ&q=If+a+child+is+from+Indian-Chinese+parentage,+%28s%29he+may+be+called+%27chiney-dougla. |title=JCAS Symposium Series, Issue 13 |publisher=Japan Center for Area Studies, National Museum of Ethnology |author1=Kokuritsu Minzokugaku Hakubutsukan |author2=Chiiki Kenkyū Kikaku Kōryū Sentā |year=2002 |edition=illustrated |page=209 |access-date=1 June 2006}} [https://www.academia.edu/3850752 Alt URL]</ref> Some Indian women in Guyana practiced polyandry within their community due to the extreme shortage of women compared to men.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gaiutra Bahadur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYBQAQAAQBAJ&q=Guiana+shortage+women+Indian+loaned+his+wife+to+the+Chinese+man.&pg=PA119 |title=Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-226-04338-8 |page=119 |access-date=1 June 2006}}</ref>
 
In British Guiana, the Chinese did not maintain their distinctive physical features due to the high rate of Chinese men marrying people other ethnicities like Indian women.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iC5xAAAAMAAJ&q=particularly+married+most+include|title=The Chinese Diaspora: Selected Essays, Volume 2|publisher=Times Academic Press|year=1998|isbn=978-981-210-093-1|editor=L. Liang-chi Wang|edition=illustrated|volume=2 of The Chinese Diaspora|page=108|access-date=1 June 2006|editor2=Gungwu Wang}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnAsAAAAYAAJ&q=Because+almost+all+of+the+Chinese+indentured+immigrants+were+men,+they+tended+to+intermarry+with+both+East+Indians+and+Africans,+and+thus+the+Chinese+of+Guyana+did+not+remain+as+physically+distinct+as+other+groups.+Like+the+Portuguese,+the+...|title=Guyana and Belize: Country Studies|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|others=Library of Congress. Federal Research Division|journal=Belarus and Moldova: Country Studies|year=1993|isbn=978-0-8444-0778-4|editor=Tim Merrill|edition=2|volume=550|page=42|issn=1057-5294|access-date=1 June 2006|issue=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Jenny Pettit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1Jr5Lymk_EC&q=many+Chinese+men+taken+to+Guyana+those+who+remained+tended+to+marry+East+Indians&pg=PA48|title=Contemporary Issues in South America|author2=Caroline Starbird|publisher=University of Denver, CTIR|year=2000|isbn=978-0-943804-90-3|page=48|access-date=1 June 2006}}</ref> The severe imbalance with Indian men outnumbering Indian women led some women to take advantage of the situation to squeeze favors from men and leave their partners for other men,<ref>{{cite web|title=How much was immigrant culture affected by the realities of life in Guyana and the norms of other racial groups present in Guyana between 1838 and 1905?|url=http://flax.nzdl.org/greenstone3/flax;jsessionid=052401C6323F0CF2209B8A03DDD5FA55?a=d&c=BAWEAH&d=D2190&dt=simple&p.a=b&p.s=ClassifierBrowse|website=flax|publisher=British Academic Written English (Arts and Humanities)}}</ref> one infamous example was a pretty, light skinned, Christian Indian woman named Mary Ilandun with ancestral origins from [[Madras]], born in 1846, who had relations with Indian, black, and Chinese men as she married them in succession and ran off with their money to her next paramour, doing this from 1868 to 1884.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Brian L. Moore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cx_9-X_-smoC&q=Mary+Ilandun+men+purpose&pg=PA171|title=Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900|journal = Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|year=1995|isbn=978-0-7735-1354-9|edition=illustrated|volume=22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history|pages=169–171|issn=0846-8869|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> Indian men used force to bring Indian women back in line from this kind of behavior, such as infamous "wife murders".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9soAQAAMAAJ&q=mary+ilandun|title=Guyana Historical Journal, Volumes 1–5|publisher=University of Guyana, Department of History|others=University of Guyana. History Society, University of Guyana. Department of History|year=1989|page=9|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> The most severe lack of women in all the peoples of British Guiana was with the Chinese and this led Europeans to believe that Chinese did not engage in wife murders while wife murders was something innate to Indian men. Chinese women were viewed as more chaste than their Indian counterparts.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gaiutra Bahadur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYBQAQAAQBAJ&q=chinese+men+married+indian+women+trinidad&pg=PA116|title=Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-04338-8|page=116|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> Chinese women were not indentured and since they did not need to work, they avoided prospective men seeking relationships, while the character of Indian women was disparaged as immoral and their alleged sexual immorality was blamed for their deaths in the "wife murders" by Indian men.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gaiutra Bahadur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYBQAQAAQBAJ&q=walton+look+lie+carribean+chinese+indian+women&pg=PA117|title=Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-04338-8|pages=117–118|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> The sex ratio of Indian men to Indian women was 100:63 while the sex ratio of Chinese men to Chinese women was 100:43 in British Guiana in 1891.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gaiutra Bahadur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYBQAQAAQBAJ&q=indian+coolie+woman+chinese+men&pg=PA234|title=Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-04338-8|page=234|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>
 
In British Guiana there was growth of coolie Indian women marriages with Chinese men and it was reported that "It is not an uncommon thing to find a cooly woman living with a Chinaman as his wife, and in one or two instances the woman has accompanied her reputed husband to China." by Dr. Comins in 1891 and an 1892 Immigration British Guiana authorities took note of marriages between Indian women and Chinese men that year.<ref>{{cite book|author=Walton Look Lai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJCxAAAAIAAJ&q=and+to+one+another,+Chinese-Indian+unions+increased,+although+probably+more+slowly+than+Chinese-Creole+unions.+By+1891,+Dr.+Comins+was+saying,+%22It+is+not+an+uncommon+thing+to+find+a+cooly+woman+living+with+a+Chinaman+as+his+wife,+and+in+one+or+two+instances+the+woman+has+accompanied+her+reputed+husband+to+China.%2269+The+Immigration+Report+for+1892+reported+six+marriages+between+Chinese+men+and+Indian+women+in+British+Guiana.|title=Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-8018-4465-2|edition=illustrated|series=Johns Hopkins studies in Atlantic history and culture|page=210|access-date=17 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Brian L. Moore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cx_9-X_-smoC&q=The+Immigration+Report+for+1892+reported+six+marriages+between+Chinese+men+and+Indian+women+i&pg=PA350|title=Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900|journal = Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|year=1995|isbn=978-0-7735-1354-9|edition=illustrated|volume=22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history|page=350|issn=0846-8869|access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>


The contrast with the female to male ratio among Indian and Chinese immigrants has been compared by historians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walton Look Lai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJCxAAAAIAAJ |title=Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838-1918 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0801844657 |edition=illustrated |series=Johns Hopkins studies in Atlantic history and culture |page=46}}</ref>
===Jamaica===
When black and [[Indo-Jamaican|Indian women]] had children with [[Chinese Jamaicans|Chinese men]] the [[Chindian|children]] were called chaina raial in Jamaican English.<ref>{{cite book |page=103 |year=2002 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |author1=Frederic Gomes Cassidy |author2=Robert Brock Le Page |editor1=Frederic Gomes Cassidy |editor2=Robert Brock Le Page |title=Dictionary of Jamaican English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_lmFzFgsTZYC&q=jamaica+indian+women+chinese+men&pg=PA103 |isbn=978-976-640-127-6}}</ref> The Chinese community in Jamaica was able to consolidate because an openness to marrying Indian women was present in the Chinese since Chinese women were in short supply.<ref>{{cite book |page=228 |year=2011 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=UNESCO |volume=4 of General History of the Caribbean |edition=illustrated |editor1=Franklin W. Knight |editor2=K. O. Laurence |others=P. C. Emmer, Jalil Sued Badillo, Germán Carrera Damas, B. W. Higman, Bridget Brereton, Unesco |title=General History of the Caribbean: The long nineteenth century: nineteenth-century transformations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Fnigcq_wtwC&q=jamaica+indian+women+marry+chinese+men&pg=PA228 |isbn=978-92-3-103358-2}}</ref> Polyandry was rare among&nbsp;the Indian population in Jamaica according to [[Verene A. Shepherd]].<ref>{{cite book |page=171 |year=1995 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |volume=22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history |issn=0846-8869 |edition=illustrated |author=Brian L. Moore |title=Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900 |series=Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cx_9-X_-smoC&q=jamaica+indian+women+marry+chinese+men&pg=PA171 |isbn=978-0-7735-1354-9}}</ref> The small number of Indian women were fought over between Indian men and led to a rise in the number of wife murders by Indian men.<ref>{{cite book |page=101 |year=1988 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Psychology Press |volume=7, Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities |issue=Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities |edition=illustrated |author=Howard Johnson |editor=Howard Johnson |title=After the Crossing: Immigrants and Minorities in Caribbean Creole Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyVQ0Hn-YjkC&q=jamaica+indian+women+marry+chinese+men&pg=PA101 |isbn=978-0-7146-3357-2}}</ref> Indian women made up 11 percent of the annual number of Indian indentured migrants from 1845 to 1847 in Jamaica.<ref>{{cite book |page=156 |year=1999 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |volume=7, Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities |issue=Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities |edition=illustrated |author=Alena Heitlinger |editor=Alena Heitlinger |title=Émigré Feminism: Transnational Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5NdI_7h7HAC&q=jamaica+indian+women+marry+chinese+men&pg=PA156 |isbn=978-0-8020-7899-5}}</ref>


===Mauritius===
===Mauritius===
In the late 19th to early 20th century, [[Mauritians of Chinese origin|Chinese men in Mauritius]] married [[Mauritians of Indian origin|Indian]] women due to both a lack of Chinese women and higher numbers of Indian women on the island.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marina Carter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SN53oTMjAyMC&pg=PA199 |title=Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation |last2=James Ng Foong Kwong |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004175723 |volume=1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1 |page=199}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Paul Younger Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies McMaster University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0X9eLq57ocC&pg=PA33 |title=New Homelands : Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa: Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0199741922 |page=33}}</ref> At first, the prospect of relations with Chinese men was unappealing to the original all-female Indian migrants yet they eventually had to establish sexual unions with Chinese men since there were no Chinese women coming.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=What Inter-Ethnic Marriage in Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity |url=http://arinave.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/INCORE-Paper-2001-PDF1.pdf |url-status=dead |page=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518083011/http://arinave.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/INCORE-Paper-2001-PDF1.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014}}</ref> The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children sired by Chinese men.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo, Edouard Lim Fat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNswAQAAIAAJ |title=From alien to citizen: the integration of the Chinese in Mauritius |publisher=Éditions de l'océan Indien |year=2008 |isbn=978-9990305692 |page=174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Huguette Ly Tio Fane-Pineo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U4MAQAAIAAJ |title=Chinese Diaspora in Western Indian Ocean |publisher=Ed. de l'océan indien |year=1985 |isbn=9990305692 |page=287}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=What Inter-Ethnic Marriage in Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity |url=http://arinave.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/INCORE-Paper-2001-PDF1.pdf |url-status=dead |page=16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518083011/http://arinave.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/INCORE-Paper-2001-PDF1.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014}}</ref> These Chinese were mostly traders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monique Dinan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gnawAAAAIAAJ |title=Mauritius in the Making: Across the Censuses, 1846-2000 |publisher=Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture, Ministry of Arts & Culture |year=2002 |isbn=9990390460 |page=41}}</ref> Colonialist stereotypes in the sugar colonies of Indians emerged such as "the degraded coolie woman" and the "coolie wife beater", due to Indian women being murdered by their husbands after they ran away to other richer men since the ratio of Indian women to men was low.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marina Carter, James Ng Foong Kwong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SN53oTMjAyMC&pg=PA203 |title=Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004175723 |volume=1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1 |page=203}}</ref> It was much more common for Chinese and Indians to intermarry than within their own group. Intermarriage between people of between different Chinese and Indian language groups is rare; it is so rare that the cases of intermarriage between Cantonese and Hakka can be individually named. Similarly, intermarriage between Hakka Chinese and Indians hardly occurs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellen Oxfeld |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_xtAAAAMAAJ |title=Blood, sweat, and mahjong: family and enterprise in an overseas Chinese community |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-8014-2593-6}}</ref>
In the late 19th to early 20th century, [[Mauritians of Chinese origin|Chinese men in Mauritius]] married [[Mauritians of Indian origin|Indian]] women due to both a lack of Chinese women and higher numbers of Indian women on the island.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marina Carter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SN53oTMjAyMC&pg=PA199 |title=Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation |last2=James Ng Foong Kwong |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004175723 |volume=1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1 |page=199}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger | first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0X9eLq57ocC&pg=PA33 |title=New Homelands : Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0199741922 |page=33}}</ref> During the early days of migration the prospect of relations with Indian women was unappealing to the male dominated Chinese coolies. Though they eventually had to establish civil unions and marriages with Indian women due to. the lack of Chinese women in Mauritius.<ref name="wordpress">{{Citation | mode=cs1 |date=2001 |type=unpublished draft |title=What Inter-Ethnic Marriage in Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity |url=http://arinave.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/INCORE-Paper-2001-PDF1.pdf |url-status=dead |page=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518083011/http://arinave.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/INCORE-Paper-2001-PDF1.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014}}</ref> The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children sired by Chinese men.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo | author2= Edouard Lim Fat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNswAQAAIAAJ |title=From Alien to Citizen: The integration of the Chinese in Mauritius |publisher=Éditions de l'océan Indien |year=2008 |isbn=978-9990305692 |page=174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Huguette Ly Tio Fane-Pineo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U4MAQAAIAAJ |title=Chinese Diaspora in Western Indian Ocean |publisher=Ed. de l'océan indien |year=1985 |isbn=9990305692 |page=287}}</ref> While the majority of the Chinese migrants to Mauritius were coolies, who engaged in labour-intensive roles, some of them were traders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monique Dinan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gnawAAAAIAAJ |title=Mauritius in the Making: Across the Censuses, 1846-2000 |publisher=Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture, Ministry of Arts & Culture |year=2002 |isbn=9990390460 |page=41}}</ref> Colonialist stereotypes in the sugar colonies of Indians emerged such as the "coolie wife beater" and "degraded coolie woan", due to instances of Indian women being murdered by their husbands after they ran away to other richer men since the ratio of Indian women to men was low.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marina Carter, James Ng Foong Kwong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SN53oTMjAyMC&pg=PA203 |title=Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004175723 |volume=1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1 |page=203}}</ref> Both the Chinese and Indian communities were largely endogamous. Intermarriage between people of different Chinese and Indian language groups is rare; it is so rare that the cases of intermarriage between Cantonese and Hakka can be individually named. Hakka Chinese, who came after Cantonese and Fujian Chinese, were less likely to marry Indians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellen Oxfeld |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_xtAAAAMAAJ |title=Blood, sweat, and mahjong: family and enterprise in an overseas Chinese community |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-8014-2593-6}}</ref>


===Trinidad===
===Trinidad===
In [[Trinidad]], some [[Chinese Trinidadian and Tobagonian|Chinese]] men had relationships with [[Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian|Indian]] coolie women of [[Chennai|Madrasee]] origin, siring children with them and it was reported that "A few children are to be met with born of Madras and Creole parents and some also of Madras and Chinese parents - the Madrasee being the mother", by the missionary John Morton in 1876, Morton noted that it seemed strange since there were more Indian coolie men than Indian coolie women that Indian coolie women would marry Chinese men, but claimed it was most likely because the Chinese could provide amenities to the women since the Chinese owned shops and they were enticed by these.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBVQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=Unity in Diversity |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-1443867290 |editor-last=Julitta Rydlewska |volume=1: Cultural Paradigm and Personal Identity |page=14 |editor-last2=Barbara Braid}} [http://www.cambridgescholars.com/download/sample/61376 Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dennison Moor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kTV7AAAAMAAJ |title=Origins and Development of Racial Ideology in Trinidad |publisher=Nycan |year=1995 |isbn=0968006000 |page=238}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Selwyn D. Ryan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDVsAAAAMAAJ |title=The Jhandi and the Cross: The Clash of Cultures in Post-creole Trinidad and Tobago |publisher=Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, The University of the West Indies |year=1999 |isbn=9766180318 |page=263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0bbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |title=Global Mixed Race |publisher=NYU Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0814770474 |editor-last=Rebecca Chiyoko King-O'Riain |pages=65–66 |editor-last2=Stephen Small |editor-last3=Minelle Mahtani}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Regis |first=Ferne Louanne |date=April 2011 |title=The Dougla in Trinidad's Consciousness |url=http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/11131/Article%201%20-%20regis.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=History in Action |publisher=The University of the West Indies (St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago) Dept. of History |volume=2 |issue=1 |issn=2221-7886 |archive-url=http://www.mainlib.uwi.tt/epubs/historyaction/papers/printversion2.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2011}}</ref> Indian women were married by indentured Chinese men in Trinidad.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mike Hoolboom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8eOKiK3llYC&pg=PA315 |title=Practical Dreamers: Conversations with Movie Artists |publisher=Coach House Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-1770561816 |editor-last=Mike Hoolboom |edition=illustrated |page=315}}</ref> Few Chinese women migrated to Trinidad while the majority of Chinese migrants were men.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0bbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |title=Global Mixed Race |publisher=NYU Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0814770474 |editor-last=Rebecca Chiyoko King-O'Riain |page=54 |editor-last2=Stephen Small |editor-last3=Minelle Mahtani}}</ref> The migration of Chinese to Trinidad resulted in intermarriage between them and others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adrian Curtis Bird |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVMYAAAAYAAJ |title=Trinidad sweet: the people, their culture, their island |publisher=Inprint Caribbean |year=1992 |isbn=0814770479 |edition=2 |page=26}}</ref> Chinese in Trinidad became relatively open to having marital relations with other races and Indian women began having families with Chinese in the 1890s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VhwAAAAMAAJ |title=Intercultural Relations, Cultural Transformation, and Identity: The Ethnic Chinese : Selected Papers Presented at the 1998 ISSCO Conference |publisher=Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated |others=International Society for the Studies of Chinese Overseas, Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran |year=2000 |isbn=9718857214 |editor-last=Teresita Ang See |edition=2 |page=95}}</ref>
The situation in Trinidad and British Guiana with Indian women being fewer than Indian men led to Indian women using the situation to their advantage by leaving their partners for other men, leading to a high incidence of "wife murders" by Indian men on their wives, and Indian women and culture were branded as "immoral" by European observers, an Indian Muslim man named Mohammad Orfy petitioned as a representative of "destitute Indian men of Trinidad", to the colonial authorities, complaining of Indian women's behavior and claiming that it was "a perforating plague...the high percentage of immoral lives led by the female section of our community...to satisfy the greed and lust of the male section of quite a different race to theirs...[Indian women] are enticed, seduced and frightened into becoming concubines, and paramours...[Indian women] have absolutely no knowledge whatsoever of the value of being in virginhood...most shameless and a perfect menace to the Indian gentry." with him naming specific peoples, claiming that Indian women were having relationships with men of various races, including Chinese, Africans, Americans, and Europeans.<ref>{{cite book |pages=263–264 |year=2001 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Duke University Press |volume=1 of A millennial quartet book, Volume 11 of Public culture |edition=illustrated |author=Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar |editor=Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar |title=Alternative Modernities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCghDtjik3IC&q=chinese+men+married+indian+women+trinidad&pg=PA263 |isbn=978-0-8223-2714-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=135 |year=2000 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Zed Books |edition=illustrated, reprint |author1=Janaki Nair |author2=Mary E. John |editor1=Janaki Nair |editor2=Mary E. John |title=A Question of Silence: The Sexual Economies of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUJ6112aGZQC&q=chinese+men+married+indian+women+trinidad&pg=PA135 |isbn=978-1-85649-892-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=24 |year=1997 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=University of Natal, History and African Studies Seminar |author=University of Natal |title=History and African Studies Seminar series, Issues 1-25 |series=History and African Studies Seminar Series, University of Natal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKcvAQAAIAAJ&q=Africans,+Americans+and+Chinese%22%5D,+Indian+women+%22are+enticed,+seduced+and+frightened+into+becoming+concubines,+and+paramours%22. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |year=1998 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |volume=18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women |edition=illustrated |editor1=Shobita Jain |editor2=Rhoda E. Reddock |title=Women Plantation Workers: International Experiences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPMEAQAAIAAJ&q=Africans,+Americans+and+Chinese%22%5D,+Indian+women+%22are+enticed,+seduced+and+frightened+into+becoming+concubines,+and+paramours%22. |isbn=978-1-85973-972-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=322 |year=2001 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Ian Randle |volume=18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women |edition=illustrated |editor1=Rhoda Reddock |editor2=Christine Barrow |title=Caribbean sociology: introductory readings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YN4SAQAAMAAJ&q=Africans,+Americans+and+Chinese%22%5D,+Indian+women+%22are+enticed,+seduced+and+frightened+into+becoming+concubines,+and+paramours%22. |isbn=978-1-55876-276-3}}</ref> Saying "Africans, Americans and Chinese in goodly numbers are enticing the females of India, who are more or less subtle to lustful traps augured through some fear of punishment being meted out if not readily submissive as requested."<ref>{{cite book |page=44 |year=1998 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |volume=18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women |edition=illustrated |editor1=Shobita Jain |editor2=Rhoda E. Reddock |title=Women Plantation Workers: International Experiences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPMEAQAAIAAJ&q=Africans,+Americans+and+Chinese+in+goodly+numbers+are+enticing+the+females+of+India,+who+are+more+or+less+subtle+to+lustful+traps |isbn=978-1-85973-972-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=101 |year=1988 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=CUNY Association of Caribbean Studies |volume=18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women |edition=illustrated |others=City University of New York. Association of Caribbean Studies |title=Cimarrón, Volume 1, Issue 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQcWAQAAMAAJ&q=Africans,+Americans+and+Chinese+in+goodly+numbers+are+enticing+the+females+of+India,+who+are+more+or+less+subtle+to+lustful+traps }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=192 |year=1984 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=R. E. Reddock |edition=illustrated |author=Rhoda Reddock |title=Women, labour and struggle in 20th century Trinidad and Tobago, 1898–1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWy2AAAAIAAJ&q=Africans,+Americans+and+Chinese+in+goodly+numbers+are+enticing+the+females+of+India,+who+are+more+or+less+subtle+to+lustful+traps }}</ref>
 
The situation on Trinidad enabled unprecedented autonomy in the sexual activities of Hindu and Muslim Indian women and freedom.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last=Reddock |first=Rhoda |date=26 October 1985 |title=Freedom Denied: Indian Women and Indentureship in Trinidad and Tobago, 1845–1917 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=20 |issue=43 |pages=WS79–WS87 |jstor=4374974 }}</ref> The 1916 "Peition of Indentured Labourers in Trinidad" complained that: "Is it permissible for a male member of the Christian faith to keep a Hindoo or Muslim female as his paramour or concubine? Is this not an act of sacrilege and a disgraceful scandal according to the Christian faith to entice and encourage Indian females to lead immoral lives?"<ref name="auto1"/>
 
There were instances where plantations managers and overseers had intimate relations with indentured woman.<ref>{{cite book |page=53 |year=2014 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=NYU Press |editor=Rebecca Chiyoko King-O'Riain |editor2=Stephen Small |editor3=Minelle Mahtani |title=Global Mixed Race |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0bbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |isbn=978-0-8147-7047-4}}</ref> According to Attorney General W.F. Haynes Smith, Indian indentured women in marital or civil unions with men of different races, English, Portuguese, and Chinese. Unions between Indian men and Creole women were rare, as the Indian men viewed creole women negatively.<ref>{{cite book |page=37 |year=2005 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=University Press of America |edition=illustrated |author=Basdeo Mangru |title=The Elusive El Dorado: Essays on the Indian Experience in Guyana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOhrAAAAMAAJ&q=but+also+cited+cases+of+Indian+women+cohabiting+with+the+Chinese,+Portuguese+and+Englishmen.26+In+1897+J.E.+Tinne, |isbn=978-0-7618-3247-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_AMAQAAMAAJ&q=but+also+cited+cases+of+Indian+women+cohabiting+with+the+Chinese,+Portuguese+and+Englishmen.26+In+1897+J.E.+Tinne, |title=India in the Caribbean |publisher=Hansib |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-870518-05-5 |editor1=Dabydeen |editor-first=David |editor-link=David Dabydeen |edition=illustrated |series=Hansib / University of Warwick, Centre for Caribbean Studies publication |page=216 |access-date=1 June 2015 |editor2=Samaroo |editor-first2=Brinsley |editor-link2=Brinsley Samaroo}}</ref> Approval of interracial marriage has increased in Trinidad and Tobago and one Chinese man reported that his Indian wife did not encounter any rejection from his parents when asked in a survey.<ref>{{cite book |page=65 |year=2003 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=SAGE Publications |edition=illustrated |editor1=Raeann R Hamon |editor2=Bron B Ingoldsby |others=David Dabydeen |title=Mate Selection Across Cultures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPCeb2CGJ3kC&q=chinese+men+married+indian+women+trinidad&pg=PA65 |isbn=978-1-4522-3769-5}}</ref> In Trinidad Europeans and Chinese are seen as acceptable marriage partners for Indian women by Indian families while marrying black men would lead to rejection of their daughters by Indian families.<ref>{{cite book |page=107 |year=2010 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |edition=illustrated |author1=Colin Clarke |author2=Gillian Clarke |title=Post-Colonial Trinidad: An Ethnographic Journal |series=Studies of the Americas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3brHAAAAQBAJ&q=chinese+men+married+indian+women+trinidad&pg=PA107 |isbn=978-0-230-10685-7}}</ref>
 
===Martinique===
As a result, some plantation owners imported workers from India and China after the abolishment of slavery in 1848 by the French national convention, with Chindians become citizens of France.


==Notable people==
==Notable people==
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2013}}
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2013}}
* Juanita Ramayah, Malaysian radio announcer and TV Personality
* [[Jomo Kwame Sundaram]], Malaysian economist and former [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UNDESA]] Assistant Secretary-General
* [[Peter Rajah]], Malaysian retired footballer
* [[Jacintha Abisheganaden]], Singaporean actress
* [[Jacintha Abisheganaden]], Singaporean actress
* [[Ronald Arculli]], Chairman of [[Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing]] and Non-official Members Convenor of the [[Executive Council of Hong Kong]] (Exco).
* [[Ronald Arculli]], Chairman of [[Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing]] and Non-official Members Convenor of the [[Executive Council of Hong Kong]] (Exco).
Line 73: Line 97:
* [[Che'Nelle]] (Cheryline Lim), Malaysian-born recording artist signed to Virgin Records America
* [[Che'Nelle]] (Cheryline Lim), Malaysian-born recording artist signed to Virgin Records America
* [[Karen David]], British singer-songwriter born in Meghalaya, India
* [[Karen David]], British singer-songwriter born in Meghalaya, India
* [[Nicol David]], Malaysian athlete and current world number one female squash player
* [[Vanessa Fernandez]], Singaporean singer and radio presenter
* [[Vanessa Fernandez]], Singaporean singer and radio presenter
* [[Jonathan Foo]], Guyanese cricketer  
* [[Jonathan Foo]], Guyanese cricketer  
* Patricia Chin, Jamaican-American co-founder of [[VP Records]]
* [[Hedy Fry]], Trinidadian-Canadian politician
* [[Hedy Fry]], Trinidadian-Canadian politician
* [[Jonathan Putra]], Malaysian TV Personality
* [[Jonathan Putra]], Malaysian TV Personality
Line 87: Line 109:
* [[Joseph Prince]], Singaporean pastor and evangelist
* [[Joseph Prince]], Singaporean pastor and evangelist
* [[Michelle Saram]], Hong Kong actress born in Singapore
* [[Michelle Saram]], Hong Kong actress born in Singapore
* [[Nicol David]], Malaysian athlete and former world number one female squash player
* [[Astra Sharma]], Australian tennis player
* [[Astra Sharma]], Australian tennis player
* [[Priscilla Shunmugam]], Singaporean fashion designer
* [[Priscilla Shunmugam]], Singaporean fashion designer
Line 94: Line 117:
* [[Nadine Ann Thomas]], [[Miss Malaysia|Miss Universe Malaysia 2010]], actress, model and DJ.
* [[Nadine Ann Thomas]], [[Miss Malaysia|Miss Universe Malaysia 2010]], actress, model and DJ.
* [[Vanessa Tevi|Vanessa Tevi Kumares]], [[Miss Malaysia|Miss Universe Malaysia 2015]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foo |first=Noel |date=18 April 2015 |title=24-year-old Indian Chinese crowned new Miss Universe Malaysia |url=http://women.asiaone.com/women/people/24-year-old-indian-chinese-crowned-new-miss-universe-malaysia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722122539/http://women.asiaone.com/women/people/24-year-old-indian-chinese-crowned-new-miss-universe-malaysia|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 July 2015}}</ref>
* [[Vanessa Tevi|Vanessa Tevi Kumares]], [[Miss Malaysia|Miss Universe Malaysia 2015]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foo |first=Noel |date=18 April 2015 |title=24-year-old Indian Chinese crowned new Miss Universe Malaysia |url=http://women.asiaone.com/women/people/24-year-old-indian-chinese-crowned-new-miss-universe-malaysia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722122539/http://women.asiaone.com/women/people/24-year-old-indian-chinese-crowned-new-miss-universe-malaysia|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 July 2015}}</ref>
* [[Joshua Simon (radio presenter)|Joshua Simon]], Singaporean radio and media personality, YouTube star<ref>{{Cite web |title=SPH Radio - Joshua Simon, Kiss92 FM |url=http://www.sphradio.sg/portfolio_page/joshua-simon-kiss92-fm/ |access-date=29 May 2018 |website=Sphradio.sg}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Joshua Simon |url=https://www.youtube.com/user/hisnameisjoshuasimon |access-date=29 May 2018 |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=YAAAS TV |url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC9Bb2wcu2FnDSNSWVU-82ZQ |access-date=29 May 2018 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
* [[Joshua Simon (radio presenter)|Joshua Simon]], Singaporean radio and media personality, YouTube star<ref>{{Cite web |title=SPH Radio – Joshua Simon, Kiss92 FM |url=http://www.sphradio.sg/portfolio_page/joshua-simon-kiss92-fm/ |access-date=29 May 2018 |website=Sphradio.sg|date=26 August 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Joshua Simon |url=https://www.youtube.com/user/hisnameisjoshuasimon |access-date=29 May 2018 |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=YAAAS TV |url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC9Bb2wcu2FnDSNSWVU-82ZQ |access-date=29 May 2018 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
* Leong Hong Seng, former Malaysian professional footballer of [[MK Land F.C.|MK LAND FC]]
* [[Liew Kit Kong]], former Malaysian national capped footballer
* [[Liew Kit Kong]], former Malaysia national capped footballer
* [[Ramesh Lai Ban Huat]], Malaysian professional footballer
* [[Ramesh Lai Ban Huat]], Malaysia professional footballer
* Raj Joshua Thomas, Singapore [[Nominated Member of Parliament]]
* [[Kimmy Jayanti]], Indonesian model and actress
* [[Kimmy Jayanti]], Indonesian model and actress
* [[Mavin Khoo]],  [[Bharata Natyam]] dancer
* [[Mavin Khoo]],  [[Bharata Natyam]] dancer
* [[Bilahari Kausikan]], Singaporean diplomat
* [[Bilahari Kausikan]], Singaporean diplomat
* [[Keith Foo]], Malaysian model and actor
* [[Aron Winter]], Dutch footballer
* [[Stuart Young (politician)|Stuart Young]], Trinidadian politician and current Prime Minister
* [[Ruben Gnanalingam]], Malaysian businessman and CEO of [[West Port, Malaysia|Wesport Holdings]]
* [[Chalida Vijitvongthong]], Thai actress


==See also==
==See also==
Line 109: Line 135:
* [[Indians in China]]
* [[Indians in China]]
* [[China–India relations]]
* [[China–India relations]]
* [[Race in Singapore]]
* [[Indian Chinese cuisine]]


==References==
==References==
Line 115: Line 141:


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.telegraphindia.com/1021221/asp/opinion/story_1498459.asp An illusion of purity]
* [https://archive.today/20130203124036/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1021221/asp/opinion/story_1498459.asp An illusion of purity]
* [http://www.doubletongued.org/index.php/citations/chindian_1/ Double-tongued dictionary]
* [http://www.doubletongued.org/index.php/citations/chindian_1/ Double-tongued dictionary]


{{NRI-PIO}}
{{Indian diaspora}}
{{Overseas Chinese2}}
{{Overseas Chinese2}}
{{Ethnic groups in Indonesia}}
{{Ethnic groups in Indonesia}}
Line 127: Line 153:
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Fiji]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Fiji]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Guyana]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Suriname]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Jamaica]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Singapore]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Singapore]]
[[Category:Multiracial affairs]]
[[Category:Multiracial affairs]]

Latest revision as of 21:52, 26 February 2026


This article is about people of Chinese and Indian descent. For the geopolitical term, see Chindia.

People of Chinese and Indian origins
Chindians
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Other languages of India and other languages of China
Religion
Related ethnic groups

A Chindian (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.; Chinese: 中印人; pinyin: Zhōngyìnrén; Cantonese Yale: Jūngyanyàn; Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.; Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) is an informal term used to refer to a person of mixed ancestry originating from India and China. This includes individuals from the various ethnic groups native to modern-day China and India.

There are a considerable number of Chindians in Malaysia and Singapore due to their shared history as part of British Malaya. People of Chinese and Indian origins had emigrated to Southeast Asia in large numbers during the 19th and 20th centuries, leading to significant cultural interaction and intermarriage. Sizeable populations also reside in Hong Kong, owing to its history as British Hong Kong, and in other nations with large overseas Chinese and Indian diaspora communities, such as Jamaica, Martinique, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and Guyana in the Caribbean, as well as more recently in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Mauritius.[1]

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The term "Chindian" is a portmanteau for both "Chinese" and "Indian" people.[2]

Countries[edit | edit source]

China[edit | edit source]

Main article: Indians in China

There are around 45,000–48,000 Indian nationals/expatriates living in mainland China as of 2015.[3]

Hong Kong[edit | edit source]

25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to what is now Pakistan. Around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, Muslims of mixed Chinese (Tanka) and Indian/Pakistani ancestry, descended from early Indian/Pakistani male immigrants who took local Chinese wives and brought their children up as Muslims and many remained there after the handover from Britain to China in 1997 as part of the SAR.[4][5] These "local Indians" were not completely accepted by either the Chinese or Indian communities.[6]

India[edit | edit source]

See also: Chinese Indians

There are tiny communities of Chinese who migrated to India during the British Raj and became naturalised citizens of India and there are 189,000 estimated total ethnic Chinese of Chindian or full Chinese ancestry.[7] The community living in Kolkata numbers around 4,000 and 400 families in Mumbai, where there are Chinatowns.[7][8][9][10] Chinese Indians also contributed to the development of fusion Indian Chinese cuisine (Chindian cuisine),[11] which is now an integral part of the Indian culinary scene.[12]

There are an estimated 5,000–7,000 Chinese expatriates living in India as of 2015, having doubled in number in recent years.[13] Most work on 2 to 3 year contracts for the growing number of Chinese brands and companies doing business in India.[13]

British India[edit | edit source]

During the British Raj, some Chinese "convicts"[clarification needed] deported from the Straits Settlements were sent to be jailed in Madras in India. The "Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1" reported an incident where the Chinese convicts escaped and killed the police sent to apprehend them: "Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On 28 July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party and at length, on 15 September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghát, half way down the Sispára ghát path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons."[14][15][16] Other Chinese convicts in Madras who were released from jail then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] Paraiyan is also anglicised as "pariah".

Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[28][29] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[39][40][41][42][43] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[44]

According to Alabaster there were lard manufacturers and shoemakers in addition to carpenters. Running tanneries and working with leather was traditionally not considered a respectable profession among caste Hindus and work was relegated to lower caste muchis and chamars. There was a high demand, however, for high quality leather goods in colonial India, one that the Chinese were able to fulfill. Alabaster also mentions licensed opium dens run by native Chinese and a Cheena Bazaar where contraband was readily available. Opium, however, was not illegal until after India's Independence from Great Britain in 1947. Immigration continued unabated through the turn of the century and during World War I partly due to political upheavals in China such as the First and Second Opium Wars, First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion. Around the time of the First World War, the first Chinese-owned tanneries sprang up.[45]

In Assam, local Assamese women married Chinese migrants during British colonial times. It later became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, as the majority of these Chinese in Assam were mixed.[46]

Singapore[edit | edit source]

See also: Demographics of Singapore

The government of Singapore classifies individuals based on their father's ethnicity. Hence, a Chindian with an Indian father is recorded simply as "Indian" in censuses and demographics, while one with a Chinese father is recorded as "Chinese." Singapore only began allowing mixed-race persons to register two racial classifications (e.g. Indian–Chinese) on their identity cards in 2010. Parents may choose the order in which these races are listed, with the first being considered the individual's "main" race. Regardless of the complexity of a person's ancestry, no more than two races may be officially listed.[47] According to Singapore's 2017 marriage statistics, Indian grooms marrying Chinese brides accounted for 5% of all inter-ethnic marriages.[48]

Malaysia[edit | edit source]

See also: Demographics of Malaysia

In Malaysia, the offspring of such marriages are also informally known as "Chindians." However, the Malaysian government follows a similar protocol to Singapore, generally classifying individuals according to their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages involve an Indian male and a Chinese female, most Chindians in Malaysia are officially categorised simply as Indians by the state in censuses and demographics.[49]

Guyana[edit | edit source]

In Guyana, Chinese men married Indian women due to the lack of Chinese women in the early days of settlement.[50] Creole relationships and unions between Chinese and Indians were rare in the beginning,[51] though it became less so later on as some Chinese men established relationships and intermarried with Indian women due to the scarcity of Chinese women. There were selective instances where Chinese men took their Indian wives back with them to China.[52] Indian women and children were brought alongside Indian men as coolies while Chinese men made up 99% of Chinese coolies.[53]

There are few accounts of unions and marriages between the Chinese and the Indians in Guyana. An account of the era told by women in British Guiana is of a single Chinese man who was allowed to temporarily borrow a Hindu Indian woman by her Indian husband who was his friend, so the Chinese man could sire a child with her, after a son was born to her the Chinese man kept the boy while she was returned to her Indian husband, the boy was named William Adrian Lee.[54] An Indian woman named Mary See married a Chinese man surnamed Wu in Goedverwagting and founded their own family after he learned how to process sugar cane.[54]

The contrast with the female to male ratio among Indian and Chinese immigrants has been compared by historians.[55]

In Guyana, while marriages between Indian women and black African men is socially shameful to Indians, Chinese-Indian marriages are considered acceptable as reported by Joseph Nevadomsky in 1983.[56] "Chiney-dougla" is the Indian Guyanese term for mixed Chinese-Indian children.[57] Some Indian women in Guyana practiced polyandry within their community due to the extreme shortage of women compared to men.[58]

In British Guiana, the Chinese did not maintain their distinctive physical features due to the high rate of Chinese men marrying people other ethnicities like Indian women.[59][60][61] The severe imbalance with Indian men outnumbering Indian women led some women to take advantage of the situation to squeeze favors from men and leave their partners for other men,[62] one infamous example was a pretty, light skinned, Christian Indian woman named Mary Ilandun with ancestral origins from Madras, born in 1846, who had relations with Indian, black, and Chinese men as she married them in succession and ran off with their money to her next paramour, doing this from 1868 to 1884.[63] Indian men used force to bring Indian women back in line from this kind of behavior, such as infamous "wife murders".[64] The most severe lack of women in all the peoples of British Guiana was with the Chinese and this led Europeans to believe that Chinese did not engage in wife murders while wife murders was something innate to Indian men. Chinese women were viewed as more chaste than their Indian counterparts.[65] Chinese women were not indentured and since they did not need to work, they avoided prospective men seeking relationships, while the character of Indian women was disparaged as immoral and their alleged sexual immorality was blamed for their deaths in the "wife murders" by Indian men.[66] The sex ratio of Indian men to Indian women was 100:63 while the sex ratio of Chinese men to Chinese women was 100:43 in British Guiana in 1891.[67]

In British Guiana there was growth of coolie Indian women marriages with Chinese men and it was reported that "It is not an uncommon thing to find a cooly woman living with a Chinaman as his wife, and in one or two instances the woman has accompanied her reputed husband to China." by Dr. Comins in 1891 and an 1892 Immigration British Guiana authorities took note of marriages between Indian women and Chinese men that year.[68][69]

Jamaica[edit | edit source]

When black and Indian women had children with Chinese men the children were called chaina raial in Jamaican English.[70] The Chinese community in Jamaica was able to consolidate because an openness to marrying Indian women was present in the Chinese since Chinese women were in short supply.[71] Polyandry was rare among the Indian population in Jamaica according to Verene A. Shepherd.[72] The small number of Indian women were fought over between Indian men and led to a rise in the number of wife murders by Indian men.[73] Indian women made up 11 percent of the annual number of Indian indentured migrants from 1845 to 1847 in Jamaica.[74]

Mauritius[edit | edit source]

In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women due to both a lack of Chinese women and higher numbers of Indian women on the island.[75][76] During the early days of migration the prospect of relations with Indian women was unappealing to the male dominated Chinese coolies. Though they eventually had to establish civil unions and marriages with Indian women due to. the lack of Chinese women in Mauritius.[77] The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children sired by Chinese men.[78][79] While the majority of the Chinese migrants to Mauritius were coolies, who engaged in labour-intensive roles, some of them were traders.[80] Colonialist stereotypes in the sugar colonies of Indians emerged such as the "coolie wife beater" and "degraded coolie woan", due to instances of Indian women being murdered by their husbands after they ran away to other richer men since the ratio of Indian women to men was low.[81] Both the Chinese and Indian communities were largely endogamous. Intermarriage between people of different Chinese and Indian language groups is rare; it is so rare that the cases of intermarriage between Cantonese and Hakka can be individually named. Hakka Chinese, who came after Cantonese and Fujian Chinese, were less likely to marry Indians.[82]

Trinidad[edit | edit source]

The situation in Trinidad and British Guiana with Indian women being fewer than Indian men led to Indian women using the situation to their advantage by leaving their partners for other men, leading to a high incidence of "wife murders" by Indian men on their wives, and Indian women and culture were branded as "immoral" by European observers, an Indian Muslim man named Mohammad Orfy petitioned as a representative of "destitute Indian men of Trinidad", to the colonial authorities, complaining of Indian women's behavior and claiming that it was "a perforating plague...the high percentage of immoral lives led by the female section of our community...to satisfy the greed and lust of the male section of quite a different race to theirs...[Indian women] are enticed, seduced and frightened into becoming concubines, and paramours...[Indian women] have absolutely no knowledge whatsoever of the value of being in virginhood...most shameless and a perfect menace to the Indian gentry." with him naming specific peoples, claiming that Indian women were having relationships with men of various races, including Chinese, Africans, Americans, and Europeans.[83][84][85][86][87] Saying "Africans, Americans and Chinese in goodly numbers are enticing the females of India, who are more or less subtle to lustful traps augured through some fear of punishment being meted out if not readily submissive as requested."[88][89][90]

The situation on Trinidad enabled unprecedented autonomy in the sexual activities of Hindu and Muslim Indian women and freedom.[91] The 1916 "Peition of Indentured Labourers in Trinidad" complained that: "Is it permissible for a male member of the Christian faith to keep a Hindoo or Muslim female as his paramour or concubine? Is this not an act of sacrilege and a disgraceful scandal according to the Christian faith to entice and encourage Indian females to lead immoral lives?"[91]

There were instances where plantations managers and overseers had intimate relations with indentured woman.[92] According to Attorney General W.F. Haynes Smith, Indian indentured women in marital or civil unions with men of different races, English, Portuguese, and Chinese. Unions between Indian men and Creole women were rare, as the Indian men viewed creole women negatively.[93][94] Approval of interracial marriage has increased in Trinidad and Tobago and one Chinese man reported that his Indian wife did not encounter any rejection from his parents when asked in a survey.[95] In Trinidad Europeans and Chinese are seen as acceptable marriage partners for Indian women by Indian families while marrying black men would lead to rejection of their daughters by Indian families.[96]

Martinique[edit | edit source]

As a result, some plantation owners imported workers from India and China after the abolishment of slavery in 1848 by the French national convention, with Chindians become citizens of France.

Notable people[edit | edit source]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Sheela Narayanan (17 October 2008). "Go ahead, call me Chindian". AsiaOne. Archived from the original on 21 August 2009.
  2. ↑ Babcock, Joshua (2023). "Seeing (or perceiving) difference in multiracial Singapore: Habits of looking in a raciolinguistic image economy". American Anthropologist. 125 (4): 783–796. doi:10.1111/aman.13901. ISSN 1548-1433.
  3. ↑ "India and China need a push to encourage more people to live across the borde". The Economic Times. 12 May 2015.
  4. ↑ Weiss, Anita M. (July 1991), "South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity", Modern Asian Studies, 25 (3): 417–53, doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013895, S2CID 145350669.
  5. ↑ McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz; Harlaftis, Gelina; Minoglou, Iōanna Pepelasē (2005), Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History, Berg Publishers, p. 256, ISBN 1-85973-880-X
  6. ↑ Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember, Ian A. Skoggard (2004), Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World, Springer, p. 511, ISBN 0-306-48321-1
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C." 4 January 2011. Archived from the original on 4 January 2011.
  8. ↑ Krishnan, Murali (17 October 2013). "India's dwindling Chinatown". Deutsche Welle.
  9. ↑ Someshwar, Savera R (23 January 2007). "Happy Indian Chinese New Year". Rediff.com.
  10. ↑ "Mumbai's 3rd generation Chinese eye global jobs, learn Mandarin". TOI. 3 November 2015.
  11. ↑ Sankar, Amal (December 2017). "Creation of Indian–Chinese cuisine: Chinese food in an Indian city". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 4 (4): 268–273. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.10.002.
  12. ↑ Sanjeev Kapoor (2007). Chinese Cooking (Non-Veg). Popular Prakashan. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7991-310-9.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Why India remains a difficult terrain for 7,000 Chinese expatriates living in the country". The Economic Times. 28 August 2015.
  14. ↑ Madras (India : Presidency), Madras (India : State) (1908). Madras district gazetteers, Volume 1. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Government Press. p. 263. Mr. Chisholm was the architect of the new buildings. The CHAP. X. boys' part is designed in the Italian Gothic style, and is a two- Educational storeyed construction forming three sides of a quadrangle Institutions. a feature of which is the campanile, 130 feet in height. The girls were at first placed in the building intended for the hospital. * Much of the building work was done by Chinese convicts sent to the Madras jails from the Straits Settlements (where there was no sufficient prison accommodation) and more than once these people escaped from the temporary buildings' in which they were confined at Lovedale. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was several days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar, aided by Badagas sent out in all directions to search. On 28 July in the following year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some police weapons were found in their possession, and one of the parties of police had disappeared—an ominous coincidence. Search was made all over the country for the party and at length, on 15 September, their four bodies were found lying in the jungle at Walaghat, half way down the Sisp^ra'gha't path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully placed on their shoulders. It turned out that the wily Chinamen, on being overtaken, had at first pretended to surrender and had then suddenly attacked the police and killed them with their own weapons. In 1884 the benefits of the Lawrence Asylum were extended by the admission to it of the orphan children of Volunteers who had served in the Presidency for seven years and upwards, it being however expressly provided that children of British soldiers were not to be superseded or excluded by this concession. In 1899 the standard of instruction in the Asylum was raised to the upper secondary grade. In 1901 the rules of the institution, which had been twice altered since 1864 to meet the changes which had occurred, were again revised and considerably modified. They are printed in full in the annual reports. In 1903 owing to the South Indian Railway requiring for its new terminus at Egmore the buildings then occupied by the Civil Orphan Asylums of Madras, Government suggested that these should be moved to the premises on the Poonamallee Road in which the Military Female Orphan Asylum was established and that the girls in the latter, who numbered about 100, should be transferred to the Lawrsnce Asylum. The transfer was
  15. ↑ W. Francis (1994). The Nilgiris. Vol. 1 of Madras district gazetteers (reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 263. ISBN 81-206-0546-2.
  16. ↑ The Nilgiris. Concept Publishing Company. 1984. p. 26.
  17. ↑ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan
  18. ↑ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2. Government press. p. 99. 99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight Alt URL Archived 18 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  19. ↑ Edgar Thurston (2011). The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States (reissue ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-1107600683.
  20. ↑ RADHAKRISHNAN, D. (19 April 2014). "Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Alt URL
  21. ↑ "Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism". Retrieved 18 May 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  22. ↑ Raman, A (16 May 2012). "Chinese in Madras". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 18 May 2014.
  23. ↑ Raman, A (16 May 2012). "Quinine factory and Malay-Chinese workers". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 18 May 2014.
  24. ↑ "Chinese connection to the Nilgiris to help promote tourism potential". travel News Digest. 2013.
  25. ↑ W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Vol. 1 of Madras District Gazetteers (reprint ed.). Logos Press. p. 184. Alt URL
  26. ↑ Madras (India : State) (1908). Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 184.
  27. ↑ W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Concept Publishing Company. p. 184.
  28. ↑ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2–3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:
  29. ↑ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Vol. 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 81-206-1857-2.
  30. ↑ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin ..., Volumes 2–3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78–5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child (68"1; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78–7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil.
  31. ↑ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Vol. 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 81-206-1857-2.
  32. ↑ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to "cut him tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan,
  33. ↑ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 98. ISBN 81-206-0288-9.
  34. ↑ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. ISBN 978-81-206-0288-5.
  35. ↑ Government Museum (Madras, India); Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Vol. 2–3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31.
  36. ↑ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin, Volumes 1–2. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31.
  37. ↑ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin. Vol. v. 2 1897–99. Madras : Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31.
  38. ↑ Madras Government Museum Bulletin. Vol. II. Madras. 1897. p. 31. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  39. ↑ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish
  40. ↑ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. ISBN 9788185094335. Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described
  41. ↑ Man in India, Volumes 34–35. A. K. Bose. 1954. p. 272. (c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).
  42. ↑ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 272. (c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).
  43. ↑ Edgar Thurston; Rangachari, K. (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 100. ISBN 81-206-0288-9. the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1; 80-1; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8).
  44. ↑ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan
  45. ↑ Haraprasad, Ray (2012). "Chinese, The". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
  46. ↑ CHOWDHURY, RITA (18 November 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu.
  47. ↑ Hoe, Yeen Nie (12 January 2010), Singaporeans of mixed race allowed to 'double barrel' race in IC, Channel NewsAsia, archived from the original on 6 February 2010, retrieved 10 June 2010
  48. ↑ Tan, Theresa (11 July 2018). "Love is colour blind – interracial marriages in Singapore on the rise". Her World. The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 14 October 2025. Retrieved 14 October 2025.
  49. ↑ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005), Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia, Routledge, p. 189, ISBN 0-415-94971-8
  50. ↑ Brian L. Moore (1995). Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900. Vol. 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. pp. 272–273. ISBN 077351354X. ISSN 0846-8869.
  51. ↑ Brian L. Moore (1987). Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891. Vol. 4 of Caribbean studies (illustrated ed.). Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 181. ISBN 0677219806. ISSN 0275-5793.
  52. ↑ Brian L. Moore (1987). Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891. Vol. 4 of Caribbean studies (illustrated ed.). Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 182. ISBN 0677219806. ISSN 0275-5793.
  53. ↑ Lisa Yun (2008). The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves in Cuba. Temple University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1592135837. indian coolie woman chinese men.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Kirkpatrick, Margery (1993). From the Middle Kingdom to the New World: Aspects of the Chinese Experience in Migration to British Guiana. M. Kirkpatrick. ISBN 978-976-8136-27-5.
  55. ↑ Walton Look Lai (1993). Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918. Johns Hopkins studies in Atlantic history and culture (illustrated ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0801844657.
  56. ↑ Preethy Sarah Samuel (2000). Cultural Continuity Or Assimilation in the Familial Domain of the Indo-Guyanese. Wayne State University. Sociology (illustrated ed.). p. 38. ISBN 978-0-549-38762-6. Retrieved 1 June 2006.[permanent dead link]
  57. ↑ Kokuritsu Minzokugaku Hakubutsukan; Chiiki Kenkyū Kikaku Kōryū Sentā (2002). JCAS Symposium Series, Issue 13 (illustrated ed.). Japan Center for Area Studies, National Museum of Ethnology. p. 209. Retrieved 1 June 2006. Alt URL
  58. ↑ Gaiutra Bahadur (2013). Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. University of Chicago Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-226-04338-8. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
  59. ↑ L. Liang-chi Wang; Gungwu Wang, eds. (1998). The Chinese Diaspora: Selected Essays, Volume 2. Vol. 2 of The Chinese Diaspora (illustrated ed.). Times Academic Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-981-210-093-1. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
  60. ↑ Tim Merrill, ed. (1993). "Guyana and Belize: Country Studies". Belarus and Moldova: Country Studies. 550 (82). Library of Congress. Federal Research Division (2 ed.). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress: 42. ISBN 978-0-8444-0778-4. ISSN 1057-5294. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
  61. ↑ Jenny Pettit; Caroline Starbird (2000). Contemporary Issues in South America. University of Denver, CTIR. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-943804-90-3. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
  62. ↑ "How much was immigrant culture affected by the realities of life in Guyana and the norms of other racial groups present in Guyana between 1838 and 1905?". flax. British Academic Written English (Arts and Humanities).
  63. ↑ Brian L. Moore (1995). "Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900". Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History. 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP: 169–171. ISBN 978-0-7735-1354-9. ISSN 0846-8869. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  64. ↑ Guyana Historical Journal, Volumes 1–5. University of Guyana. History Society, University of Guyana. Department of History. University of Guyana, Department of History. 1989. p. 9. Retrieved 1 June 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  65. ↑ Gaiutra Bahadur (2013). Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. University of Chicago Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-226-04338-8. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  66. ↑ Gaiutra Bahadur (2013). Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. University of Chicago Press. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-0-226-04338-8. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  67. ↑ Gaiutra Bahadur (2013). Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. University of Chicago Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-226-04338-8. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  68. ↑ Walton Look Lai (1993). Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918. Johns Hopkins studies in Atlantic history and culture (illustrated ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-8018-4465-2. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
  69. ↑ Brian L. Moore (1995). "Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900". Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History. 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP: 350. ISBN 978-0-7735-1354-9. ISSN 0846-8869. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  70. ↑ Frederic Gomes Cassidy; Robert Brock Le Page (2002). Frederic Gomes Cassidy; Robert Brock Le Page (eds.). Dictionary of Jamaican English. University of the West Indies Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-976-640-127-6. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  71. ↑ Franklin W. Knight; K. O. Laurence, eds. (2011). General History of the Caribbean: The long nineteenth century: nineteenth-century transformations. Vol. 4 of General History of the Caribbean. P. C. Emmer, Jalil Sued Badillo, Germán Carrera Damas, B. W. Higman, Bridget Brereton, Unesco (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p. 228. ISBN 978-92-3-103358-2. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  72. ↑ Brian L. Moore (1995). Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900. Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History. Vol. 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-7735-1354-9. ISSN 0846-8869. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  73. ↑ Howard Johnson (1988). Howard Johnson (ed.). After the Crossing: Immigrants and Minorities in Caribbean Creole Society. Vol. 7, Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-7146-3357-2. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  74. ↑ Alena Heitlinger (1999). Alena Heitlinger (ed.). Émigré Feminism: Transnational Perspectives. Vol. 7, Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities (illustrated ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-8020-7899-5. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  75. ↑ Marina Carter; James Ng Foong Kwong (2009). Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation. Vol. 1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1. Brill. p. 199. ISBN 978-9004175723.
  76. ↑ Younger, Paul (2009). New Homelands : Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0199741922.
  77. ↑ What Inter-Ethnic Marriage in Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity (PDF) (unpublished draft). 2001. p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
  78. ↑ Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo; Edouard Lim Fat (2008). From Alien to Citizen: The integration of the Chinese in Mauritius. Éditions de l'océan Indien. p. 174. ISBN 978-9990305692.
  79. ↑ Huguette Ly Tio Fane-Pineo (1985). Chinese Diaspora in Western Indian Ocean. Ed. de l'océan indien. p. 287. ISBN 9990305692.
  80. ↑ Monique Dinan (2002). Mauritius in the Making: Across the Censuses, 1846-2000. Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture, Ministry of Arts & Culture. p. 41. ISBN 9990390460.
  81. ↑ Marina Carter, James Ng Foong Kwong (2009). Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation. Vol. 1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1. Brill. p. 203. ISBN 978-9004175723.
  82. ↑ Ellen Oxfeld (1993). Blood, sweat, and mahjong: family and enterprise in an overseas Chinese community. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2593-6.
  83. ↑ Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar (2001). Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar (ed.). Alternative Modernities. Vol. 1 of A millennial quartet book, Volume 11 of Public culture (illustrated ed.). Duke University Press. pp. 263–264. ISBN 978-0-8223-2714-1. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  84. ↑ Janaki Nair; Mary E. John (2000). Janaki Nair; Mary E. John (eds.). A Question of Silence: The Sexual Economies of Modern India (illustrated, reprint ed.). Zed Books. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-85649-892-0. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  85. ↑ University of Natal (1997). History and African Studies Seminar series, Issues 1-25. History and African Studies Seminar Series, University of Natal. University of Natal, History and African Studies Seminar. p. 24. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  86. ↑ Shobita Jain; Rhoda E. Reddock, eds. (1998). Women Plantation Workers: International Experiences. Vol. 18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women (illustrated ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-85973-972-3. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  87. ↑ Rhoda Reddock; Christine Barrow, eds. (2001). Caribbean sociology: introductory readings. Vol. 18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women (illustrated ed.). Ian Randle. p. 322. ISBN 978-1-55876-276-3. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  88. ↑ Shobita Jain; Rhoda E. Reddock, eds. (1998). Women Plantation Workers: International Experiences. Vol. 18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women (illustrated ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-85973-972-3. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  89. ↑ Cimarrón, Volume 1, Issue 3. Vol. 18 of Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Women. City University of New York. Association of Caribbean Studies (illustrated ed.). CUNY Association of Caribbean Studies. 1988. p. 101. Retrieved 1 June 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  90. ↑ Rhoda Reddock (1984). Women, labour and struggle in 20th century Trinidad and Tobago, 1898–1960 (illustrated ed.). R. E. Reddock. p. 192. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Reddock, Rhoda (26 October 1985). "Freedom Denied: Indian Women and Indentureship in Trinidad and Tobago, 1845–1917". Economic and Political Weekly. 20 (43): WS79–WS87. JSTOR 4374974.
  92. ↑ Rebecca Chiyoko King-O'Riain; Stephen Small; Minelle Mahtani, eds. (2014). Global Mixed Race. NYU Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-8147-7047-4. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  93. ↑ Basdeo Mangru (2005). The Elusive El Dorado: Essays on the Indian Experience in Guyana (illustrated ed.). University Press of America. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7618-3247-8. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  94. ↑ Dabydeen, David; Samaroo, Brinsley, eds. (1987). India in the Caribbean. Hansib / University of Warwick, Centre for Caribbean Studies publication (illustrated ed.). Hansib. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-870518-05-5. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  95. ↑ Raeann R Hamon; Bron B Ingoldsby, eds. (2003). Mate Selection Across Cultures. David Dabydeen (illustrated ed.). SAGE Publications. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4522-3769-5. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  96. ↑ Colin Clarke; Gillian Clarke (2010). Post-Colonial Trinidad: An Ethnographic Journal. Studies of the Americas (illustrated ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-230-10685-7. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  97. ↑ Foo, Noel (18 April 2015). "24-year-old Indian Chinese crowned new Miss Universe Malaysia". Archived from the original on 22 July 2015.
  98. ↑ "SPH Radio – Joshua Simon, Kiss92 FM". Sphradio.sg. 26 August 2016. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
  99. ↑ "Joshua Simon". Retrieved 29 May 2018 – via YouTube.
  100. ↑ "YAAAS TV". Retrieved 29 May 2018 – via YouTube.

External links[edit | edit source]

Template:Indian diaspora Template:Overseas Chinese2 Template:Ethnic groups in Indonesia Template:Ethnic groups in Malaysia Template:Indians in Malaysia

Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chindians&oldid=471819"
Discover more