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{{Short description|Variation in the English language spoken in India}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} | ||
{{more citations needed|date=July 2012}} | {{more citations needed|date=July 2012}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}} | {{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}} | ||
[[Indian English]] has developed a number of dialects, distinct from the General/Standard [[Indian English]] that educators have attempted to establish and institutionalise, and it is possible to distinguish a person's sociolinguistic background from the dialect that they employ. | [[Indian English]] has developed a number of dialects, distinct from the General/Standard [[Indian English]] that educators have attempted to establish and institutionalise, and it is possible to distinguish a person's sociolinguistic background from the dialect that they employ. These dialects are influenced by the different languages that different sections of the country also speak, side by side with English. | ||
The dialects can differ markedly in their phonology, to the point that two speakers using two different dialects can find each other's accents mutually unintelligible.<ref name=SethiSethiDhamija2004 /><ref name=Sarangi2004 /><ref name=Schneider2007 /> | |||
Indian English is a "network of varieties", resulting from an extraordinarily complex linguistic situation in the country. | Indian English is a "network of varieties", resulting from an extraordinarily complex linguistic situation in the country. (See [[Official languages of India]].) This network comprises both regional and occupational dialects of English. The widely recognised dialects include Tamil English, Malayali English, Telugu English, Maharashtrian English, Punjabi English, Bengali English, Hindi English, alongside several more obscure dialects such as [[Butler English]] (a.k.a. Bearer English), Babu English, and Bazaar English and several [[Code-switching|code-mixed]] varieties of English.<ref name=Schneider2007 /><ref name=Krishnaswamy2006 /><ref name=Kirkpatrick2007 /><ref name=Gargesh2006 /> | ||
The formation of these regional/socio-economic dialects is the same form of [[language contact]] that has given rise to [[Scottish English]].<ref name=Hickey2004 /> | The formation of these regional/socio-economic dialects is the same form of [[language contact]] that has given rise to [[Scottish English]].<ref name=Hickey2004 /> | ||
==General Indian English== | |||
{{Main | |||
|Indian English}} | |||
'''General Indian English''' here refers to a variety originating outside of the eastern regions and southern regions, crossing regional boundaries throughout the Republic of India. As mentioned, '''Cultivated Indian English''' is almost entirely this General Indian dialect but with a few additional features derived from [[Received Pronunciation]]. | |||
This accent is closest to the educated people, used by news anchors, actors and upper-class people throughout the nation not just particular to any region. | |||
== Babu English == | == Babu English == | ||
'''Babu English''' | '''Babu English''' (a.k.a. '''Baboo English'''), the name originally coming from the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] word for a gentleman, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect, amongst clerks in the Bengali-speaking areas of pre-[[Partition of India|Partition]] India. Originally characterised as a markedly ornate form of administrative English, it is now no longer confined solely to clerks, and can be found in [[Nepal]], north India, and in some social circles in south India.<ref name=Kachru1 /><ref name=Bragg2006 /> | ||
The distinguishing characteristics of Babu English are the florid, excessively polite, and indirect manner of expression, which have been reported for amusement value, in works such as Cecil Hunt's ''Honoured Sir'' collections (see [[#Further reading|Further reading]]), and lampooned, in works such as F. | The distinguishing characteristics of Babu English are the florid, excessively polite, and indirect manner of expression, which have been reported for amusement value, in works such as Cecil Hunt's ''Honoured Sir'' collections (see [[#Further reading|Further reading]]), and lampooned, in works such as F. Antesey's ''Baboo Jabberjee, B.A.'', for over a century.<ref name=Kachru1 /><ref name=Aravamudan2006 /> | ||
== Butler English == | == Butler English == | ||
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Butler English, also known as Bearer English or Kitchen English, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect in the years of the [[Madras Presidency]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kachru|first=Braj B.|date=1 December 1965|title=The Indianness in Indian English|journal=WORD|volume=21|issue=3|pages=391–410|doi=10.1080/00437956.1965.11435436|issn=0043-7956}}</ref> but that has developed over time and is now associated mainly with social class rather than occupation. It is still spoken in major metropolitan cities. | Butler English, also known as Bearer English or Kitchen English, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect in the years of the [[Madras Presidency]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kachru|first=Braj B.|date=1 December 1965|title=The Indianness in Indian English|journal=WORD|volume=21|issue=3|pages=391–410|doi=10.1080/00437956.1965.11435436|issn=0043-7956}}</ref> but that has developed over time and is now associated mainly with social class rather than occupation. It is still spoken in major metropolitan cities. | ||
The dialect of Butler English is singular. Therefore, the present participle is used for the future indicative, and the preterite. For example, for the preterite indicative "done", "I telling" translates to "I will tell", "I done tell" to "I have told", and "done come" to "actually arrived". This form of Indian English was used both by masters for speaking to their servants as well as by servants to speak to their masters.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hobson-Jobson : the definitive glossary of British India| | The dialect of Butler English is singular. Therefore, the present participle is used for the future indicative, and the preterite. For example, for the preterite indicative "done", "I telling" translates to "I will tell", "I done tell" to "I have told", and "done come" to "actually arrived". This form of Indian English was used both by masters for speaking to their servants as well as by servants to speak to their masters.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hobson-Jobson : the definitive glossary of British India|author=Yule, Henry, Sir|others=Burnell, A. C. (Arthur Coke), 1840-1882., Teltscher, Kate,, Teltscher, Kate, 1963-|year=2015 |isbn=978-0198718000|location=[Oxford]|oclc=913732430}}</ref> | ||
== Hindi English == | == Hindi English == | ||
{{Main|Hinglish}} | {{Main|Hinglish}} | ||
[[Hinglish]] (the name is a combination of the words "Hindi" and "English") is a [[macaronic language]], a hybrid of [[British English]] and [[South Asian languages]] – it is a [[code-switching]] variety of these languages whereby they are freely interchanged within a sentence or between sentences. While the name is based on the [[Hindi language]], it does not refer exclusively to Hindi, but "is used in India, with English words blending with Punjabi, and Hindi, and also within [[British Asian]] families to enliven standard English." It is predominantly spoken in | [[Hinglish]] (the name is a combination of the words "Hindi" and "English") is a [[macaronic language]], a hybrid of [[British English]] and [[South Asian languages]] – it is a [[code-switching]] variety of these languages whereby they are freely interchanged within a sentence or between sentences. While the name is based on the [[Hindi language]], it does not refer exclusively to Hindi, but "is used in India, with English words blending with Punjabi, and Hindi, and also within [[British Asian]] families to enliven standard English." It is predominantly spoken in Northern India and some parts of Mumbai and Bangalore.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} | ||
{{IPA notice|section}} | {{IPA notice|section}} | ||
| Line 37: | Line 47: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|apple | |apple | ||
|ɛpʊl | |{{IPA|ɛpʊl}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|cold | |cold | ||
|kol(d) | |{{IPA|kol(d)}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|ball | |ball | ||
|bɔl | |{{IPA|bɔl}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|cool | |cool | ||
|kul | |{{IPA|kul}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|mango | |mango | ||
|mɛŋɡɔ | |{{IPA|mɛŋɡɔ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|father | |father | ||
|ɸadaɹ | |{{IPA|ɸadaɹ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|cat | |cat | ||
|kɛt | |{{IPA|kɛt}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|she | |she | ||
|si | |{{IPA|si}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|China | |China | ||
|saɪna | |{{IPA|saɪna}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|verification | |verification | ||
|bʱɛɹiɸikɛsɔn | |{{IPA|bʱɛɹiɸikɛsɔn}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|intelligent | |intelligent | ||
|intɛlizɛn | |{{IPA|intɛlizɛn}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|telephone | |telephone | ||
|telɪɸʊn | |{{IPA|telɪɸʊn}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|jewellery | |jewellery | ||
|zʊɛlaɹi | |{{IPA|zʊɛlaɹi}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|think | |think | ||
|tʰiŋ | |{{IPA|tʰiŋ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|desk | |desk | ||
|dɛks | |{{IPA|dɛks}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|road | |road | ||
|ɹʊd, ɹod | |{{IPA|ɹʊd, ɹod}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|guardian | |guardian | ||
|ɡaɹzɛn | |{{IPA|ɡaɹzɛn}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|fish | |fish | ||
|ɸis, pʰis | |{{IPA|ɸis, pʰis}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|but | |but | ||
|bat | |{{IPA|bat}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|number | |number | ||
|nambaɹ | |{{IPA|nambaɹ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|university | |university | ||
|iʊnibʱaɹsiti | |{{IPA|iʊnibʱaɹsiti}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|ghost | |ghost | ||
|ɡʱos(t) | |{{IPA|ɡʱos(t)}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|college | |college | ||
|kɔlɛz | |{{IPA|kɔlɛz}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|pressure | |pressure | ||
|p(ɹ)saɹ | |{{IPA|p(ɹ)saɹ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|torch | |torch | ||
|tɔ(ɹ)s | |{{IPA|tɔ(ɹ)s}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|checkpoint | |checkpoint | ||
|sɛkpɔɪn | |{{IPA|sɛkpɔɪn}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|halfpant | |halfpant | ||
|ɦappɛn | |{{IPA|ɦappɛn}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Bengali English== | ==Bengali English== | ||
'''Bengali English''' (or '''eastern Indian English''') here refers collectively to the varieties of the [[West Bengal]] state and neighbouring country | '''Bengali English''' (or '''eastern Indian English''') here refers collectively to the varieties of the [[West Bengal]] state and neighbouring country of [[Bangladesh]], which has been greatly influenced by [[Bengali language|Bengali]]. Its main subdivisions are '''Calcutta English''' as well as '''Dhaka English'''. It is similar or even identical to [[Bangladeshi English]], also known as ''Banglish'' or ''Benglish''. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} as raised, in the general vicinity of {{ | *{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} as raised, in the general vicinity of {{IPAblink|i}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} as fronted, more closely approaching {{ | *{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} as fronted, more closely approaching {{IPAblink|a}} but {{IPAblink|ɔ}} between nasal and velar e.g. '''mug'''. | ||
*{{IPAc-en| | *{{IPAc-en|ʊ}} and {{IPAc-en|uː}} both in the general vicinity of {{IPAblink|u}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as {{ | *{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}, almost always, as [[monophthong]] {{IPAblink|e}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}, almost always, as | *{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}, almost always, as monophthong {{IPAblink|o}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|f}} as {{IPAblink|ɸ}}. | |||
*{{IPAc-en|v}} as {{IPAblink|β}}. | |||
==West Indian English== | ==West Indian English== | ||
'''West Indian English''' | '''West Indian English''' here refers to a traditional variety spoken in the western part of India. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{ | *{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|o|oː|}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{ | *{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|eː}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} as {{ | *{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} as {{IPAblink|e}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|æ}} as {{ | *{{IPAc-en|æ}} as {{IPAblink|ɛ}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}}, respectively, as {{ | *{{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}}, respectively, as {{IPAblink|t̪|t̪(ʰ)}} and {{IPAblink|d̪}}. | ||
==Cultivated Indian English== | ==Cultivated Indian English== | ||
'''Cultivated Indian English''' here refers collectively to non-localised, non-working class, and more recent varieties of India and the surrounding region of India. It includes mainstream Indian English, a widely common, upper-class variety that preserves a few local Indian features while setting the basis for an otherwise General Indian English accent as well as new Cultivated Indian English, a youthful variety beginning in the 2000s. | '''Cultivated Indian English''' here refers collectively to non-localised, non-working class, and more recent varieties of India and the surrounding region of India. It includes mainstream Indian English, a widely common, upper-class variety that preserves a few local Indian features while setting the basis for an otherwise General Indian English accent as well as new Cultivated Indian English, a youthful variety beginning in the 2000s. However, both are found rarely in India. | ||
== Southern Indian English== | == Southern Indian English== | ||
{{See also|Tenglish|Tanglish}} | {{See also|Tenglish|Tanglish|Kanglish}} | ||
'''Southern Indian English''' here refers to | '''Southern Indian English''' here refers to broad varieties of Southern India. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{ | *{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|o|oː|}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{ | *{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|e|eː}}. | ||
*{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} as {{ | *{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} as {{IPAblink|ɑ}} | ||
*{{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}}, respectively, as {{ | *{{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}}, respectively, as {{IPAblink|t̪|t̪(ʰ)|}} and {{IPAblink|d̪}}. | ||
In addition to these, the alveolar stops {{IPAblink|t}} and {{IPAblink|d}} in words like ''water'' and ''door'' are often pronounced as their retroflex equivalents {{IPAblink|ʈ}} and {{IPAblink|ɖ}} respectively. | |||
* Words spelt with double consonants may have the consonant geminated, eg. summer, happy, killing, bitter [sʌmmə hæːppi killiŋɡ biʈʈə~bittə]. Not generally done if the surrounding vowels are long unless its a affixed word eg. irrespective [irrispekʈiʋ]. The dg clusters as in judge, edge are also geminated. | |||
An [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] y might be added to words starting with a front vowel and a w to words starting with a rounded vowel. Hypercorrection is also common, eg. letter "s" as yes and "yes" as es. {{Citation needed|date=January 2026}} | |||
Tamil and Malayali speakers might voice the intervocalic and post nasal plosives or double them, eg. "simply" [simbɭi]. | |||
''' | ===Malayali=== | ||
* An epenthetic vowel {{IPA|[ə̆]}} maybe added to words ending with some consonants. | |||
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} can be {{IPA|[ei̯, eji, aji]}} along with {{IPAblink|e|eː}}, e.g. ''name, jail'' {{IPA|[neim~nejim, d͡ʒajil]}}. | |||
* {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} is {{IPA|[oː~ɔː]}} as in ''caught'' {{IPA|[kɔːʈ(ʈə̆)]}}. | |||
* /Cwɪ, Cwi:/ maybe pronounced as [Cju, Cju:], e.g. ''quiz, queen'' {{IPA|[kjus(sə̆), kju:n]}}. | |||
* Alveolar {{IPA|[t, nd, n, l]}} are used for /t, {nd, nt}, n, l/ after front vowels and their retroflex versions after other vowels, e.g. ''seat, suit, kind, count, peel, pool'' {{IPA|[siːt(tə̆), suːʈ(ʈə̆), kai̯nd(ə̆), kau̯ɳɖ(ə̆)~kau̯ɳʈ(ə̆), piːl, puːɭ]}}; plain {{IPAblink|d}} isn't there as Malayalam doesn't have it. | |||
*{{IPAc-en|z}} is never taken as {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} as in rest of South Asia, its either {{IPA|s}} or {{IPA|z}}, e.g. ''zoo'' {{IPA|[suː~zuː]}}. {{IPAc-en|ʒ}} is mostly loaned as /ʃ/ (mostly ones spelt with 's') or as /dʒ, ɻ/, eg. "genre" [ɻoːɳɐr]. | |||
* In rhotic accents {{IPAc-en|r|s}} cluster is {{IPA|[ɻs]}} while other instances of {{IPAc-en|r}} can be {{IPAblink|r}} or {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, e.g. ''register, registers, carrot, orange'' {{IPA|[ɾedʒistɐr, ɾedʒisteːɻs(ə̆), kaːɾɐtːə̆, oːrɐɲdʒə̆]}}. | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| Line 165: | Line 188: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|refs= | {{Reflist|refs= | ||
<ref name=SethiSethiDhamija2004>{{cite book|title=A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English|author1=J. Sethi |author2=Dhamija Sethi |author3=P. V. Dhamija | <ref name=SethiSethiDhamija2004>{{cite book|title=A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English|author1=J. Sethi |author2=Dhamija Sethi |author3=P. V. Dhamija |name-list-style=amp |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|year=2004|isbn=9788120314955|page=59}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Sarangi2004>{{cite book|title=Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics|editor=Mohit Kumar Ray|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & | <ref name=Sarangi2004>{{cite book|title=Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics|editor=Mohit Kumar Ray|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2004|isbn=9788126903504|chapter=Indian Variety of English: A Socio-Linguistic Study|author=Jaydeep Sarangi|page=50}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Schneider2007>{{cite book|title=Postcolonial English|url=https://archive.org/details/postcolonialengl00schn|url-access=limited|author=Edgar W. Schneider|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780521831406|page=[https://archive.org/details/postcolonialengl00schn/page/n185 168]}}</ref> | <ref name=Schneider2007>{{cite book|title=Postcolonial English|url=https://archive.org/details/postcolonialengl00schn|url-access=limited|author=Edgar W. Schneider|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780521831406|page=[https://archive.org/details/postcolonialengl00schn/page/n185 168]}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Krishnaswamy2006>{{cite book|title=the story of english in india|author1=N. Krishnaswamy | <ref name=Krishnaswamy2006>{{cite book|title=the story of english in india|author1=N. Krishnaswamy |author2=Lalitha Krishnaswamy |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Foundation Books|year=2006|isbn=9788175963122}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Kirkpatrick2007>{{cite book|title=World Englishes|url=https://archive.org/details/worldenglishesim00kirk|url-access=limited|author=Andy Kirkpatrick|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780521851473|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldenglishesim00kirk/page/n49 89]}}</ref> | <ref name=Kirkpatrick2007>{{cite book|title=World Englishes|url=https://archive.org/details/worldenglishesim00kirk|url-access=limited|author=Andy Kirkpatrick|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780521851473|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldenglishesim00kirk/page/n49 89]}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Gargesh2006>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of World Englishes|editor1=Braj B. Kachru |editor2=Yamuna Kachru |editor3=Cecil L. Nelson |author=Ravinder Gargesh|chapter=South Asian Englishes|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9781405111850|page=92}}</ref> | <ref name=Gargesh2006>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of World Englishes|editor1=Braj B. Kachru |editor2=Yamuna Kachru |editor3=Cecil L. Nelson |author=Ravinder Gargesh|chapter=South Asian Englishes|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9781405111850|page=92}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Hickey2004>{{cite book|title=Legacies of Colonial English|url=https://archive.org/details/legaciescolonial00hick_498|url-access=limited|editor=Raymond Hickey|chapter=South Asian Englishes|author=Raymond Hickey|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780521830201|page=[https://archive.org/details/legaciescolonial00hick_498/page/n563 543]}}</ref> | <ref name=Hickey2004>{{cite book|title=Legacies of Colonial English|url=https://archive.org/details/legaciescolonial00hick_498|url-access=limited|editor=Raymond Hickey|chapter=South Asian Englishes|author=Raymond Hickey|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780521830201|page=[https://archive.org/details/legaciescolonial00hick_498/page/n563 543]}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Bragg2006>{{cite book|title=The Adventure of English|author=Melvyn Bragg|author-link=Melvyn Bragg|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9781559707848|page=243}}</ref> | <ref name=Bragg2006>{{cite book|title=The Adventure of English|author=Melvyn Bragg|author-link=Melvyn Bragg|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9781559707848|page=243}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Kachru1>{{cite book|title=World Englishes|editor1=Kingsley Bolton |editor2=Braj B. Kachru |chapter=English in South Asia|author=Braj B. Kachru|pages=267–269|publisher=Taylor & | <ref name=Kachru1>{{cite book|title=World Englishes|editor1=Kingsley Bolton |editor2=Braj B. Kachru |chapter=English in South Asia|author=Braj B. Kachru|pages=267–269|publisher=Taylor & Francis UK|year=2006|isbn=9780415315074}}<br/>also printed as {{cite book|editor=Robert Burchfield|title=The Cambridge History of the English Language|volume=V. English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|pages=497–553|chapter=English in South Asia|author=Braj B. Kachru|isbn=9780521264785}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Aravamudan2006>{{cite book|title=Guru English: South Asian religion in a cosmopolitan language|author=Srinivas Aravamudan|author-link=Srinivas Aravamudan|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-691-11828-4|pages=133}}</ref> | <ref name=Aravamudan2006>{{cite book|title=Guru English: South Asian religion in a cosmopolitan language|author=Srinivas Aravamudan|author-link=Srinivas Aravamudan|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-691-11828-4|pages=133}}</ref> | ||
}} | }} | ||
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== Further reading == | == Further reading == | ||
* {{cite journal|journal=World Englishes|volume=25|issue=1|pages=91–104|year=2006|title=The influence of Gujarati and Tamil L1s on Indian English: a preliminary study|author1=Wiltshire|first=Caroline|author2=James D. Harnsberger|name-list-style=amp|doi=10.1111/j.0083-2919.2006.00448.x}} | * {{cite journal|journal=World Englishes|volume=25|issue=1|pages=91–104|year=2006|title=The influence of Gujarati and Tamil L1s on Indian English: a preliminary study|author1=Wiltshire|first=Caroline|author2=James D. Harnsberger|name-list-style=amp|doi=10.1111/j.0083-2919.2006.00448.x}} | ||
* {{cite book|title=Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon|author=Braj B. Kachru|publisher=Hong Kong University | * {{cite book|title=Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon|author=Braj B. Kachru|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=2005|isbn=9789622096660}} | ||
* (Indian Novels in English: A Sociolinguistic Study) Jaydeep Sarangi, Prakash Book Depot,Bareilly,2005 Pp 214. | * (Indian Novels in English: A Sociolinguistic Study) Jaydeep Sarangi, Prakash Book Depot, Bareilly, 2005 Pp 214. | ||
=== Babu English === | === Babu English === | ||
* {{cite book|author=Cecil Hunt|year=1931|title=Honoured Sir from Babujee|publisher=P. Allan & | * {{cite book|author=Cecil Hunt|year=1931|title=Honoured Sir from Babujee|publisher=P. Allan & Co., Ltd}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Cecil Hunt|year=1935|title=Babuji Writes Home: being a new edition of 'Honoured sir' with many additional letters|publisher=P. Allan & | * {{cite book|author=Cecil Hunt|year=1935|title=Babuji Writes Home: being a new edition of 'Honoured sir' with many additional letters|publisher=P. Allan & Co., Ltd}} | ||
* {{Gutenberg|no=25129|name=Baboo Jabberjee, B.A.}} | * {{Gutenberg|no=25129|name=Baboo Jabberjee, B.A.}} | ||
* {{cite book|title=Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics|editor1-first=Mohit Kumar|editor1-last=Ray|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|year=2004|isbn=9788126903504|chapter=Babu English and Butler English|author1-first=S.|author1-last=Jagadisan|author2-first=S. Imtiaz|author2-last=Ali|pages=37–39}} | |||
=== Malayali English === | === Malayali English === | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite thesis|author=Suchitra Sadanandan|year=1981|degree=MLitt|title=Stress in Malayalee English: A generative phonological approach|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}} | ||
=== Tamilian English === | === Tamilian English === | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite thesis|author=K. G. Vijayakrishnan|year=1978|degree=MLitt|title=Stress in Tamilian English: a study within the framework of generative phonology|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}} | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite thesis|author=S. Upendran|year=1980|degree=MLitt|title=The intelligibility of English spoken by Tamilians|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}} | ||
=== Punjabi English === | === Punjabi English === | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite thesis|author=J. Sethi|year=1976|degree=Ph.D.|title=English spoken by educated Punjabi speakers in India: A phonological study|publisher=[[Punjabi University]]|location=[[Chandigarh]]}} | ||
* {{cite journal|author=J. Sethi|year=1978|title=The vowel system in educated Punjabi speakers' English|journal=Bulletin of the Central Institute of English|volume=14|issue=2|pages=35–48}} | * {{cite journal|author=J. Sethi|year=1978|title=The vowel system in educated Punjabi speakers' English|journal=Bulletin of the Central Institute of English|volume=14|issue=2|pages=35–48}} | ||
* {{cite journal|author=J. Sethi|year=1980|title=Word accent in educated Punjabi speakers' English|journal=Bulletin of the Central Institute of English|volume=16|issue=2|pages=31–55}} | * {{cite journal|author=J. Sethi|year=1980|title=Word accent in educated Punjabi speakers' English|journal=Bulletin of the Central Institute of English|volume=16|issue=2|pages=31–55}} | ||
=== Rajasthani English === | === Rajasthani English === | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite thesis|author=P. V. Dhamija|year=1976|degree=MLitt|title=A phonological analysis of Rajasthani English|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}} | ||
=== Telugu English === | === Telugu English === | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite thesis|author=B. A. Prabhakar Babu|year=1974|degree=Ph.D.|title=A phonological study of English spoken by Telugu speakers in Andhra Pradesh|publisher=[[Osmania University]]|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}} | ||
{{English dialects by continent}} | {{English dialects by continent}} | ||
Latest revision as of 05:23, 31 January 2026
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2012) |
Indian English has developed a number of dialects, distinct from the General/Standard Indian English that educators have attempted to establish and institutionalise, and it is possible to distinguish a person's sociolinguistic background from the dialect that they employ. These dialects are influenced by the different languages that different sections of the country also speak, side by side with English. The dialects can differ markedly in their phonology, to the point that two speakers using two different dialects can find each other's accents mutually unintelligible.[1][2][3]
Indian English is a "network of varieties", resulting from an extraordinarily complex linguistic situation in the country. (See Official languages of India.) This network comprises both regional and occupational dialects of English. The widely recognised dialects include Tamil English, Malayali English, Telugu English, Maharashtrian English, Punjabi English, Bengali English, Hindi English, alongside several more obscure dialects such as Butler English (a.k.a. Bearer English), Babu English, and Bazaar English and several code-mixed varieties of English.[3][4][5][6]
The formation of these regional/socio-economic dialects is the same form of language contact that has given rise to Scottish English.[7]
General Indian English[edit | edit source]
General Indian English here refers to a variety originating outside of the eastern regions and southern regions, crossing regional boundaries throughout the Republic of India. As mentioned, Cultivated Indian English is almost entirely this General Indian dialect but with a few additional features derived from Received Pronunciation.
This accent is closest to the educated people, used by news anchors, actors and upper-class people throughout the nation not just particular to any region.
Babu English[edit | edit source]
Babu English (a.k.a. Baboo English), the name originally coming from the Bengali word for a gentleman, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect, amongst clerks in the Bengali-speaking areas of pre-Partition India. Originally characterised as a markedly ornate form of administrative English, it is now no longer confined solely to clerks, and can be found in Nepal, north India, and in some social circles in south India.[8][9]
The distinguishing characteristics of Babu English are the florid, excessively polite, and indirect manner of expression, which have been reported for amusement value, in works such as Cecil Hunt's Honoured Sir collections (see Further reading), and lampooned, in works such as F. Antesey's Baboo Jabberjee, B.A., for over a century.[8][10]
Butler English[edit | edit source]
Butler English, also known as Bearer English or Kitchen English, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect in the years of the Madras Presidency,[11] but that has developed over time and is now associated mainly with social class rather than occupation. It is still spoken in major metropolitan cities.
The dialect of Butler English is singular. Therefore, the present participle is used for the future indicative, and the preterite. For example, for the preterite indicative "done", "I telling" translates to "I will tell", "I done tell" to "I have told", and "done come" to "actually arrived". This form of Indian English was used both by masters for speaking to their servants as well as by servants to speak to their masters.[12]
Hindi English[edit | edit source]
Hinglish (the name is a combination of the words "Hindi" and "English") is a macaronic language, a hybrid of British English and South Asian languages – it is a code-switching variety of these languages whereby they are freely interchanged within a sentence or between sentences. While the name is based on the Hindi language, it does not refer exclusively to Hindi, but "is used in India, with English words blending with Punjabi, and Hindi, and also within British Asian families to enliven standard English." It is predominantly spoken in Northern India and some parts of Mumbai and Bangalore.[citation needed]
Modern phonologists often divide Indian English into five major varieties.
Assamese English[edit | edit source]
Assamese English refers to the English spoken by Assamese speakers. Some major difference between Assamese English and British English are mostly seen in some consonants. In Assamese English all vowels are usually short.
| Words | Pronunciation in Assamese English |
|---|---|
| apple | ɛpʊl |
| cold | kol(d) |
| ball | bɔl |
| cool | kul |
| mango | mɛŋɡɔ |
| father | ɸadaɹ |
| cat | kɛt |
| she | si |
| China | saɪna |
| verification | bʱɛɹiɸikɛsɔn |
| intelligent | intɛlizɛn |
| telephone | telɪɸʊn |
| jewellery | zʊɛlaɹi |
| think | tʰiŋ |
| desk | dɛks |
| road | ɹʊd, ɹod |
| guardian | ɡaɹzɛn |
| fish | ɸis, pʰis |
| but | bat |
| number | nambaɹ |
| university | iʊnibʱaɹsiti |
| ghost | ɡʱos(t) |
| college | kɔlɛz |
| pressure | p(ɹ)saɹ |
| torch | tɔ(ɹ)s |
| checkpoint | sɛkpɔɪn |
| halfpant | ɦappɛn |
Bengali English[edit | edit source]
Bengali English (or eastern Indian English) here refers collectively to the varieties of the West Bengal state and neighbouring country of Bangladesh, which has been greatly influenced by Bengali. Its main subdivisions are Calcutta English as well as Dhaka English. It is similar or even identical to Bangladeshi English, also known as Banglish or Benglish.
- /ɪ/ as raised, in the general vicinity of [i].
- /ʌ/ as fronted, more closely approaching [a] but [ɔ] between nasal and velar e.g. mug.
- /ʊ/ and /uː/ both in the general vicinity of [u].
- /eɪ/, almost always, as monophthong [e].
- /oʊ/, almost always, as monophthong [o].
- /f/ as [ɸ].
- /v/ as [β].
West Indian English[edit | edit source]
West Indian English here refers to a traditional variety spoken in the western part of India.
- /oʊ/ as monophthongal [oː].
- /eɪ/ as monophthongal [eː].
- /ɛ/ as [e].
- /æ/ as [ɛ].
- /θ/ and /ð/, respectively, as [t̪(ʰ)] and [d̪].
Cultivated Indian English[edit | edit source]
Cultivated Indian English here refers collectively to non-localised, non-working class, and more recent varieties of India and the surrounding region of India. It includes mainstream Indian English, a widely common, upper-class variety that preserves a few local Indian features while setting the basis for an otherwise General Indian English accent as well as new Cultivated Indian English, a youthful variety beginning in the 2000s. However, both are found rarely in India.
Southern Indian English[edit | edit source]
Southern Indian English here refers to broad varieties of Southern India.
- /oʊ/ as monophthongal [oː].
- /eɪ/ as monophthongal [eː].
- /ɒ/ as [ɑ]
- /θ/ and /ð/, respectively, as [t̪(ʰ)] and [d̪].
In addition to these, the alveolar stops [t] and [d] in words like water and door are often pronounced as their retroflex equivalents [ʈ] and [ɖ] respectively.
- Words spelt with double consonants may have the consonant geminated, eg. summer, happy, killing, bitter [sʌmmə hæːppi killiŋɡ biʈʈə~bittə]. Not generally done if the surrounding vowels are long unless its a affixed word eg. irrespective [irrispekʈiʋ]. The dg clusters as in judge, edge are also geminated.
An epenthetic y might be added to words starting with a front vowel and a w to words starting with a rounded vowel. Hypercorrection is also common, eg. letter "s" as yes and "yes" as es. [citation needed]
Tamil and Malayali speakers might voice the intervocalic and post nasal plosives or double them, eg. "simply" [simbɭi].
Malayali[edit | edit source]
- An epenthetic vowel [ə̆] maybe added to words ending with some consonants.
- /eɪ/ can be [ei̯, eji, aji] along with [eː], e.g. name, jail [neim~nejim, d͡ʒajil].
- /ɔː/ is [oː~ɔː] as in caught [kɔːʈ(ʈə̆)].
- /Cwɪ, Cwi:/ maybe pronounced as [Cju, Cju:], e.g. quiz, queen [kjus(sə̆), kju:n].
- Alveolar [t, nd, n, l] are used for /t, {nd, nt}, n, l/ after front vowels and their retroflex versions after other vowels, e.g. seat, suit, kind, count, peel, pool [siːt(tə̆), suːʈ(ʈə̆), kai̯nd(ə̆), kau̯ɳɖ(ə̆)~kau̯ɳʈ(ə̆), piːl, puːɭ]; plain [d] isn't there as Malayalam doesn't have it.
- /z/ is never taken as [d͡ʒ] as in rest of South Asia, its either s or z, e.g. zoo [suː~zuː]. /ʒ/ is mostly loaned as /ʃ/ (mostly ones spelt with 's') or as /dʒ, ɻ/, eg. "genre" [ɻoːɳɐr].
- In rhotic accents /rs/ cluster is [ɻs] while other instances of /r/ can be [r] or [ɾ], e.g. register, registers, carrot, orange [ɾedʒistɐr, ɾedʒisteːɻs(ə̆), kaːɾɐtːə̆, oːrɐɲdʒə̆].
See also[edit | edit source]
- Code-switching
- English language
- Hinglish
- Kanglish or Bangalorean English
- Manglish
- Interlanguage
- List of dialects of the English language
- Tanglish
- Tenglish
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ J. Sethi; Dhamija Sethi & P. V. Dhamija (2004). A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 59. ISBN 9788120314955.
- ↑ Jaydeep Sarangi (2004). "Indian Variety of English: A Socio-Linguistic Study". In Mohit Kumar Ray (ed.). Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 50. ISBN 9788126903504.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Edgar W. Schneider (2007). Postcolonial English. Cambridge University Press. p. 168. ISBN 9780521831406.
- ↑ N. Krishnaswamy & Lalitha Krishnaswamy (2006). the story of english in india. Foundation Books. ISBN 9788175963122.
- ↑ Andy Kirkpatrick (2007). World Englishes. Cambridge University Press. p. 89. ISBN 9780521851473.
- ↑ Ravinder Gargesh (2006). "South Asian Englishes". In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; Cecil L. Nelson (eds.). The Handbook of World Englishes. Blackwell Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 9781405111850.
- ↑ Raymond Hickey (2004). "South Asian Englishes". In Raymond Hickey (ed.). Legacies of Colonial English. Cambridge University Press. p. 543. ISBN 9780521830201.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Braj B. Kachru (2006). "English in South Asia". In Kingsley Bolton; Braj B. Kachru (eds.). World Englishes. Taylor & Francis UK. pp. 267–269. ISBN 9780415315074.
also printed as Braj B. Kachru (1994). "English in South Asia". In Robert Burchfield (ed.). The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. V. English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 497–553. ISBN 9780521264785. - ↑ Melvyn Bragg (2006). The Adventure of English. Arcade Publishing. p. 243. ISBN 9781559707848.
- ↑ Srinivas Aravamudan (2006). Guru English: South Asian religion in a cosmopolitan language. Princeton University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-691-11828-4.
- ↑ Kachru, Braj B. (1 December 1965). "The Indianness in Indian English". WORD. 21 (3): 391–410. doi:10.1080/00437956.1965.11435436. ISSN 0043-7956.
- ↑ Yule, Henry, Sir (2015). Hobson-Jobson : the definitive glossary of British India. Burnell, A. C. (Arthur Coke), 1840-1882., Teltscher, Kate,, Teltscher, Kate, 1963-. [Oxford]. ISBN 978-0198718000. OCLC 913732430.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Further reading[edit | edit source]
- Wiltshire, Caroline & James D. Harnsberger (2006). "The influence of Gujarati and Tamil L1s on Indian English: a preliminary study". World Englishes. 25 (1): 91–104. doi:10.1111/j.0083-2919.2006.00448.x.
- Braj B. Kachru (2005). Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 9789622096660.
- (Indian Novels in English: A Sociolinguistic Study) Jaydeep Sarangi, Prakash Book Depot, Bareilly, 2005 Pp 214.
Babu English[edit | edit source]
- Cecil Hunt (1931). Honoured Sir from Babujee. P. Allan & Co., Ltd.
- Cecil Hunt (1935). Babuji Writes Home: being a new edition of 'Honoured sir' with many additional letters. P. Allan & Co., Ltd.
- Baboo Jabberjee, B.A. at Project Gutenberg
- Jagadisan, S.; Ali, S. Imtiaz (2004). "Babu English and Butler English". In Ray, Mohit Kumar (ed.). Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. Atlantic Publishers. pp. 37–39. ISBN 9788126903504.
Malayali English[edit | edit source]
- Suchitra Sadanandan (1981). Stress in Malayalee English: A generative phonological approach (MLitt thesis). Hyderabad: Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages.
Tamilian English[edit | edit source]
- K. G. Vijayakrishnan (1978). Stress in Tamilian English: a study within the framework of generative phonology (MLitt thesis). Hyderabad: Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages.
- S. Upendran (1980). The intelligibility of English spoken by Tamilians (MLitt thesis). Hyderabad: Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages.
Punjabi English[edit | edit source]
- J. Sethi (1976). English spoken by educated Punjabi speakers in India: A phonological study (Ph.D. thesis). Chandigarh: Punjabi University.
- J. Sethi (1978). "The vowel system in educated Punjabi speakers' English". Bulletin of the Central Institute of English. 14 (2): 35–48.
- J. Sethi (1980). "Word accent in educated Punjabi speakers' English". Bulletin of the Central Institute of English. 16 (2): 31–55.
Rajasthani English[edit | edit source]
- P. V. Dhamija (1976). A phonological analysis of Rajasthani English (MLitt thesis). Hyderabad: Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages.
Telugu English[edit | edit source]
- B. A. Prabhakar Babu (1974). A phonological study of English spoken by Telugu speakers in Andhra Pradesh (Ph.D. thesis). Hyderabad: Osmania University.