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{{Short description|Chola emperor from 985-1014}}
{{Short description|Chola emperor from 985 to 1014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2013}}
{{Infobox royalty
{{Infobox royalty
| regnal name =  
| regnal name = Rāja Rāja Cola (or) Rāja Rāja I
| title       = Rājakēsari<br />Ponniyin Selvan, Mum'muṭi Cōḻan,{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}} Sivapathasekaran, [[Tailapa II|Taila]] Kula Kaalan, Pandiya kula sani, Thelungu Kula Kaalan, Keralandhagan, Singalandhagan, Kṣatriya Śikhāmaṇi
| title = Rājakēsari Varman,<br />Ponniyin Selvan, Mum'muṭi Coḻa,{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}} Sivapathasekaran, Thirumurai Kanda Chola, [[Tailapa II|Taila]] Kula Kaalan, Telungu kula kaalan, [[Pandiya]] Kula Sani, [[Chera|Kerala]]ndhagan, [[Sinhalese|Sinhala]]ndhagan, [[Kshatriya|Kṣatriya]] Śikhāmaṇi
| image       = Wall paintings depicted in the cloister Mandapa, Big Temple, Thanjavur - 3.JPG
| image = Raraja detail.png
| image_size   = 200px
| image_size = 250px
| caption     = A Mural of Rajaraja I at [[Brihadisvara Temple]].
| caption = Detail of the bronze portrait of Rajaraja Chola at the [[Brihadisvara Temple]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sivaraman |first1=R. |title=Idols of Raja Raja Chola, consort recovered from Gujarat |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/idols-of-raja-raja-chola-consort-recovered-from-gujarat/article24040723.ece |work=The Hindu |date=30 May 2018 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Srinivasan |first1=G. |title=Tamil Nadu elated Chola era idols' recovery from Gujarat {{!}} Tamil Nadu elated Chola era idols' recovery from Gujarat |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/310518/tamil-nadu-elated-chola-era-idols-recovery-from-gujarat.html |work=www.deccanchronicle.com |date=31 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
| succession   = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| succession = [[Chola Empire|Chola Emperor]]
| reign       = {{circa|985|1014}}
| reign = June/July 985{{endash}}January or February 1014
| predecessor = [[Uttama Chola]]
| predecessor = [[Uttama]]
| successor   = [[Rajendra I]]
| successor = [[Rajendra I]]
| birth_name   = Arulmozhi Varman
| birth_name = Arul Mozhi Varman
| birth_date   = {{circa|947}}
| birth_date = {{Birth date|947|11|3|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern-day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern-day [[Tamil Nadu]], India)
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1014|||947||}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1014|1||947|11|3|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern-day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_place = Thanjavur, Chola Empire
| spouse       = *Thiripuvana Madeviyar
| spouse = *Thiripuvana Madeviyar
*Lokamahadevi
*Lokamahadevi
*Cholamahadevi
*Cholamahadevi
Line 25: Line 25:
*Latamahadevi
*Latamahadevi
*Prithivimahadevi
*Prithivimahadevi
| issue       = * [[Rajendra Chola I]]
| issue = * [[Rajendra I]]
* Arulmozhi chandramalli alias Gangamadevi
* Araiyan Rajarajan
* Arulmozhi Chandramalli alias Gangamadevi
* Mathevadigal
* Mathevadigal
| house       = [[Cholas]]
| house =  
| father       = [[Parantaka II]]
| father = [[Parantaka II]]
| mother       = Vanavan Mahadevi
| mother = Vanavan Mahadevi
| signature   = Raja Raja Chola I.svg
| signature = Raja Raja Chola I.svg
| religion     = [[Hinduism]]<br />''[[#Religious policy|See details]]'' <!-- Added as per [[Napoleon]] -->
| religion = [[Hinduism]]<br />''[[#Religious policy|See details]]'' <!-- Added as per [[Napoleon]] -->
| succession2 = King of [[Anuradhapura]] <br />
| succession2 = King of [[Anuradhapura]]
| reign2       = {{circa|992|1014}}
| reign2 = {{circa|992|January/February 1014}}
| predecessor2 = [[Mahinda V]]
| predecessor2 = [[Mahinda V]]
| successor2   = [[Rajendra Chola|Rajendra I]]
| successor2 = [[Rajendra Chola|Rajendra I]]
| dynasty     = [[Chola]]
| dynasty = [[Chola dynasty|Chola]]
}}
}}


{{Chola history}}
{{Chola history}}
'''Rajaraja I''' ({{IPAc-en|r|ə|ʒ|ə|r|ə|ʒ|ə}}; [[Middle Tamil]]: ''Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ''; [[Classical Sanskrit]]: ''Rājarāja Ćōl̥a''; 947 CE – 1014 CE),{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}} often described as '''Rajaraja the Great''' was a Tamil [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. An iconic figure and often regarded as the 'King of Kings', he was the most powerful emperor in [[India]] during his reign and is remembered for reinstating the Chola influence and ensuring its supremacy across the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqHRAAAAMAAJ |title=Coins of the Cholas|publisher=Numismatic Society of India|author=Charles Hubert Biddulph|year=1964|page=34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofyear10000000manj |url-access=registration |title=Atlas of the year 1000|publisher=Harvard University Press|author=John Man|year=1999|page=[https://archive.org/details/atlasofyear10000000manj/page/104 104]|isbn=978-0-674-54187-0 }}</ref>
'''Rājarāja I''' ([[Middle Tamil]]: ''Rājarāja Cola''; ''Rājarāja Śōḷa''; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}} also known as '''Rajaraja the Great''', was a [[Chola Empire|Chola]] emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known for his conquests of [[South India|southern India]] and the [[Anuradhapura kingdom]] of [[Sri Lanka]], as well as increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja's birth name is variously given as Arul Mozhi Varman and Arulmoli Varman.  


His extensive empire included vast regions of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya country]], the [[Chera dynasty|Chera country]] and northern [[Sri Lanka]]. He also acquired [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Thiladhunmathi|Thiladhunmadulu atoll]], and part of the northern-most islands of the [[Maldives]] in the Indian Ocean. Campaigns against the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Western Gangas]] and the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] extended the Chola authority as far as the [[Tungabhadra River]]. On the eastern coast, he battled with the Chalukyas for the possession of [[Vengi]].<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-9-38060-734-4|pages=46–49}}</ref><ref name="India's Past p.51">A Journey through India's Past by Chandra Mauli Mani p.51</ref><ref>Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture by John Bowman p.264</ref>{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}
Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya country]], the [[Chera dynasty|Chera country]], and northern Sri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such as [[Lakshadweep]], [[Thailand|Thiladhunmadulu]] atoll, and parts of the [[Maldives]] in the Indian Ocean. His conquests were not limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Western Gangas]] and the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]], extending Chola authority as far as the [[Tungabhadra River]]. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from the [[Telugu Chodas|Telugu Chola]] king Jata Choda Bhima over control of [[Vengi]]. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-9-38060-734-4|pages=46–49}}</ref><ref name="India's Past p.51">A Journey through India's Past by Chandra Mauli Mani p.51 (Northern Book Centre, 2006)</ref>{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}


Rajaraja I, being an able administrator, also built the great [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Rajarajeshwaram Temple]] at the Chola capital [[Thanjavur]].<ref>The Hindus: An Alternative History by Wendy Doniger p.347</ref> The temple is regarded as the foremost of all temples constructed in the medieval south Indian architectural style. During his reign, the texts of the Tamil poets [[Appar]], [[Sambandar]] and [[Sundarar]] were collected and edited into one compilation called [[Thirumurai]].<ref name="India's Past p.51" /><ref>Indian Thought: A Critical Survey by K. Damodaran p.246</ref> He initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known as ''valanadus''.<ref name="Early Medieval India p.590">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century by Upinder Singh p.590</ref><ref name="India p.76">Administrative System in India: Vedic Age to 1947 by U. B. Singh p.76</ref> Rajaraja died in 1014 CE and was succeeded by his son [[Rajendra Chola I]].
Rajaraja I commissioned the construction of the [[Brihadisvara Temple|Rajarajeshwaram Temple]] in the Chola capital of [[Thanjavur]], revered as one of the most prominent examples of the medieval South Indian architectural style.<ref>''The Hindus: An Alternative History'' by Wendy Doniger, p. 347.</ref> Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the ''[[Thirumurai]]''. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar' ({{Literal translation|The One Who Found ''Thirumurai''}}).<ref name="India's Past p.51" /><ref>''Indian Thought: A Critical Survey'' by K. Damodaran, p. 246.</ref> He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known as ''valanadus''. Rajaraja died in 1014, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.


== Early life ==
== Early life ==
[[File:Rajaraja mural.png|thumb|Rajaraja and his brother [[Aditha Chola II|Aditha Karikalan]] meeting their guru.|250x250px]]
[[File:Rajaraja mural-2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Mural of Rajaraja]]
Rajaraja was a son of the Chola king [[Parantaka II]] (alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|2009|p=42}} According to the [[Thiruvalangadu]] copper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arulmoḻi (also transliterated as Arulmozhi) Varman, literally "blessed tongued".{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}{{sfn|A. K. Seshadri|1998|p=31}} He was born around 947 CE in the [[Ashvin|Aipassi]] month, on the day of [[Sadhayam]] star.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tG1AAAAIAAJ&q=rajaraja+947 |title=Tamil Civilization: Quarterly Research Journal of the Tamil University |volume=3 |publisher=Tamil University |year=1985 |pages=40–41}}</ref> He had an elder brother – [[Aditha Karikalan|Aditha II]],{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}} and an elder sister – [[Kundavai Pirāttiyār|Kundavai]].{{sfn|A. K. Seshadri|1998|p=32}}
[[File:Rajaraja mural.png|thumb|Rajaraja and his brother [[Aditha Chola II|Aditha Karikalan]] meeting their guru|250x250px]]
Rajaraja was the son of the Chola king [[Parantaka II]], also known as Sundara Chola, and his wife Vanavan.{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|2009|p=42}} As recorded in the [[Thiruvalangadu]] copper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, meaning "The Word of Sun Clan".{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}{{sfn|A. K. Seshadri|1998|p=31}} He was born around 947 during the Tamil month of , under the Sadhayam star.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tG1AAAAIAAJ&q=rajaraja+947 |title=Tamil Civilization: Quarterly Research Journal of the Tamil University |volume=3 |publisher=Tamil University |year=1985 |pages=40–41}}</ref> The [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] recognises his birthdate as 3 November 947.<ref name="outlookindia.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/why-tamil-nadu-celebrating-king-raja-raja-chola-s-birthday-is-a-masterstroke-in-symbolism-news-234268|title=Why Tamil Nadu Celebrating King Raja Raja Chola's Birthday Is A Masterstroke In Symbolism|date=2 November 2022}}</ref> Rajaraja had an elder brother, [[Aditha Karikalan|Aditha II]],{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}} and an elder sister, [[Kundavai Pirāttiyār|Kundavai]].{{sfn|A. K. Seshadri|1998|p=32}}


Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfather [[Parantaka I]]. After Parantaka I, his elder son [[Gandaraditya]] ascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his son [[Uttama|Madhurantakan]] was a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger son [[Arinjaya]]. Arinjaya died soon, and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although the [[Thiruvalangadu]] inscription of Rajaraja's son [[Rajendra I]] claims that it was made by Rajaraja.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}}
Rajaraja's accession marked the end of a period of competing claims to the Chola throne, following the reign of his great-grandfather [[Parantaka I]]. After Parantaka I, his elder son [[Gandaraditya]] became king. However, upon Gandaraditya's death, his son Madhurantakan was still a minor, so the throne passed to Parantaka I's younger son, [[Arinjaya Chola|Arinjaya]]. Arinjaya soon died, and his son Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) succeeded him. It was decided that Sundara Chola would be succeeded by [[Uttama (Chola dynasty)|Madhurantakan]], likely due to Sundara's preference. However, according to the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son, [[Rajendra I]], the succession plan may have been made by Rajaraja himself.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}}


Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}} Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted the [[regnal name]] Rajaraja, which literally means "King among Kings".{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=49}}
Aditha II died under mysterious circumstances, with inscriptions suggesting he may have been assassinated. Shortly afterwards, Sundara Chola also died, enabling Madhurantakan to assume the throne with the title Uttama Chola. Following Uttama Chola's death, Arul Moli Varman ascended the throne in mid-985{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}} and adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, meaning "King among Kings."{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=49}}


== Military conquests ==
== Military conquests ==
[[File:இராசேந்திரச் சோழன்.svg|center|thumb|350x350px|Chola empire during the reign of Rajaraja I]]
[[File:Rajaraja territories.png|center|thumb|363x363px|Chola empire during the reign of Rajaraja I]]
Rajaraja inherited a kingdom whose boundaries were limited to the traditional Chola territory centred around [[Thanjavur district|Thanjavur]]-[[Tiruchirappalli district|Tiruchirappalli]] region.{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}} At the time of his ascension, the Chola kingdom was relatively small, and was still recovering from the [[Rashtrakuta]] invasions in the preceding years. Rajaraja turned it into an efficiently administered empire which possessed a powerful army and a strong navy. During his reign, the northern kingdom of [[Eastern Chalukyas|Vengi]] became a Chola protectorate, and the Chola influence on the eastern coast extended as far as [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] in the north.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}}
When Rajaraja came to power, he inherited a small kingdom centered around the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli region, the heart of traditional Chola territory.{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}} He transformed this kingdom from one that was recovering from attacks by the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]] into one that was a well-organised empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of [[Vengi]] became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to [[Kalinga (region)|Kalinga]] in the north.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=1}}


A number of regiments are mentioned in the Thanjavur inscriptions.<ref name="Seshachandrika p.265">Seshachandrika: a compendium of Dr. M. Seshadri's works p.265</ref><ref>Literary Genetics with Comparative Perspectives by Katir Makātēvan̲ p.25</ref> These regiments were divided into elephant troops, cavalry and infantry and each of these regiments had its own autonomy and was free to endow benefactions or build temples.<ref name="Seshachandrika p.265" />
[[Rajaraja Chola]] Thiruvalangadu plates states that, Arulmolivarman :
 
{{cquote|(performed [[tulabhara]] captured the town Vilinda; conquered the [[Pandya]] Amarabujanga and burnt the lord of [[Sri Lanka|Lanka]]; defeated [[Satyashraya]]; killed Andhra [[Jata Choda Bhima|Bhima]]; conquered the country of Parasurama(i.e.,[[Chera]]) and subdued the kings of [[Western Ganga dynasty|Ganga]], [[Kalinga (region)|Kalinga]], [[Vengi]], Magatha, Aratta ,odda,Surashtra and [[Western Chalukya|Chalukya]]).<ref name="Chakravarti 1933">{{Cite book |last=Chakravarti |first=N. p |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.69621 |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.22 |date=1933}}</ref>
}}
 
The Larger Leiden plates States that [[Rajaraja]],
 
{{cquote|"conquered the [[Pandya]], [[Tulunadu|Tulu]], [[Chera kingdom|Kerala]], [[Sri Lanka|Simhalendra]] and [[Satyashraya]] ; destroyed ships at Kandalur-Salai , captured Vengainadu([[Vengi]]), Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadi, Kudamalainadu, [[Kollam]], [[Kalinga (region)|Kalingam]], and Ilam([[Sri Lanka]] ) ; and removed the splendour of the Seliyas(i.e.,[[Pandyas]])."<ref name="Chakravarti 1933" />
}}


=== Against Kandalur Salai ===
=== Against Kandalur Salai ===
{{Main|Battle of Kandalur Salai}}
{{Main|Battle of Kandalur Salai}}
[[File:Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg|thumb|inscription of Rajaraja in [[Suchindram]], near [[Kanyakumari]]]]
[[File:Suchindram inscription of Rajaraja I.jpg|thumb|Inscription of Rajaraja in [[Suchindram]], near [[Kanyakumari]]]]
Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions celebrate a major victory at [[Battle of Kandalur Salai|Kandalur Salai]] (in present-day [[Kerala]]) in c. 988 CE, calling him "''Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta''" ("the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai").{{sfn|S.R. Balasubrahmanyam|1977|p=3}} The ''Salai'' originally belonged to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay chief]], a vassal of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] king at [[Madurai]]. Involvement of either [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Chera]] or [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] warriors in this battle remains uncertain. The Thiruvalangadu inscription mentions that Rajaraja's general captured [[Vizhinjam]] (Viḷinam): this conquest may have been a part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. The engagement seems to have been an effort of the Chola navy or a combined effort of the navy and the army.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-118}}
Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988. He is acclaimed as 'Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta', which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai'.{{sfn|S.R. Balasubrahmanyam|1977|p=3}}
 
Originally, this area was under the control of the [[Ay dynasty|Ay chief]], who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of [[Madurai]]. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict. The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured [[Vizhinjam]] (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|pp=115–118}}


=== Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas ===
=== Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas ===
Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear in [[Kanyakumari district]] in the 990s and in [[Thiruvananthapuram district]] in the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|pp=115–118}} The Senur inscription, dated to 1005 and attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|pp=115–118}}{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=2}}<ref name="Chakravarti 1933" /> Some triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Rajaraja's son, Rajendra Chola.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|pp=115–117}}
Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas'. As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognised as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu".{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=238}} When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.{{sfn|V. Ramamurthy|1986|pp=288–289}} However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|pp=115–117}}{{sfn|V. Ramamurthy|1986|pp=288–289}} According to the ''Kongu Desa Rajakkal,'' a historical record of the [[Kongu Nadu]] region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual of ''kanakabhisheka,'' where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolising an act of royal anointment or coronation.{{sfn|V. Ramamurthy|1986|pp=288–289}}
Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means "Three Crowned", symbolised his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}
=== Conquest of northern Sri Lanka ===
{{Main|Chola conquest of Anuradhapura}}
[[File:Polonnaruwa 0305.jpg|left|thumb|Remains of a [[Shiva]] temple, erected following Rajaraja's capture of [[Polonnaruwa]] and its renaming to [[Jananathamangalam]], which indicate the Chola emperor's conquest in the region]]


Rajaraja's inscriptions start to appear in [[Kanyakumari district]] in the 990s and in [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Trivandrum district]] in early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-118}} The Senur inscription (1005 CE) of Rajaraja states that he destroyed the Pandya capital Madurai; conquered the "haughty kings" of [[Kollam]] ([[Venad]]), Kolla-desham ([[Mushika dynasty|Mushika]]), and [[Kodungallur]] (the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]]).{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-118}}{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=2}} Some of these victories in Malainadu were perhaps won by prince [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola]] for his father.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}
During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around 982 CE, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 982, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness.
{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}}


After defeating the Pandyas, Rajaraja adopted the title ''Pandya Kulashani'' ("Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas"), and the Pandya country came to be known as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu".{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=238}} While describing the Rajaraja's campaign in ''trisanku kastha'' (the south), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of [[Rajendra I]] states that he seized certain royal Amarabhujanga.{{sfn|V. Ramamurthy|1986|pp=288-289}} Identification of this prince (either a Pandya prince or a general of the Pandya king or a [[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Chera]] prince) remains unresolved.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}{{sfn|V. Ramamurthy|1986|pp=288-289}} ''Kongu Desa Rajakkal'', a chronicle of the [[Kongu Nadu]] region, suggests that this general later shifted his allegiance to Rajaraja, and performed the Chola king's ''kanakabhisheka'' ceremony.{{sfn|V. Ramamurthy|1986|pp=288-289}}
The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura.
{{sfn|Gunawardena|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}}


After consolidating his rule in the south, Rajaraja assumed the title ''Mummudi Chola,'' meaning three Crowned a reference to his control over the [[Three Crowned Kings|three ancient Tamil countries]] of the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}
In 993, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka. This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=2}} The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of [[Polonnaruwa]], renaming it Jananathamangalam in honour of Rajaraja's title.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}}


=== Conquest of Sri Lanka ===
Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran{{clarify|reason=what is this?|date=June 2025}} oversaw the construction of a significant [[Shiva]] temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning "Lord of Rajaraja", within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognised as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}}
{{Main|Chola conquest of Anuradhapura}}
[[File:Polonnaruwa 0305.jpg|left|thumb|Ruins of a shrine dedicated to [[Shiva]], built after Rajaraja's conquest of [[Polonnaruwa]], which he renamed to Jananathamangalam .]]
In 993, Rajaraja invaded Sri Lanka, which is called Ila-mandalam in the Chola records.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=2}} This invasion most probably happened during the reign of [[Mahinda V of Anuradhapura]], who according to the ''[[Chulavamsa]]'' chronicle, had fled to Rohana ([[Principality of Ruhuna|Ruhuna]]) in south-eastern Sri Lanka because of a military uprising.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}} The Chola army sacked [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]], and captured the northern half of Sri Lanka. The Cholas established a provincial capital at the military outpost of [[Polonnaruwa]], naming it Jananathamangalam after a title of Rajaraja.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}} The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a [[Shiva]] temple called Rajarajeshwara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatirtha (modern Mantota), which was renamed Rajarajapura.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=3}}


Comparing Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of [[Lanka]] by the legendary hero [[Rama]], the Thiruvalangadu Plates states:{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}
The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama:
{{cquote
{{cquote
| quote="Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka by means of sharp edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."
| quote = "Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."
| source = Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}
| source = Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates{{sfn|Vidya Dehejia|1990|p=51}}
| align = center
| align = center
| width = 75%
| width = 75%
}}
}}
In 1017, Rajaraja's son [[Rajendra I]] completed the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|pp=10-11}} The Cholas controlled Sri Lanka until 1070, when [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu I]] defeated and expelled them.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=36}}


=== Chalukyan conflict ===
=== Chalukyan conflict ===
In 998 CE, Rajaraja captured the regions of Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi (present day [[Karnataka]]).<ref>Tamilian Antiquary (1907–1914) – 12 Vols. by Pandit. D. Savariroyan p.30</ref> Raja Chola extinguished the [[Nolambas]], who were the feudatories of Ganga while conquering and annexing Nolambapadi.<ref>Seminar on Social and Cultural History of Dharmapuri district p.46</ref> The conquered provinces were originally feudatories of the Rashtrakutas.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRtQAAAAMAAJ&q=nolambas+rashtrakutas|title=Sculptural Heritage of Andhradesa|author=Mohan Lal Nigam|publisher=Sculptural Heritage of Andhradesa|year=1975|page=17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WQ9AQAAIAAJ&q=nolambas+rashtrakutas|title=The Noḷambas: a political and cultural study, c750 to 1050 A.D.|author=M. S. Krishna Murthy|publisher=University of Mysore|year=1980|page=98}}</ref> In 973 CE, the [[Rashtrakutas]] were defeated by the [[Western Chalukya]]s leading to direct conflict with [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]].<ref name="ReferenceA" /> An inscription of [[Satyashraya|Irivabedanga Satyashraya]] from Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica, Volume 16, page 74">''Epigraphia Indica, Volume 16, page 74''</ref> In the same inscription, he accuses [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]] of having arrived with a force of 955,000 and of having gone on rampage in Donuwara thereby blurring the moralities of war as laid out in the Dharmasastras.<ref name="Studying early India: archaeology, texts and historical issues, page 198">''Studying early India: archaeology, texts and historical issues, page 198''</ref> Historians like James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn conclude that this confrontation displayed the degree of animosity on a personal level between the rulers of the Chola and the Chalukya kingdoms drawing a parallel between the enmity between the [[Chalukyas]] of [[Badami]] and the [[Pallavas]] of [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]].<ref name="The world in the year 1000, page 311">''The world in the year 1000, page 311''</ref><ref>History of India: a new approach by Kittu Reddy p.146</ref>
In 998, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).<ref name="whatisindia.com">{{Cite web |title=South Indian Inscriptions Volume 2 - Rajarajesvara Temple Inscriptions at Tanjavur @ whatisindia.com |url=https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_2/introduction.html |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=www.whatisindia.com}}</ref> During this campaign, he subdued the [[Nolamba dynasty]], who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.<ref>Seminar on Social and Cultural History of Dharmapuri district p.46</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WQ9AQAAIAAJ&q=nolambas+rashtrakutas|title=The Noḷambas: a political and cultural study, c750 to 1050 A.D.|author=M. S. Krishna Murthy|publisher=University of Mysore|year=1980|page=98}}</ref> These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.<ref name="ReferenceA">Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.398</ref>
 
===Battle of Gangavadi===
 
By 1004, Rajaraja had conquered the Gangavadi province.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the Early Medieval Period|author=Malini Adiga|publisher=Orient BlackSwan, 2006|page=239}}</ref> He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.<ref name=manya>{{cite book|title=History of Indian Administration: Medieval period|author=Baij Nath Puri|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1975|page=51}}</ref> In 1004 AD Raja Raja Chola encamped in [[WesternGangadynasty|Gangavadi]] province, and soon [[Westernchalukyadynasty|Chalukya]] army invaded. In the [[Battle of Gangavadi]], Raja Raja Chola defeated the invading Chalukya army and secured [[WesternGanga dynasty|Gangavadi]] Province.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anirudh Kanisetti |url=http://archive.org/details/anirudh-kanisetti-lords-of-earth-and-sea-a-history-of-the-chola-empire-juggernaut-books-2025 |title=Lords Of Earth And Sea A History Of The Chola Empire (2025) |date=2025}}</ref>
 
===Battle of Annigeri===
 
[[Raja Raja Chola]] led the campaign in Ratta Padi in 1003–1004 AD and achieved victory in many battles. [[Raja Raja Chola I]] defeated [[Satyashraya]] in the [[Battle of Annigeri]] and successfully conquered Annigeri Province. In this battle Satyashraya was assisted by his brother Dasavarman and General Dandanayaka Kesava. Dandanayaka Kesava was governor of the Belvola-300 and Puligere-300 divisions, which are located in [[Annigeri]] Province. The Tiruvalangadu plates of [[Rajendra Chola]] state that Raja Raja defeated [[Satyashraya]] who "fled to avoid misery from the attack of his (i.e., Arulmolivarman's) ocean-like army; (still) misery found a (permanent) abode in him. In this battle Satyashraya's brother, Prince Dasavarman, was killed, and Chalukya general Dandanayaka Kesava was taken prisoner. After Raja Raja Chola returned to his capital with booty of some gold flowers and treasures, which he dedicated to the temple of [[Thanjavur]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Mysore Gazetteer, Volume 2, Part 2|author=Benjamin Lewis Rice|publisher=Government Press, 1930 – Karnataka (India)|page=1075}}</ref><ref name="B.R Gopal 1981">{{Cite book |last=B.R Gopal |url=http://archive.org/details/sgw.chalukyasofkalya0000brgo |title=The Chalukyas Of Kalyana And The Kalachuris |date=1981 |publisher=Karnataka University Dharwad |others=Servants of Knowledge |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sivaramamurti |first=C. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.29374 |title=Chola temples Tanjavur |date=1960}}</ref>


By 1004 CE, the Gangavadi province was conquered by Rajaraja.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the Early Medieval Period|author=Malini Adiga|publisher=Orient BlackSwan, 2006|page=239}}</ref> The Changalvas who ruled over the western part of the Gangavadi province and the Kongalvas who ruled over Kodagu were turned into vassals.<ref name=manya>{{cite book|title=History of Indian Administration: Medieval period|author=Baij Nath Puri|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1975|page=51}}</ref> The Chola general Panchavan Maraya who defeated the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and distinguished himself in this affair was rewarded with Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 territory and the title ''Kshatriyasikhamani''.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the Western Gangas, Volume 1|author=Ali, B. Sheik|publisher=Prasārānga, University of Mysore, 1976|page=160}}</ref> The Kongalvas, for the heroism of Manya, were rewarded with the estate of Malambi (Coorg) and the title ''Kshatriyasikhamani''.<ref name=manya /> Vengi kingdom was ruled by Jata Choda Bhima of the [[Eastern Chalukyas]] dynasty.<ref name="ReferenceA">Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.398</ref> Jata Choda Bhima was defeated by Rajaraja and Saktivarman was placed on the throne of Vengi as a viceroy of the Chola Dynasty.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="Nellore District p.38">Gazetteer of the Nellore District: Brought Up to 1938 by Government of Madras Staff, Government of Madras p.38</ref> After the withdrawal of the Chola army, Bhima captured [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]] in 1001 CE. Rajaraja expelled and killed the Andhra king called Bhima before re-establishing Saktivarman I on the throne of Vengi again.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLwKAQAAIAAJ&q=raja+raja+chola+kalinga|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial Kanauj|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|publisher=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|year=1951|page=154}}</ref> Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to his next viceroy of Vengi Vimaladitya which brought about the union of the Chola Dynasty and the [[Eastern Chalukya Kingdom]] and which also ensured that the descendants of Rajaraja would rule the Eastern Chalukya kingdom in the future.<ref name="Nellore District p.38" />
===Siege of Unkal===
 
Raja Raja Chola diverted attention from [[Vengi]] affairs to the [[Satyashraya]] to counteroffensive and sent an army under Crown Prince [[Rajendra Chola]] in Chalukya Country. Rajendra marched with a 900,000-strong army and Captured Santalige, Kadambalige, [[Banavasi]], [[Kogali]] and besieged the fort of Unkallu in the modern Unkal district located in the Dharwad district. In this ensuing battle, the Cholas defeated the Chalukyas, and the Chalukya commander, Lenka Keta, was killed. After Rajendra Chola successfully captured Unkallu Fort and then encamped at Donur.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murari |first=Krishna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TeK1AAAAIAAJ |title=The Cāḷukyas of Kalyāṇi, from Circa 973 A.D. to 1200 A.D.: Based Mainly on Epigraphical Sources |date=1977 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=S. Ramakrishnan |first=General Editor |url=http://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar |title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 05, The Struggle For Empire |date=2001 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |others=Public Resource}}</ref>
 
===Battle of Donur===
{{Main|Battle of Donur}}
 
Following the Siege of Unkallu Fort, Rajendra battled against Satyashraya, who was opposing him in Donur. In the Battle of Donur, [[Rajendra chola]] defeated [[Satyashraya]] and successfully raided [[Banavasi]], [[Donur]] (in the Bijapur region), [[Unkal]] (near modern Hubli), [[Kudala Sangama]] and parts of the [[Raichur]] Doab and secured [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangavadi]] and Nolambavadi. But this conquest and all raids in Chalukya country only lasted until  [[Satyashraya]] reconquered all territories up to Thungapathra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murari |first=Krishna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TeK1AAAAIAAJ |title=The Cāḷukyas of Kalyāṇi, from Circa 973 A.D. to 1200 A.D.: Based Mainly on Epigraphical Sources |date=1977 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/bmshri.karnatakathrough0000unse |title=Karnataka Through The Ages |date=1968 |publisher=The Government Of Mysore |others=Servants of Knowledge}}</ref>
 
An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara([[Donur]] in [[Bijapur]] district), blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the [[Dharmaśāstra|''Dharmaśāstras'']].<ref name="Studying early India: archaeology, texts and historical issues, page 198">''Studying early India: archaeology, texts and historical issues'', p. 198</ref> Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the [[Chola]] and [[Western Chalukya]] kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the [[Chalukyas of Badami]] and the [[Pallavas of Kanchi]].<ref name="The world in the year 1000, page 311">''The world in the year 1000'', p. 311</ref><ref>''History of India: a new approach'' by Kittu Reddy, p. 146</ref>
 
=== Vengi kingdom ===
Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the [[Telugu Chodas|Telugu Cholas]] branch.<ref name=manya /> However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman, an Eastern Chalukya prince, was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture of [[Kanchi]] in 1001, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLwKAQAAIAAJ&q=raja+raja+chola+kalinga|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial Kanauj|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|publisher=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|year=1951|page=154}}</ref><ref name="Venkataramanayya 1950">{{Cite book |last=Venkataramanayya |first=N[elaturi |url=http://archive.org/details/venkataramanayya-n.-the-eastern-calukyas-of-vengi |title=The Eastern Calukyas of Vengi |date=1950}}</ref> Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of the [[eastern Chalukya kingdom]].<ref name="Cholas I">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I}}</ref>[[Satyashraya]] retaliated by invading the [[Vengi]] country in 1006 A.D. and placed Saktivaiman on the Vengi Throne. Raja Raja Chola diverted the Chalukyas to send a big army under Prince Rajendra Chola in Chalukya country. So  [[Satyashraya]], without having reinforcement to deal with the Chola army, called back his general Bayal Nambi, who advanced up to [[Chebrollu]]. Satyastraya did not permanently recapture Vengi. He made attempts, but the Cholas successfully defended their influence.<ref name="B.R Gopal 1981"/><ref name="Venkataramanayya 1950"/>
 
=== Victory over Hoysalas ===
[[Narsipura|Narasipur]], dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed Hoysala generals and a minister identified as Naganna.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica, Volume 30, page 248">''Epigraphia Indica, Volume 30, page 248''</ref><ref name="Kitabistam,Allahabad">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/historicalinscri035270mbp |title=Historical Inscriptions Of Southern INida |publisher=Kitabistam,Allahabad |others=BRAOU, Digital Library Of India}}</ref> Additionally, a similar inscription in [[Channapatna]] describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas.General Aprameya defeated Hoysala leaders manjaga, kaliga(or kali – ganga),Nigavarma and others in the [[Battle of Kalavur]]  .winning by his valour in the plain of Kalavur a name to endure for ever.<ref name="Cholas I"/>


=== Hoysala conflicts ===
There were encounters between the Cholas and the [[Hoysala]]s, who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas. An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple at [[Narsipura|Narasipur]] dated to 1006 records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed minister Naganna and other generals of the [[Hoysala]]s.<ref name="Epigraphia Indica, Volume 30, page 248">''Epigraphia Indica, Volume 30, page 248''</ref> A similar inscription in [[Channapatna]] also describes Rajaraja defeating the [[Hoysala]]s.<ref name="Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 21, page 200">''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 21, page 200''</ref>
=== Kalinga conquest ===
=== Kalinga conquest ===
{{expand section|date=December 2015}}
The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi. This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of south and south-east India.<ref>{{cite web | title=Cholas I | url=https://archive.org/details/CholasI/page/n252/mode/1up }}</ref><ref name="Kitabistam,Allahabad"/><ref name="Chakravarti 1933" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sivaramamurti |first=C. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.29374 |title=Chola temples Tanjavur |date=1960}}</ref>
The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.<ref name="his_of_india">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&q=raja+raja+chola+kalinga&pg=PA493|last = Smith|first= Vincent Arthur|title=The Early History of India|year=1904|publisher=The Clarendon press|pages = 336–358|isbn = 9788171566181}}</ref>


=== Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu ===
=== Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu ===
There are multiple references to the conquest of "Kuda-malai-nadu" by king Rajaraja (from c. 1000 CE onwards).{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}<ref>{{cite book|title=A Journey through India's Past (Great Hindu Kings after Harshavardhana)|author=Chandra Mauli Mani|publisher=Northern Book Centre, 2009 – India – 132 pages|page=51}}</ref> The term Kudagu-malai-nadu is substituted in place of Kuda-malai-nadu in some of the inscriptions found in Karnataka and this region has been generally identified with [[Kodagu district|Coorg]] (Kudagu).{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Epigraphia Indica, Volume 22|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |date=1935 |page=225}}</ref>
In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of Rajaraja's conquest of a place called "Kuda-malai-nadu" around the year 1000.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}<ref>{{cite book|title=A Journey through India's Past (Great Hindu Kings after Harshavardhana)|author=Chandra Mauli Mani|publisher=Northern Book Centre, 2009 – India – 132 pages|page=51}}</ref> In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term "Kudagu-malai-nadu" is used instead of "Kuda-malai-nadu". Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu).{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Epigraphia Indica, Volume 22|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |date=1935 |page=225}}</ref>


It is said that the king conquered Malainadu for the sake of messengers in one day after crossing 18 mountain passes (''Vikrama Chola Ula'').{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}} ''Kulottunga Chola Ula'' makes reference to Rajaraja cutting off 18 heads and setting fire to Udagai.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-118}} [[Kalingattuparani|''Kalingathupparani'']] mentions the institution of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the capture of Udagai, and the plunder of several elephants from there.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}} Tiruppalanam inscription (999 CE) mentions the gift of an idol by king from the booty obtained in Malainadu.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}<ref>{{cite book|title=South Indian Inscriptions: Tamil inscriptions of Rajaraja, Rajendra-Chola, and others in the Rajarajesvara Temple at Tanjavur|publisher=Archæological Survey of India |date=1983 |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Diplomacy in ancient India|author=Gandhi Jee Roy|publisher=Janaki Prakashan, 1981 – History – 234 pages|page=129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Espionage in Ancient India: From the Earliest Time to 12th Century A.D.|author=Gayatri Chakraborty|publisher=Minerva Associates, 1990 – Political Science – 153 pages|page=120}}</ref>
The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes. According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai. Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area. The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-118}}<ref name="whatisindia.com"/><ref name="Cholas I"/>


=== Naval expedition ===
=== Naval expedition and Conquest of the Maldives ===
{{cquote
The naval campaigns of Rajaraja formed a reassertion of Chola power in the Indian Ocean.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}
{{blockquote
| quote="A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| quote="A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| author = Romila Thapar
| author = Romila Thapar
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| align = center
| align = center
}}
}}
One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands of [[Maldives]] ("the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200").{{sfn|John Keay|2000|p=215|ps=:"Rajaraja is supposed to have conquered twelve thousand old islands... a phrase meant to indicate the Maldives"}}{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}  The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean.{{sfn|M. G. S. Narayanan|2013|p=115-117}}


The Cholas controlled the area around of [[Bay of Bengal]] with [[Nagapattinam]] as the main port. The [[Chola Navy]] also had played a major role in the invasion of [[Sri Lanka]].{{sfn|Milo Kearney|2003|p=70}} The success of Rajaraja allowed his son [[Rajendra Chola]] to lead the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]], carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying [[Kedah|Kadaram]].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.230</ref>
The Cholas controlled the area around [[Bay of Bengal]] with [[Nagapattinam]] as the main port. The [[Chola Navy]] also played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Milo Kearney|2003|p=70}} The success of Rajaraja allowed his son [[Rajendra Chola]] to lead the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]], carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying [[Kedah|Kadaram]].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.230</ref>
 
Rajaraja I and Rajendra I are described as the greatest Chola rulers because of these conquests.<ref>[[Satish Chandra (historian)|Chandra, Satish]]. ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Vol. 2''. Har-Anand Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-8124105221.</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2025}}


== Personal life ==
== Personal life ==
 
Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.{{sfn|S.R. Balasubrahmanyam|1977|p=6}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlnaAAAAMAAJ&q=raja+raja+cholan+kundavai|title=Documentation on Women, Children, and Human Rights|publisher=Sandarbhini, Library and Documentation Centre|year=1994}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEVuAAAAMAAJ&q=rajendra+chola+mother|title=Studies in Indian place names|publisher=Place Names Society of India|page=58|year=1954}}</ref> He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.<ref name="Early Chola art, page 183">''Early Chola art, page 183''</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2025}}<ref name="A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District, page 180">''A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District, page 180''</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2025}} The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identity of his mother is unknown.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} He had his first daughter [[Kundavai]] with Lokamadevi who eventually married [[Eastern Chalukyas|Chalukya]] prince Vimaladithan.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} Rajaraja had two other daughters.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} Rajaraja died in 1014 in the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil month]] of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUghAAAAMAAJ&q=raja+raja+chola+died+month|title=Rāja Rāja, the great|publisher=Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute|year=1987|page=28}}</ref>
Rajaraja married a number of women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.{{sfn|S.R. Balasubrahmanyam|1977|p=6}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlnaAAAAMAAJ&q=raja+raja+cholan+kundavai|title=Documentation on Women, Children, and Human Rights|publisher=Sandarbhini, Library and Documentation Centre|year=1994}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEVuAAAAMAAJ&q=rajendra+chola+mother|title=Studies in Indian place names|publisher=Place Names Society of India|page=58|year=1954}}</ref><ref name="Chandra" /> He had at least three daughters. He had two sons: the elder one is [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra]] with Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&q=rajendra+chola+mother&pg=PA264|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar|page=264|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1982|isbn=9788120601512}}</ref><ref name="Early Chola art, page 183">''Early Chola art, page 183''</ref><ref name="A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District, page 180">''A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District, page 180''</ref> and younger one is [[Araiyan Rajarajan]] (Mother unknown).He had his first daughter [[Kundavai]] with Lokamadevi. Kundavai married [[Eastern Chalukyas|Chalukya]] prince Vimaladithan. He had two other daughters named Mathevadigal{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} and Ģangamādevi or Arumozhi Chandramalli.<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5f0LAQAAMAAJ&q=raja+raja+cholan+daughter+Chandramalli|title=Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy|publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]]|date=1995|page=7}}</ref> Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil month]] of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUghAAAAMAAJ&q=raja+raja+chola+died+month|title=Rāja Rāja, the great|publisher=Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute|year=1987|page=28}}</ref>


== Administration ==
== Administration ==
[[File:Chola Kings. Rajaraja I. 985-1014 CE Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Chola, conqueror of the Gangas in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.jpg|thumb|Imperial Coin of Chola King Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE). Uncertain [[Tamilnadu]] mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.]]
[[File:Chola Kings. Rajaraja I. 985-1014 CE Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Chola, conqueror of the Gangas in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.jpg|thumb|Imperial coin of Chola King Rajaraja I (985&ndash;1014). Uncertain [[Tamilnadu]] mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.]]
[[File:Seal of Rajaraja I.jpg|thumb|Imperial Seal of Rajaraja I ]]
[[File:Seal of Rajaraja I.jpg|thumb|Imperial seal of Rajaraja I]]
Before the reign of Rajaraja I, parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.<ref name="Practice p.172">Precolonial India in Practice : Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra by Austin Cynthia Talbot Assistant Professor of History and Asian Studies University of Texas p.172</ref> Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.<ref name="Early Medieval India p.590" /><ref name="India p.76" /> From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of [[Vikrama Chola]] in 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.<ref name="Practice p.172" /> This led to the king exercising a closer control over the different parts of the empire.<ref name="Practice p.172" /> Rajaraja strengthened the local self-government and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.<ref>Life/Death Rhythms of Ancient Empires – Climatic Cycles Influence Rule of Dynasties by Will Slatyer p.236</ref><ref name="The First Spring p.68">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly p.68</ref>{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|pp=62-63}} To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to [[China]].<ref>Tamil Nadu, a real history by K. Rajayyan p.112</ref>
Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.<ref name="Practice p.172">Precolonial India in Practice : Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra by Austin Cynthia Talbot Assistant Professor of History and Asian Studies University of Texas p.172</ref> Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of the empire into units known as ''valanadus''.<ref name="Early Medieval India p.590">''A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century'' by Upinder Singh, p. 590.</ref><ref name="India p.76">''Administrative System in India: Vedic Age to 1947'' by U. B. Singh, p. 76.</ref> From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of [[Vikrama Chola]] in 1133, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.<ref name="Practice p.172" /> This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.<ref name="Practice p.172" /> Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.<ref>Life/Death Rhythms of Ancient Empires – Climatic Cycles Influence Rule of Dynasties by Will Slatyer p.236</ref><ref name="The First Spring p.68">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly p.68</ref>{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|pp=62–63}} To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to [[Northern Song dynasty|China]].<ref>Tamil Nadu, a real history by K. Rajayyan p.112</ref> Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples.<ref name="Ancient system of oriental medicine, page 96">''Ancient system of oriental medicine, page 96''</ref>
 
His elder sister Kundavai assisted him in administration and management of temples.<ref name="Ancient system of oriental medicine, page 96">''Ancient system of oriental medicine, page 96''</ref>


== Officials ==
== Officials ==
[[File:Rajaraja mural-2.jpg|left|thumb|296x296px|Mural depicting Rajaraja and his guru [[Karuvurar|Karuvuruvar]] found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7RTqAAAAMAAJ&q=chola+Karuvurar|title=A History of Fine Arts in India and the West|author=Edith Tömöry|publisher=Orient Longman|year=1982|page=246|isbn=978-0-86131-321-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIlHAQAAIAAJ&q=chola+Karuvurar|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian paintings|author=Rakesh Kumar|publisher=Anmol Publications |year=2007|page=4|isbn=9788126131228}}</ref>]]
[[File:Rajaraja mural-2.jpg|left|thumb|296x296px|Mural depicting Rajaraja and his guru [[Karuvurar|Karuvuruvar]] found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu (11th century)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7RTqAAAAMAAJ&q=chola+Karuvurar|title=A History of Fine Arts in India and the West|author=Edith Tömöry|publisher=Orient Longman|year=1982|page=246|isbn=978-0-86131-321-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIlHAQAAIAAJ&q=chola+Karuvurar|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian paintings|author=Rakesh Kumar|publisher=Anmol Publications |year=2007|page=4|isbn=9788126131228}}</ref>]]
[[Rajendra Chola I]] was made a co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja's rule. He was the supreme commander of the northern and north-western dominions. During the reign of Raja Chola, there was an expansion of the administrative structure leading to the increase in the number of offices and officials in the Chola records than during earlier periods.<ref name="Early Medieval India p.590" /> Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.<ref>South Indian inscriptions, India. Archaeological Survey, India. Dept. of Archaeology p.477</ref> The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the [[Bana Kingdom|Bana]] prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi [[Krishnan Raman]], the Samanta chief [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]], the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.<ref>South India heritage: an introduction by Prema Kasturi, Chithra Madhavan p.96</ref>
Towards the end of his reign, Rajaraja appointed [[Rajendra Chola I]] as co-regent, who served as the supreme commander of the northern and northwestern territories. Under his rule, the administrative system was expanded, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.<ref name="Early Medieval India p.590" /> Villavan Muvendavelan, one of Rajaraja's top officials, figures in many of his inscriptions.<ref>South Indian inscriptions, India. Archaeological Survey, India. Dept. of Archaeology p.477</ref> Other officials named in inscriptions include the [[Bana kingdom|Bana]] prince Narasimhavarman, the general Senapathi [[Krishnan Raman]], the Samanta chief [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]], the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan, and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.<ref>South India heritage: an introduction by Prema Kasturi, Chithra Madhavan p.96</ref>


== Religious policy ==
== Religious policy ==
<!-- When you change title here, please correct in infox ''| religion    = '' -->
<!-- When you change the title here, please correct in infox ''| religion    = '' -->


Rajaraja was a follower of [[Shaivism]] sect of [[Hinduism]] but he also dedicated several temples to [[Vishnu]].
Rajaraja was a follower of the [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] denomination of [[Hinduism]], but he also dedicated several temples to [[Vishnu]].{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} Rajaraja called himself ''Shivapada Shekhara'' ([[IAST]]: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, 'the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva'.{{sfn|R. S. Sharma|2003|p=270}}


In the 11th century CE, the [[Chudamani Vihara]], a Buddhist monastery, was built by the Sailendra king of [[Srivijaya]] Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman with the patronage of Rajaraja I in [[Nagapattinam]].{{sfn|Kulke|Kesavapany|Sakhuja|2009|p=67}}<ref name=srivijaya1>{{cite book|title=Indian civilization|author=deepak s|publisher=deepak shinde, 2016|page=169}}</ref> It was named ''Chudamani'' or ''Chulamani'' Vihara after king Sri Mara's father.<ref name=srivijaya2>{{cite book|title=Aspects of Indian history and culture|author1=C. E. Ramachandran|author2=K. V. Raman, Indian History and Culture Society|publisher=Books & Books, 1984|page=11}}</ref> As per the small Leyden grant this Vihara was called Rajaraja-perumpalli during the time of [[Kulottunga I]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I, A.D. 985-1070|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Thomson Press (India), 1975|pages=115–116}}</ref> Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.<ref>Tamilian Antiquary (1907–1914) – 12 Vols.  by Pandit. D. Savariroyan p.33</ref>
The Buddhist monastery of [[Chudamani Vihara]] was constructed in the 11th century in [[Nagapattinam]] by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I. It was named Chudamani (or Chulamani) Vihara after King Sri Mara's father.{{sfn|Kulke|Kesavapany|Sakhuja|2009|p=67}}<ref name=srivijaya2>{{cite book|title=Aspects of Indian history and culture|author1=C. E. Ramachandran|author2=K. V. Raman, Indian History and Culture Society|publisher=Books & Books, 1984|page=11}}</ref> According to the small Leyden grant{{clarify|need to explain what it is – another inscription?|date=June 2025}}, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.<ref>{{cite book|title=Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I, A.D. 985–1070|author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam|publisher=Thomson Press (India), 1975|pages=115–116}}</ref>
 
Rajaraja called himself ''Shivapada Shekhara'' ([[IAST]]: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, "the one who places his crown at the feet of [[Shiva]]".{{sfn|R. S. Sharma|2003|p=270}}


== Arts and architecture ==
== Arts and architecture ==
[[File:Raraja detail.png|left|thumb|Bronze Sculpture of Rajaraja]]
[[File:Raraja detail.png|left|thumb|Bronze portrait of Raraja Cholan, 11th century.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramesh |first1=N. |title=Tamil Nadu: 50 years on, stolen bronze idols worth Rs 150 crore recovered |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2018/May/31/tamil-nadu-50-years-on-stolen-bronze-idols-worth-rs-150-crore-recovered-1821718.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=31 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of ''Thevaram'' in his court.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOG1AAAAIAAJ&q=raja+raja+chola+thevaram|title=Raja Raja Chola, the high point of history|author=S. V. S.|publisher=Authors Guild of India Madras Chapter|year=1985|page=54}}</ref> He sought the help of [[Nambiyandar Nambi|Nambi Andar Nambi]].{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=178}} It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in [[Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]].{{sfn|Norman Cutler|1987|p=50}}{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=178}} The ''brahmanas'' ([[Dikshitars]]) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.{{sfn|Norman Cutler|1987|p=50}}{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|pp=109-110}} Rajaraja thus became known as ''Tirumurai Kanda Cholan'' meaning one who saved the ''Tirumurai''. In his work ''Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam'' alias ''Tirumurai Kanda Puranam'', Nambi identifies his patron as ''Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan'', that is ''king Rajaraja, the best of the race of [[Kulottunga I|Abhaya]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tillai and Nataraja|author=B. Natarajan|publisher=Mudgala Trust, 1994|page=212}}</ref> Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|pp=109-110}} Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets [[Sambandar]], [[Appar]] and [[Sundarar]] as the first seven books, [[Manickavasagar]]'s ''Tirukovayar'' and ''[[Tiruvacakam]]'' as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the ''[[Tirumandiram]]'' of [[Tirumular]] as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, ''Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi'' – the sacred ''anthathi'' of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=191}} The first seven books were later called as ''Tevaram'', and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, [[Sekkizhar]]'s ''Periya Puranam'' (1135) is wholly known as ''Tirumurai'', the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=191}}
After hearing short excerpts of the ''[[Tevaram]]'' in his court, Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOG1AAAAIAAJ&q=raja+raja+chola+thevaram|title=Raja Raja Chola, the high point of history|author=S. V. S.|publisher=Authors Guild of India Madras Chapter|year=1985|page=54}}</ref> He sought the help of [[Nambiyandar Nambi]].{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=178}} It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of [[cadijam]] leaves half-eaten by [[white ant]]s in a chamber inside the second precinct in [[Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]].{{sfn|Norman Cutler|1987|p=50}}{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=178}} The ''brahmanas'' ([[Dikshitars]]) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.{{sfn|Norman Cutler|1987|p=50}}{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|pp=109–110}} Rajaraja thus became known as 'Tirumurai Kanda Cholan', meaning 'One who saved the ''Tirumurai''<nowiki/>'. In his work ''Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam'' (alias ''Tirumurai Kanda Puranam''), Nambi identifies his patron as "Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan" ({{Literal translation|King Rajaraja, the best of the race of Abhaya}}).<ref>{{cite book|title=Tillai and Nataraja|author=B. Natarajan|publisher=Mudgala Trust, 1994|page=212}}</ref> At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the [[Nayanar saints]] were also placed inside the temple.{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|pp=109–110}} Nambi organised the hymns of three saint poets—[[Sambandar]], [[Appar]], and [[Sundarar]]—as the first seven books. He included [[Manickavasagar]]'s "Tirukovayar" and "Tiruvacakam" as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The "[[Tirumantiram|Tirumandiram]]" of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred [[anthathi]] of the labours of the 63 Nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=191}}{{Overly detailed inline|date=July 2025}} The initial seven books were later recognised as the ''Tevaram''.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=191}} With the addition of [[Sekkizhar]]'s Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as ''Tirumurai'', the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=191}}


No contemporary portrait or statue of Rajaraja survives; the bronze figure depicting Rajaraja at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of late origin.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=2}}
There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin.{{sfn|K. A. N. Sastri|1992|p=2}}


=== peruvudaiyar temple ===
=== Brihadisvara Temple ===
[[File:Brihadeeswarar Kovil.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]] built by Rajaraja I, a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]]]
[[File:Brihadeeswarar Kovil.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]] built by Rajaraja I, a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]]]


{{Main|Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur}}
{{Main|Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur}}


In 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the [[peruvudaiyar Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]] in [[Thanjavur]] dedicated to Lord [[Shiva]]. The temple and the capital acted as a center of both religious and economic activity.{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|p=46}} It is also known as ''Periya Kovil'', ''RajaRajeswara Temple'' and ''Rajarajeswaram''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamilnadu.com/travel/tanjavur-periya-kovil.html |title=Tamil Nadu – Thanjavur Periya Kovil – 1000 Years, Six Earthquakes, Still Standing Strong |publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date= 27 January 2014}}{{dead link|date=October 2022}}</ref><ref>South Indian Inscriptions – Vol II, Part I & II</ref> It is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of [[Dravidian architecture]] during the [[Chola dynasty|Chola period]].{{sfn|John Keay|2000|p=xix}} The temple turned 1000 years old in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Endowments to the Temple|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_cholabt_endowments.asp|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India}}</ref> The temple is part of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] known as the "[[Great Living Chola Temples]]", with the other two being the [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] and [[Airavatesvara temple]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamilnadu.com/temples/tanjavur-periya-kovil.html |title=Tanjavur Periya Kovil Tamil Nadu|publisher= Tamilnadu.com|date=5 December 2012}}</ref>
During 1010, Rajaraja built the Peruvudaiyar Temple (also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple, and Rajarajeswaram) in [[Thanjavur]] and dedicated it to Shiva. The temple and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.{{sfn|Geeta Vasudevan|2003|p=46}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamilnadu.com/travel/tanjavur-periya-kovil.html |title=Tamil Nadu – Thanjavur Periya Kovil – 1000 Years, Six Earthquakes, Still Standing Strong |publisher=Tamilnadu.com |date=27 January 2014 |access-date=4 December 2015 |archive-date=26 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226001353/http://tamilnadu.com/travel/tanjavur-periya-kovil.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The temple is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of [[Dravidian architecture]] of the [[Chola dynasty|Chola period]].{{sfn|John Keay|2000|p=xix}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Endowments to the Temple|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_cholabt_endowments.asp|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India}}</ref> Along with [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] temple and [[Airavatesvara temple]], Peruvudaiyar temple is part of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] known as the "[[Great Living Chola Temples]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/temples/tanjavur-periya-kovil.html|title=Tanjavur Periya Kovil Tamil Nadu|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=5 December 2012|access-date=4 December 2015|archive-date=10 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210124501/http://tamilnadu.com/temples/tanjavur-periya-kovil.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
The [[vimana (architectural feature)|vimanam]] (temple tower) is {{convert|216|ft|m|abbr=on}} high and is the tallest in the world. The [[Kalasha|Kumbam]] (the apex or the bulbous structure on the top) of the temple is carved out of a single rock and weighs around 80 tons.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Chola temples|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_cholabt.asp|publisher=The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)|access-date=6 December 2015}}{{dead link|date=October 2022}}</ref> There is a big statue of [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] (sacred bull), carved out of a single rock measuring about 16 feet long and 13 feet high at the entrance. The entire temple structure is made out of [[granite]], the nearest sources of which are about 60&nbsp;km to the west of temple. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/185 185]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>


== Coins ==
== Coins ==
[[File:Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I.JPG|left|thumb|Copper Coin or Rajaraja I]]
[[File:Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I.JPG|left|thumb|Copper coin of Rajaraja I]]
Before the reign of Rajaraja the Chola coins had on the obverse the tiger emblem and the fish and bow emblems of the Pandya and Chera Dynasties and on the reverse the name of the King. But during the reign of Rajaraja appeared a new type of coins. The new coins had on the obverse the figure of the standing king and on the reverse the seated goddess.<ref>Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan by Lionel D. Barnett p.216</ref> The coins spread over a great part of South India and were also copied by the kings of Sri Lanka.<ref>Coins of India by C. J. Brown p.63</ref>
Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.<ref>Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan by Lionel D. Barnett p.216</ref> The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings.<ref>Coins of India by C. J. Brown p.63</ref>


== Inscriptions ==
== Inscriptions ==
[[File:Vatteluttu.png|thumb|200px|A typical lithic inscription of the Chola period]]
[[File:Vatteluttu.png|thumb|200px|A typical lithic inscription of the Chola period]]


Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stones. An inscription in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] from [[Mulbagal]] in [[Karnataka]] shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a ''[[Meikeerthi]]'', an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:<ref>{{cite web|title=Rajaraja inscriptions|url=http://www.varalaaru.com/Default.asp?articleid=32|publisher=varalaaru.com}}</ref>
Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}} An inscription in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] from [[Mulbagal]] in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}} An excerpt from such a ''[[Meikeerthi]]'', an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:


{{cquote
{{cquote
| quote = Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves.{{sfn|B. Lewis Rice|1905|p=107}}<ref name=soranarumori>{{cite book|title=South Indian Inscriptions: Tamil and Sanskrit|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |volume=9–10 |date=1890 |pages=94–95}}</ref>
| quote = Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves.{{sfn|B. Lewis Rice|1905|p=107}}
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Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.{{sfn|Eugen Hultzsch|1890|p=8}}
Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.{{sfn|Eugen Hultzsch|1890|p=8}}{{better source needed|date=June 2025}}
 
Another inscription from Gramardhanathesvara temple in South [[Arcot]] district dated in the seventh year of the king refers to the fifteenth year of his predecessor that is Uttama Choladeva described therein as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar.<ref>{{cite book|title=Later Chola Temples: Kulottunga I to Rajendra III (A.D. 1070–1280), Parts 1070–1280 |author=S. R. Balasubrahmanyam |author2=B. Natarajan |author3=Balasubrahmanyan Ramachandran |publisher=Mudgala Trust |date=1979 |page=149}}</ref>


== In popular culture ==
== In popular culture ==
[[File:Rajaraja Statue.jpg|thumb|250x250px|20th Century Sculpture of Rajaraja in [[Thanjavur]].]]
[[File:Rajaraja Statue.jpg|thumb|250x250px|20th-century sculpture of Rajaraja in [[Thanjavur]]]]
*''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]], a 2022 film based on [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]]'s 1955 novel ''[[Ponniyin Selvan]]'', deals with the succession troubles during the reign of Sundara Chola and the death of the elder prince [[Aditha Karikalan]]. The role of the younger prince Arulmoli Varman, also known as Ponniyin Selvan (the future Rajaraja I) is played by the Tamil cinema actor [[Jayam Ravi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ponniyin Selvan: All About Jayam Ravi's Character Arun Mozhi Varman |url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/31147/ponniyin-selvan-jayam-ravi-character-ps1 |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=moviecrow.com}}</ref>''. The sequel ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: II]]'' was released in 2023.
*''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]]'' – a 2022 film based on [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]]'s 1955 novel ''[[Ponniyin Selvan]]'', which deals with the succession troubles during the reign of Sundara Chola and the death of the elder prince, [[Aditha Karikalan]], portrayed by Tamil actor [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]]. The role of the younger prince, Arulmozhi Varman, also known as Ponniyin Selvan and the future Rajaraja I, was played by Tamil actor [[Ravi Mohan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ponniyin Selvan: All About Jayam Ravi's Character Arun Mozhi Varman |url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/31147/ponniyin-selvan-jayam-ravi-character-ps1 |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=moviecrow.com}}</ref> The sequel, ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: II]]'', was released in 2023.
*''[[Rajaraja Cholan]]'', a 1973 [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film starring [[Sivaji Ganesan]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Cine Quiz|url=http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/09/26/stories/2008092650150400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927045514/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/09/26/stories/2008092650150400.htm|archive-date=27 September 2008|access-date=9 July 2011|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=26 September 2008}}</ref>
*''[[Rajaraja Cholan]]'' – a 1973 [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film starring [[Sivaji Ganesan]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Cine Quiz|url=http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/09/26/stories/2008092650150400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927045514/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/09/26/stories/2008092650150400.htm|archive-date=27 September 2008|access-date=9 July 2011|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=26 September 2008}}</ref>
*''[[Ponniyin Selvan]]'' by [[Kalki Krishnamurthy|Kalki]] revolves around the early life of Rajaraja, the mysteries surrounding the death of [[Aditha Karikalan]] and the subsequent accession of [[Uththama Chola|Uttama]] to the Chola throne.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mani is likely to drop Ponniyin Selvan|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-02/news-interviews/29495509_1_mani-ratnam-priyanka-chopra-ponniyin-selvan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616095442/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-02/news-interviews/29495509_1_mani-ratnam-priyanka-chopra-ponniyin-selvan|archive-date=16 June 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref>
*''[[Ponniyin Selvan]]'' – a novel by [[Kalki Krishnamurthy|Kalki]], which revolves around the early life of Rajaraja, the mysteries surrounding the death of Aditha Karikalan, and the subsequent accession of Uththama Chola to the Chola throne.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mani is likely to drop Ponniyin Selvan|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/others/news-interviews/Mani-is-likely-to-drop-Ponniyin-Selvan/articleshow/8141844.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616095442/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-02/news-interviews/29495509_1_mani-ratnam-priyanka-chopra-ponniyin-selvan|archive-date=16 June 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=live|access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref>
*''Nandipurathu Nayagi'' by [[Vembu Vikiraman]] revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Rajaraja's naval expedition.
*''Nandipurathu Nayagi'' {{Clarify|date=April 2024}} by [[Vembu Vikiraman]] revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Rajaraja's naval expedition.
*''Rajaraja Cholan'' by Kathal Ramanathan.
*''Rajaraja Cholan'' {{Clarify|date=April 2024}} by Kathal Ramanathan.
*''Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai'' by [[Sujatha (writer)|Sujatha]] which deal with the situations leading Rajaraja to invade Kandalur.
*''Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai''{{Clarify|date=April 2024}} by [[Sujatha (writer)|Sujatha]], which deals with the situations leading Rajaraja to invade Kandalur.
*''Rajakesari'' and ''Cherar Kottai'' by Gokul Seshadri deal with the Kandalur invasion and its after-effects.
*''Rajakesari'' and ''Cherar Kottai'' {{Clarify|date=April 2024}} by Gokul Seshadri deal with the Kandalur invasion and its after-effects.
* ''[[Bharat Ek Khoj]]'', a 1988 historical drama in its episodes 22 and 23 depicts Rajaraja Chola.<ref>{{cite news|title=What makes Shyam special|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627193719/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |archive-date=27 June 2003 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 January 2003|access-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> The role was played by late actor [[Om Puri]].
* ''[[Bharat Ek Khoj]]'' – a 1988 historical drama that depicts Rajaraja Chola (played by [[Om Puri]]) in episodes 22 and 23.<ref>{{cite news|title=What makes Shyam special|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627193719/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |archive-date=27 June 2003 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 January 2003|access-date=6 June 2013}}</ref>
*''Kaviri Mainthan'', a 2007 novel by Anusha Venkatesh.
*''Kaviri Mainthan'' – a 2007 novel by Anusha Venkatesh.
*[[Balakumaran|Udayaar]], a book by Tamil author [[Balakumaran]] which deals with RajaRaja's later years and Rajendra Chola I's ascension.
*''Udayaar'' – a book by Tamil author [[Balakumaran]], which deals with Rajaraja's later years and Rajendra Chola I's ascension.


== See also ==
== See also ==
*[[List of Tamil monarchs]]
*[[List of Tamil monarchs]]
*[[Chola Military]]
*[[Chola Navy]]


== References ==
== References ==
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* {{cite book|author=B. Lewis Rice|author-link=B. Lewis Rice|title=Epigraphia Carnatica|volume=10, Part I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sscUAAAAYAAJ|year=1905|publisher=Mysore Archaeological Survey}}
* {{cite book|author=B. Lewis Rice|author-link=B. Lewis Rice|title=Epigraphia Carnatica|volume=10, Part I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sscUAAAAYAAJ|year=1905|publisher=Mysore Archaeological Survey}}
* {{cite book|author=Eugen Hultzsch|title=South Indian inscriptions (1983 reprint)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1890|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India}}
* {{cite book|author=Eugen Hultzsch|title=South Indian inscriptions (1983 reprint)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1890|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India}}
* {{cite book |last=Gunawardena | first= Charles A. |title=Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWLQSMPddikC|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-48-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Geeta Vasudevan|year=2003|title=Royal Temple of Rajaraja: An Instrument of Imperial Chola Power|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=0-00-638784-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Geeta Vasudevan|year=2003|title=Royal Temple of Rajaraja: An Instrument of Imperial Chola Power|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=0-00-638784-5}}
* {{cite book|author=John E. Cort|title=Open boundaries: Jain communities and culture in Indian history|year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC&q=tevaram&pg=PA178|isbn=978-0-7914-3786-5}}
* {{cite book|author=John E. Cort|title=Open boundaries: Jain communities and culture in Indian history|year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC&q=tevaram&pg=PA178|isbn=978-0-7914-3786-5}}
* {{cite book|author=John Keay|year=2000|title=India, a History|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers|location=London|isbn=0-00-638784-5}}
* {{cite book|author=John Keay|year=2000|title=India, a History|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers|location=London|isbn=0-00-638784-5}}
* {{cite book|author=K. A. N. Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|year=1984|title=The Cholas|publisher=University of Madras|location=Madras|orig-date=1935}}
* {{cite book|author=K. A. N. Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|year=1984|title=The Cholas|publisher=University of Madras|location=Madras|orig-date=1935}}
* {{cite book|author=K. A. N. Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|chapter=The Cōḷas|editor1=R. S. Sharma|editor2=K. M. Shrimali|title=A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985-1206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahFuAAAAMAAJ|year=1992|publisher=People's Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7007-121-1}}
* {{cite book|author=K. A. N. Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|chapter=The Cōḷas|editor1=R. S. Sharma|editor2=K. M. Shrimali|title=A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985–1206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahFuAAAAMAAJ|year=1992|publisher=People's Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7007-121-1}}
* {{cite book|author=K. A. N. Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|year=2000|title=A History of South India|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi|isbn=0-19-560686-8|orig-date=1955}}
* {{cite book|author=K. A. N. Sastri|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|year=2000|title=A History of South India|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi|isbn=0-19-560686-8|orig-date=1955}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|title=A History of Indian literature|volume=10 (Tamil Literature)|year=1974|publisher=Otto Harrasowitz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA130|isbn=3-447-01582-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|author-link=Kamil Zvelebil|title=A History of Indian literature|volume=10 (Tamil Literature)|year=1974|publisher=Otto Harrasowitz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA130|isbn=3-447-01582-9}}
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* {{cite book |author=R. S. Sharma |author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma |title=Early Medieval Indian Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA270 |year=2003 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-2523-8}}
* {{cite book |author=R. S. Sharma |author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma |title=Early Medieval Indian Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA270 |year=2003 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-2523-8}}
* {{cite book |author=S.R. Balasubrahmanyam |title=Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I |publisher=Oriental |year=1977 |isbn=9789060236079 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dufVAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |author=S.R. Balasubrahmanyam |title=Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I |publisher=Oriental |year=1977 |isbn=9789060236079 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dufVAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite journal |last=Spencer |first = George W. |date=May 1976 | title = The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon | journal = The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 | doi = 10.2307/2053272 | jstor = 2053272|s2cid = 154741845 }}
* {{cite news|author=T. S. Subramanian|title=Unearthed stone ends debate|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=2009-11-27}}
* {{cite news|author=T. S. Subramanian|title=Unearthed stone ends debate|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Unearthed-stone-ends-debate/article15940697.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=2009-11-27}}
* {{cite book|author=V. Ramamurthy|editor=N. Mahalingam|title=History of Kongu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SP03AQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=ISIAC}}
* {{cite book|author=V. Ramamurthy|editor=N. Mahalingam|title=History of Kongu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SP03AQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization}}
* {{cite book|author=Vidya Dehejia|title=The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art|url=https://archive.org/details/bodyadorneddisso0000dehe|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/bodyadorneddisso0000dehe/page/42 42]|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51266-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Vidya Dehejia|title=The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art|url=https://archive.org/details/bodyadorneddisso0000dehe|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/bodyadorneddisso0000dehe/page/42 42]|year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51266-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Vidya Dehejia|title=Art of the Imperial Cholas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23F7vTn3hBMC&pg=PA49|year=1990|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51524-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Vidya Dehejia|title=Art of the Imperial Cholas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23F7vTn3hBMC&pg=PA49|year=1990|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51524-5}}
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== External links ==
== External links ==
*  
* {{Commons category-inline|Rajaraja I}}


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{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajaraja 01}}
[[Category:Chola kings]]
[[Category:Chola dynasty]]
[[Category:Indian Shaivites]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:10th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:940s births]]
[[Category:940s births]]
[[Category:1014 deaths]]
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Latest revision as of 10:41, 26 March 2026


Rajaraja I
Rājakēsari Varman,
Ponniyin Selvan, Mum'muṭi Coḻa,[1] Sivapathasekaran, Thirumurai Kanda Chola, Taila Kula Kaalan, Telungu kula kaalan, Pandiya Kula Sani, Keralandhagan, Sinhalandhagan, Kṣatriya Śikhāmaṇi
Detail of the bronze portrait of Rajaraja Chola at the Brihadisvara Temple.[2][3]
Chola Emperor
ReignJune/July 985–January or February 1014
PredecessorUttama
SuccessorRajendra I
King of Anuradhapura
Reignc. 992 – c. January/February 1014
PredecessorMahinda V
SuccessorRajendra I
BornArul Mozhi Varman
(947-11-03)3 November 947
Thanjavur, Chola Empire (modern-day Tamil Nadu, India)
DiedJanuary 1014(1014-01-00) (aged 66)
Thanjavur, Chola Empire
Spouse
  • Thiripuvana Madeviyar
  • Lokamahadevi
  • Cholamahadevi
  • Tirilokyamahadevi
  • Panchavanmahadevi
  • Abhimanavalli
  • Latamahadevi
  • Prithivimahadevi
Issue
  • Rajendra I
  • Araiyan Rajarajan
  • Arulmozhi Chandramalli alias Gangamadevi
  • Mathevadigal
Regnal name
Rāja Rāja Cola (or) Rāja Rāja I
DynastyChola
FatherParantaka II
MotherVanavan Mahadevi
ReligionHinduism
See details
SignatureRajaraja I's signature
List of Chola kings and emperors
Early Cholas
Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya 848–871(?)
Aditya I 871–907
Parantaka I 907–950
Gandaraditya 950–957
Arinjaya 956–957
Sundara (Parantaka II) 957–970
Aditya II (co-regent)
Uttama 970–985
Rajaraja I 985–1014
Rajendra I 1012–1044
Rajadhiraja 1044–1054
Rajendra II 1054–1063
Virarajendra 1063–1070
Athirajendra 1070–1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga I 1070–1120
Vikrama 1118–1135
Kulothunga II 1133–1150
Rajaraja II 1146–1173
Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178
Kulothunga III 1178–1218
Rajaraja III 1216–1256
Rajendra III 1246–1279
Related dynasties
Telugu Chodas of Andhra
Chodagangas of Kalinga
Nidugal Cholas of Karnataka
Rajahnate of Cebu
Chola society

Rājarāja I (Middle Tamil: Rājarāja Cola; Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),[1][4] also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known for his conquests of southern India and the Anuradhapura kingdom of Sri Lanka, as well as increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja's birth name is variously given as Arul Mozhi Varman and Arulmoli Varman.

Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of the Pandya country, the Chera country, and northern Sri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such as Lakshadweep, Thiladhunmadulu atoll, and parts of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. His conquests were not limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against the Western Gangas and the Western Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as the Tungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from the Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima over control of Vengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances.[5][6][7]

Rajaraja I commissioned the construction of the Rajarajeshwaram Temple in the Chola capital of Thanjavur, revered as one of the most prominent examples of the medieval South Indian architectural style.[8] Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar' (lit. 'The One Who Found Thirumurai').[6][9] He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known as valanadus. Rajaraja died in 1014, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.

Early life[edit | edit source]

Mural of Rajaraja
Rajaraja and his brother Aditha Karikalan meeting their guru

Rajaraja was the son of the Chola king Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola, and his wife Vanavan.[10] As recorded in the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, meaning "The Word of Sun Clan".[1][11] He was born around 947 during the Tamil month of , under the Sadhayam star.[12] The Government of Tamil Nadu recognises his birthdate as 3 November 947.[13] Rajaraja had an elder brother, Aditha II,[4] and an elder sister, Kundavai.[14]

Rajaraja's accession marked the end of a period of competing claims to the Chola throne, following the reign of his great-grandfather Parantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder son Gandaraditya became king. However, upon Gandaraditya's death, his son Madhurantakan was still a minor, so the throne passed to Parantaka I's younger son, Arinjaya. Arinjaya soon died, and his son Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) succeeded him. It was decided that Sundara Chola would be succeeded by Madhurantakan, likely due to Sundara's preference. However, according to the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son, Rajendra I, the succession plan may have been made by Rajaraja himself.[4]

Aditha II died under mysterious circumstances, with inscriptions suggesting he may have been assassinated. Shortly afterwards, Sundara Chola also died, enabling Madhurantakan to assume the throne with the title Uttama Chola. Following Uttama Chola's death, Arul Moli Varman ascended the throne in mid-985[4] and adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, meaning "King among Kings."[15]

Military conquests[edit | edit source]

Chola empire during the reign of Rajaraja I

When Rajaraja came to power, he inherited a small kingdom centered around the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli region, the heart of traditional Chola territory.[1] He transformed this kingdom from one that was recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakuta Empire into one that was a well-organised empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north.[4]

Rajaraja Chola Thiruvalangadu plates states that, Arulmolivarman :

(performed tulabhara captured the town Vilinda; conquered the Pandya Amarabujanga and burnt the lord of Lanka; defeated Satyashraya; killed Andhra Bhima; conquered the country of Parasurama(i.e.,Chera) and subdued the kings of Ganga, Kalinga, Vengi, Magatha, Aratta ,odda,Surashtra and Chalukya).[16]

The Larger Leiden plates States that Rajaraja,

"conquered the Pandya, Tulu, Kerala, Simhalendra and Satyashraya ; destroyed ships at Kandalur-Salai , captured Vengainadu(Vengi), Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadi, Kudamalainadu, Kollam, Kalingam, and Ilam(Sri Lanka ) ; and removed the splendour of the Seliyas(i.e.,Pandyas)."[16]

Against Kandalur Salai[edit | edit source]

Main article: Battle of Kandalur Salai
Inscription of Rajaraja in Suchindram, near Kanyakumari

Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988. He is acclaimed as 'Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta', which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai'.[17]

Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict. The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army.[18]

Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas[edit | edit source]

Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear in Kanyakumari district in the 990s and in Thiruvananthapuram district in the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.[18] The Senur inscription, dated to 1005 and attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).[18][19][16] Some triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Rajaraja's son, Rajendra Chola.[20]

Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas'. As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognised as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu".[21] When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.[22] However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate.[20][22] According to the Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual of kanakabhisheka, where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolising an act of royal anointment or coronation.[22]

Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means "Three Crowned", symbolised his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.[1]

Conquest of northern Sri Lanka[edit | edit source]

Main article: Chola conquest of Anuradhapura
Remains of a Shiva temple, erected following Rajaraja's capture of Polonnaruwa and its renaming to Jananathamangalam, which indicate the Chola emperor's conquest in the region

During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around 982 CE, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 982, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. [23]

The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. [24][23]

In 993, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka. This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.[19] The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honour of Rajaraja's title.[23]

Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran[clarification needed] oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning "Lord of Rajaraja", within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognised as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region.[23]

The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama:

"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."

— Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates[1]

Chalukyan conflict[edit | edit source]

In 998, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).[25] During this campaign, he subdued the Nolamba dynasty, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.[26][27] These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.[28]

Battle of Gangavadi[edit | edit source]

By 1004, Rajaraja had conquered the Gangavadi province.[29] He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.[30] In 1004 AD Raja Raja Chola encamped in Gangavadi province, and soon Chalukya army invaded. In the Battle of Gangavadi, Raja Raja Chola defeated the invading Chalukya army and secured Gangavadi Province.[31]

Battle of Annigeri[edit | edit source]

Raja Raja Chola led the campaign in Ratta Padi in 1003–1004 AD and achieved victory in many battles. Raja Raja Chola I defeated Satyashraya in the Battle of Annigeri and successfully conquered Annigeri Province. In this battle Satyashraya was assisted by his brother Dasavarman and General Dandanayaka Kesava. Dandanayaka Kesava was governor of the Belvola-300 and Puligere-300 divisions, which are located in Annigeri Province. The Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola state that Raja Raja defeated Satyashraya who "fled to avoid misery from the attack of his (i.e., Arulmolivarman's) ocean-like army; (still) misery found a (permanent) abode in him. In this battle Satyashraya's brother, Prince Dasavarman, was killed, and Chalukya general Dandanayaka Kesava was taken prisoner. After Raja Raja Chola returned to his capital with booty of some gold flowers and treasures, which he dedicated to the temple of Thanjavur.[32][33][34]

Siege of Unkal[edit | edit source]

Raja Raja Chola diverted attention from Vengi affairs to the Satyashraya to counteroffensive and sent an army under Crown Prince Rajendra Chola in Chalukya Country. Rajendra marched with a 900,000-strong army and Captured Santalige, Kadambalige, Banavasi, Kogali and besieged the fort of Unkallu in the modern Unkal district located in the Dharwad district. In this ensuing battle, the Cholas defeated the Chalukyas, and the Chalukya commander, Lenka Keta, was killed. After Rajendra Chola successfully captured Unkallu Fort and then encamped at Donur.[35][36]

Battle of Donur[edit | edit source]

Main article: Battle of Donur

Following the Siege of Unkallu Fort, Rajendra battled against Satyashraya, who was opposing him in Donur. In the Battle of Donur, Rajendra chola defeated Satyashraya and successfully raided Banavasi, Donur (in the Bijapur region), Unkal (near modern Hubli), Kudala Sangama and parts of the Raichur Doab and secured Gangavadi and Nolambavadi. But this conquest and all raids in Chalukya country only lasted until  Satyashraya reconquered all territories up to Thungapathra.[37][38]

An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara(Donur in Bijapur district), blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmaśāstras.[39] Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Western Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.[40][41]

Vengi kingdom[edit | edit source]

Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Telugu Cholas branch.[30] However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman, an Eastern Chalukya prince, was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.[28] Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture of Kanchi in 1001, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power.[42][43] Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of the eastern Chalukya kingdom.[44]Satyashraya retaliated by invading the Vengi country in 1006 A.D. and placed Saktivaiman on the Vengi Throne. Raja Raja Chola diverted the Chalukyas to send a big army under Prince Rajendra Chola in Chalukya country. So Satyashraya, without having reinforcement to deal with the Chola army, called back his general Bayal Nambi, who advanced up to Chebrollu. Satyastraya did not permanently recapture Vengi. He made attempts, but the Cholas successfully defended their influence.[33][43]

Victory over Hoysalas[edit | edit source]

Narasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed Hoysala generals and a minister identified as Naganna.[45][46] Additionally, a similar inscription in Channapatna describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas.General Aprameya defeated Hoysala leaders manjaga, kaliga(or kali – ganga),Nigavarma and others in the Battle of Kalavur .winning by his valour in the plain of Kalavur a name to endure for ever.[44]

Kalinga conquest[edit | edit source]

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi. This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of south and south-east India.[47][46][16][48]

Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu[edit | edit source]

In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of Rajaraja's conquest of a place called "Kuda-malai-nadu" around the year 1000.[7][49] In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term "Kudagu-malai-nadu" is used instead of "Kuda-malai-nadu". Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu).[7][50]

The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes. According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai. Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area. The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu.[51][25][44]

Naval expedition and Conquest of the Maldives[edit | edit source]

The naval campaigns of Rajaraja formed a reassertion of Chola power in the Indian Ocean.[7]

"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."

— Romila Thapar, "Encyclopaedia Britannica".

The Cholas controlled the area around Bay of Bengal with Nagapattinam as the main port. The Chola Navy also played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka.[52] The success of Rajaraja allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram.[5][53]

Rajaraja I and Rajendra I are described as the greatest Chola rulers because of these conquests.[54][page needed]

Personal life[edit | edit source]

Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.[55][56][57] He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.[58][full citation needed][59][full citation needed] The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identity of his mother is unknown.[citation needed] He had his first daughter Kundavai with Lokamadevi who eventually married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan.[citation needed] Rajaraja had two other daughters.[citation needed] Rajaraja died in 1014 in the Tamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.[60]

Administration[edit | edit source]

Imperial coin of Chola King Rajaraja I (985–1014). Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.
Imperial seal of Rajaraja I

Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.[61] Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus.[62][63] From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.[61] This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.[61] Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.[64][65][66] To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to China.[67] Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples.[68]

Officials[edit | edit source]

Mural depicting Rajaraja and his guru Karuvuruvar found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu (11th century)[69][70]

Towards the end of his reign, Rajaraja appointed Rajendra Chola I as co-regent, who served as the supreme commander of the northern and northwestern territories. Under his rule, the administrative system was expanded, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.[62] Villavan Muvendavelan, one of Rajaraja's top officials, figures in many of his inscriptions.[71] Other officials named in inscriptions include the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, the general Senapathi Krishnan Raman, the Samanta chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan, and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.[72]

Religious policy[edit | edit source]

Rajaraja was a follower of the Shaivite denomination of Hinduism, but he also dedicated several temples to Vishnu.[citation needed] Rajaraja called himself Shivapada Shekhara (IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, 'the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva'.[73]

The Buddhist monastery of Chudamani Vihara was constructed in the 11th century in Nagapattinam by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I. It was named Chudamani (or Chulamani) Vihara after King Sri Mara's father.[74][75] According to the small Leyden grant[clarification needed], this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.[76]

Arts and architecture[edit | edit source]

Bronze portrait of Raraja Cholan, 11th century.[77]

After hearing short excerpts of the Tevaram in his court, Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns.[78] He sought the help of Nambiyandar Nambi.[79] It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half-eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.[80][79] The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.[80][81] Rajaraja thus became known as 'Tirumurai Kanda Cholan', meaning 'One who saved the Tirumurai'. In his work Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam (alias Tirumurai Kanda Puranam), Nambi identifies his patron as "Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan" (lit. 'King Rajaraja, the best of the race of Abhaya').[82] At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.[81] Nambi organised the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's "Tirukovayar" and "Tiruvacakam" as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The "Tirumandiram" of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 Nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.[83]Template:Overly detailed inline The initial seven books were later recognised as the Tevaram.[83] With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development.[83]

There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin.[19]

Brihadisvara Temple[edit | edit source]

Brihadisvara Temple built by Rajaraja I, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Main article: Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur

During 1010, Rajaraja built the Peruvudaiyar Temple (also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple, and Rajarajeswaram) in Thanjavur and dedicated it to Shiva. The temple and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.[84][85] The temple is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of Dravidian architecture of the Chola period.[86][87] Along with Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple, Peruvudaiyar temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples".[88]

Coins[edit | edit source]

Copper coin of Rajaraja I

Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.[89] The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings.[90]

Inscriptions[edit | edit source]

A typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone.[citation needed] An inscription in Tamil from Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year.[citation needed] An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:

Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves.[91]

ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநில
பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை
கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக்
காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை
உடையார் ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ
Excerpts of Rajaraja's inscription from Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur (first line in every image)

Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.[92][better source needed]

In popular culture[edit | edit source]

20th-century sculpture of Rajaraja in Thanjavur

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Vidya Dehejia 1990, p. 51.
  2. ↑ Sivaraman, R. (30 May 2018). "Idols of Raja Raja Chola, consort recovered from Gujarat". The Hindu.
  3. ↑ Srinivasan, G. (31 May 2018). "Tamil Nadu elated Chola era idols' recovery from Gujarat | Tamil Nadu elated Chola era idols' recovery from Gujarat". www.deccanchronicle.com.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 K. A. N. Sastri 1992, p. 1.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 46–49. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 A Journey through India's Past by Chandra Mauli Mani p.51 (Northern Book Centre, 2006)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 M. G. S. Narayanan 2013, p. 115-117.
  8. ↑ The Hindus: An Alternative History by Wendy Doniger, p. 347.
  9. ↑ Indian Thought: A Critical Survey by K. Damodaran, p. 246.
  10. ↑ Vidya Dehejia 2009, p. 42.
  11. ↑ A. K. Seshadri 1998, p. 31.
  12. ↑ Tamil Civilization: Quarterly Research Journal of the Tamil University. Vol. 3. Tamil University. 1985. pp. 40–41.
  13. ↑ "Why Tamil Nadu Celebrating King Raja Raja Chola's Birthday Is A Masterstroke In Symbolism". 2 November 2022.
  14. ↑ A. K. Seshadri 1998, p. 32.
  15. ↑ Vidya Dehejia 1990, p. 49.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Chakravarti, N. p (1933). Epigraphia Indica Vol.22.
  17. ↑ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1977, p. 3.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 M. G. S. Narayanan 2013, pp. 115–118.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 K. A. N. Sastri 1992, p. 2.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 M. G. S. Narayanan 2013, pp. 115–117.
  21. ↑ K. A. N. Sastri 1992, p. 238.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 V. Ramamurthy 1986, pp. 288–289.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 K. A. N. Sastri 1992, p. 3.
  24. ↑ Gunawardena 2005, p. 71.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "South Indian Inscriptions Volume 2 - Rajarajesvara Temple Inscriptions at Tanjavur @ whatisindia.com". www.whatisindia.com. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
  26. ↑ Seminar on Social and Cultural History of Dharmapuri district p.46
  27. ↑ M. S. Krishna Murthy (1980). The Noḷambas: a political and cultural study, c750 to 1050 A.D. University of Mysore. p. 98.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.398
  29. ↑ Malini Adiga. The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the Early Medieval Period. Orient BlackSwan, 2006. p. 239.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Baij Nath Puri. History of Indian Administration: Medieval period. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1975. p. 51.
  31. ↑ Anirudh Kanisetti (2025). Lords Of Earth And Sea A History Of The Chola Empire (2025).
  32. ↑ Benjamin Lewis Rice. Mysore Gazetteer, Volume 2, Part 2. Government Press, 1930 – Karnataka (India). p. 1075.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 B.R Gopal (1981). The Chalukyas Of Kalyana And The Kalachuris. Servants of Knowledge. Karnataka University Dharwad.
  34. ↑ Sivaramamurti, C. (1960). Chola temples Tanjavur.
  35. ↑ Murari, Krishna (1977). The Cāḷukyas of Kalyāṇi, from Circa 973 A.D. to 1200 A.D.: Based Mainly on Epigraphical Sources. Concept Publishing Company.
  36. ↑ S. Ramakrishnan, General Editor (2001). History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 05, The Struggle For Empire. Public Resource. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  37. ↑ Murari, Krishna (1977). The Cāḷukyas of Kalyāṇi, from Circa 973 A.D. to 1200 A.D.: Based Mainly on Epigraphical Sources. Concept Publishing Company.
  38. ↑ Karnataka Through The Ages. Servants of Knowledge. The Government Of Mysore. 1968.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  39. ↑ Studying early India: archaeology, texts and historical issues, p. 198
  40. ↑ The world in the year 1000, p. 311
  41. ↑ History of India: a new approach by Kittu Reddy, p. 146
  42. ↑ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1951). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial Kanauj. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar. p. 154.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Venkataramanayya, N[elaturi (1950). The Eastern Calukyas of Vengi.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Cholas I.
  45. ↑ Epigraphia Indica, Volume 30, page 248
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Historical Inscriptions Of Southern INida. BRAOU, Digital Library Of India. Kitabistam,Allahabad.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  47. ↑ "Cholas I".
  48. ↑ Sivaramamurti, C. (1960). Chola temples Tanjavur.
  49. ↑ Chandra Mauli Mani. A Journey through India's Past (Great Hindu Kings after Harshavardhana). Northern Book Centre, 2009 – India – 132 pages. p. 51.
  50. ↑ Epigraphia Indica, Volume 22. Archaeological Survey of India. 1935. p. 225.
  51. ↑ M. G. S. Narayanan 2013, p. 115-118.
  52. ↑ Milo Kearney 2003, p. 70.
  53. ↑ Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.230
  54. ↑ Chandra, Satish. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Vol. 2. Har-Anand Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-8124105221.
  55. ↑ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1977, p. 6.
  56. ↑ Documentation on Women, Children, and Human Rights. Sandarbhini, Library and Documentation Centre. 1994.
  57. ↑ Studies in Indian place names. Place Names Society of India. 1954. p. 58.
  58. ↑ Early Chola art, page 183
  59. ↑ A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District, page 180
  60. ↑ Rāja Rāja, the great. Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute. 1987. p. 28.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Precolonial India in Practice : Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra by Austin Cynthia Talbot Assistant Professor of History and Asian Studies University of Texas p.172
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century by Upinder Singh, p. 590.
  63. ↑ Administrative System in India: Vedic Age to 1947 by U. B. Singh, p. 76.
  64. ↑ Life/Death Rhythms of Ancient Empires – Climatic Cycles Influence Rule of Dynasties by Will Slatyer p.236
  65. ↑ The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly p.68
  66. ↑ Geeta Vasudevan 2003, pp. 62–63.
  67. ↑ Tamil Nadu, a real history by K. Rajayyan p.112
  68. ↑ Ancient system of oriental medicine, page 96
  69. ↑ Edith Tömöry (1982). A History of Fine Arts in India and the West. Orient Longman. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-86131-321-1.
  70. ↑ Rakesh Kumar (2007). Encyclopaedia of Indian paintings. Anmol Publications. p. 4. ISBN 9788126131228.
  71. ↑ South Indian inscriptions, India. Archaeological Survey, India. Dept. of Archaeology p.477
  72. ↑ South India heritage: an introduction by Prema Kasturi, Chithra Madhavan p.96
  73. ↑ R. S. Sharma 2003, p. 270.
  74. ↑ Kulke, Kesavapany & Sakhuja 2009, p. 67.
  75. ↑ C. E. Ramachandran; K. V. Raman, Indian History and Culture Society. Aspects of Indian history and culture. Books & Books, 1984. p. 11.
  76. ↑ S. R. Balasubrahmanyam. Middle Chola Temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I, A.D. 985–1070. Thomson Press (India), 1975. pp. 115–116.
  77. ↑ Ramesh, N. (31 May 2018). "Tamil Nadu: 50 years on, stolen bronze idols worth Rs 150 crore recovered". The New Indian Express.
  78. ↑ S. V. S. (1985). Raja Raja Chola, the high point of history. Authors Guild of India Madras Chapter. p. 54.
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 John E. Cort 1998, p. 178.
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Norman Cutler 1987, p. 50.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Geeta Vasudevan 2003, pp. 109–110.
  82. ↑ B. Natarajan. Tillai and Nataraja. Mudgala Trust, 1994. p. 212.
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 Kamil Zvelebil 1974, p. 191.
  84. ↑ Geeta Vasudevan 2003, p. 46.
  85. ↑ "Tamil Nadu – Thanjavur Periya Kovil – 1000 Years, Six Earthquakes, Still Standing Strong". Tamilnadu.com. 27 January 2014. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  86. ↑ John Keay 2000, p. xix.
  87. ↑ "Endowments to the Temple". Archaeological Survey of India.
  88. ↑ "Tanjavur Periya Kovil Tamil Nadu". Tamilnadu.com. 5 December 2012. Archived from the original on 10 February 2014. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  89. ↑ Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan by Lionel D. Barnett p.216
  90. ↑ Coins of India by C. J. Brown p.63
  91. ↑ B. Lewis Rice 1905, p. 107.
  92. ↑ Eugen Hultzsch 1890, p. 8.
  93. ↑ "Ponniyin Selvan: All About Jayam Ravi's Character Arun Mozhi Varman". moviecrow.com. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  94. ↑ "Cine Quiz". The Hindu. 26 September 2008. Archived from the original on 27 September 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  95. ↑ "Mani is likely to drop Ponniyin Selvan". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
  96. ↑ "What makes Shyam special". The Hindu. 17 January 2003. Archived from the original on 27 June 2003. Retrieved 6 June 2013.

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

Preceded by
Uttama Chola 		Rajaraja I
985–1014 		Succeeded by
Rajendra Chola I
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