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{{short description|Mountain range in India, Pakistan and Nepal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{short description|Mountain range in India and Nepal}}
{{Infobox mountain
[[File:Ganges_and_the_Shivalik_ranges,_near_Rishikesh.jpg|thumb|The Sivalik Hills and [[Ganges River]]]]
|name=Sivalik Hills
[[File:Sivallik Hills map.svg|thumb|Map of the Sivalik Hills]]
|photo=Ganges_and_the_Shivalik_ranges,_near_Rishikesh.jpg
The '''Sivalik Hills''' (also known as the '''Shivalik Hills''' and '''Churia Hills''') are a [[mountain range]] of the outer [[Himalayas]] that stretches from the [[Indus River]] about {{convert|2400|km|mi|abbr=on}} eastwards close to the [[Brahmaputra River]], spanning across the northern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It is {{convert|10|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide with an average elevation of {{convert|1500|-|2000|m|abbr=on}}. Between the [[Teesta River|Teesta]] and [[Raidāk River]]s in [[Assam]] is a gap of about {{convert|90|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Kohli2002">{{cite book |author=Kohli, M. S. |chapter=Shivalik Range |title=Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage |year=2002 |pages=24–25 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIs4zv17HHwC&pg=PA24 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-135-1}}</ref> Sivalik literally means 'tresses of [[Shiva]]’.<ref name=Balokhra99>{{cite book |last1=Balokhra |first1= J. M. |year=1999 |title=The Wonderland of Himachal Pradesh |publisher=H. G. Publications |location=New Delhi |edition=Revised and enlarged fourth |isbn=9788184659757}}</ref> Sivalik region is home to the [[Soanian]] archaeological culture.<ref name="SchugWalimbe2016"/>
|photo_caption=Sivalik Hills and [[Ganges]] River
|image_map=Sivallik Hills map.svg
|image_map_caption=Sivalik Hills, highlighted in light red
|range_coordinates={{coord|27|46|N|82|24|E|source:kolossus-fiwiki|display=inline,title}}
|length_km=2400
|location=northern [[Indian subcontinent]]
|parent=outer [[Himalayas]]
|geology=[[Tertiary (geology)|Tertiary]]
}}
The '''Sivalik Hills''', also known as '''Churia Hills''', are a [[mountain range]] of the outer [[Himalayas]].
The [[literal translation]] of "Sivalik" is 'tresses of [[Shiva]]'.<ref name=Balokhra99>{{cite book |last1=Balokhra |first1=J. M. |year=1999 |title=The Wonderland of Himachal Pradesh |publisher=H. G. Publications |location=New Delhi |edition=Revised and enlarged fourth |isbn=978-81-8465-975-7}}</ref> The hills are known for their numerous fossils, and are also home to the [[Soanian]] [[Middle Paleolithic]] archaeological culture.<ref name=SchugWalimbe2016/>
 
== Geography==
The Sivalik Hills are a [[mountain range]] of the outer [[Himalayas]] that stretches over about {{cvt|2400|km}} from the [[Indus River]] eastwards close to the [[Brahmaputra River]]; they are {{cvt|10|-|50|km}} wide with an average elevation of {{cvt|1500|-|2000|m}}. Between the [[Teesta River|Teesta]] and [[Raidāk River]]s is a gap of about {{cvt|90|km}}.<ref name=Kohli2002>{{cite book |author=Kohli, M. S. |title=Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage |year=2002 |chapter=Shivalik Range |pages=24–25 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIs4zv17HHwC&pg=PA24 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-135-1}}</ref>  
They are known for their [[Neogene]] and [[Pleistocene]] aged vertebrate fossils.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kaur |first=A. P. |date=2022 |title=New fossil mammalian assemblages and first record of ostrich from the Pinjore (Pinjor) formation (2.58–0.63 Ma) of Siwalik Hills near Chandigarh, northern India |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=293 |article-number=107694 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107694 |bibcode=2022QSRv..29307694K}}</ref>


==Geology==
==Geology==
{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=River Ganga meandering through the Shivalik ranges, Rishikesh.jpg |caption1=Ganges River cutting through the Sivalik Hills |image2=Sukhna Lake and nearby Shiwalik Hills.JPG |caption2=View of the Sivalik Hills from Sukhna Lake |image3=Winter morning in Terai.jpg |caption3=Winter morning in Terai}}
Geologically, the Sivalik Hills belong to the [[Tertiary period|Tertiary]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposits]] of the outer Himalayas.<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Siwalik Hills |volume=25 |pages=163–164}}</ref> They are chiefly composed of [[sandstone]] and [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]] rock formations, which are the solidified [[Detritus (geology)|detritus]] of the Himalayas<ref name=EB1911/> to their north; they are poorly consolidated. The sedimentary rocks comprising the hills are believed to be 16–5.2&nbsp;million years old.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gautam |first1=P. |last2=Fujiwara |first2=Y. |year=2000 |title=Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of Siwalik Group sediments of Karnali River section in western Nepal |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=812–824 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00185.x |bibcode=2000GeoJI.142..812G |doi-access=free|hdl=2115/38248 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>


Geologically, the Sivalik Hills belong to the [[Tertiary]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposits]] of the outer Himalayas.<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Siwalik Hills |volume=25 |pages=163–164}}</ref> They are chiefly composed of [[sandstone]] and [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]] rock formations, which are the solidified
They are bounded on the south by a fault system called the Main Frontal Thrust, with steeper slopes on that side. Below this, the coarse alluvial [[Bhabar]] zone makes the transition to the nearly level plains. Rainfall, especially during the summer [[monsoon]], percolates into the Bhabar, then is forced to the surface by finer alluvial layers below it in a zone of springs and marshes along the northern edge of the [[Terai]] or plains.<ref name=Mani>{{cite book|title=Ecology and Biogeography in India|first=M.S.|last=Mani|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |page=690}}</ref>
[[Detritus (geology)|detritus]] of the Himalayas<ref name=EB1911/> to their north; they are poorly consolidated. The remnant [[magnetisation]] of [[siltstone]]s and sandstones indicates that they were deposited 16–5.2&nbsp;million years ago. In [[Nepal]], the [[Ghaghara River|Karnali River]] exposes the oldest part of the Shivalik Hills.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Gautam, P., Fujiwara, Y. |year=2000 |title=Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of Siwalik Group sediments of Karnali River section in western Nepal |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=812–824 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2000GeoJI.142..812G |doi=10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00185.x |bibcode=2000GeoJI.142..812G |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
They are bounded on the south by a fault system called the Main Frontal Thrust, with steeper slopes on that side. Below this, the coarse alluvial [[Bhabar]] zone makes the transition to the nearly level plains. Rainfall, especially during the summer [[monsoon]], percolates into the Bhabar, then is forced to the surface by finer alluvial layers below it in a zone of springs and marshes along the northern edge of the [[Terai]] or plains.<ref name=Mani>{{cite book|title=Ecology and Biogeography in India|first=M.S.|last=Mani|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |page=690}}</ref>


== Prehistory ==
== Prehistory ==
Remains of the [[Lower Paleolithic]] (around 500,000 to 125,000 BP) [[Soanian]] culture were found in the Sivalik region.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3 phenomenon? A morphometric assessment |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=1434–1440 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.001|year=2007|last1=Lycett|first1=S. J.}}</ref> Contemporary to the [[Acheulean]], the Soanian culture is named after the [[Soan River|Soan Valley]] in the Sivalik Hills of [[Pakistan]]. The Soanian archaeological culture is found across Sivalik region in present-day India, Nepal and Pakistan.<ref name="SchugWalimbe2016">{{cite book|editor1=Schug, G. R. |editor2=Walimbe, S. R. |title=A Companion to South Asia in the Past |date=2016 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Oxford, Chichester |isbn=978-1-119-05547-1 |author=Chauhan, P. |chapter=A decade of paleoanthropology in the Indian Subcontinent. The Soanian industry reassessed |page=39 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xv-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39}}</ref>
{{see|South Asian Stone Age#Siwalik Hills}}
[[File:Colossochelys atlas.jpg|thumb|right|Skeleton of the gigantic tortoise ''[[Megalochelys atlas]]'', the largest known to have ever existed, and one of the best known Sivalik fossils]]
The Sivalik Hills are well known for fossils of vertebrates, spanning from the  Early [[Miocene]], until the [[Middle Pleistocene]], around 18 million to 600,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nanda |first=A.C. |date=2002 |title=Upper Siwalik mammalian faunas of India and associated events |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences  |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=47–58 |doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00013-5|bibcode=2002JAESc..21...47N }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Patnaik |first=R. |chapter=Indian Neogene Siwalik Mammalian Biostratigraphy. An Overview |date=2013 |doi=10.7312/wang15012-017 |title=Fossil Mammals of Asia |place=New York Chichester, West Sussex |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref>


{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2020}}
Some of the best known fossils from the hills include ''[[Megalochelys atlas]]'', the largest known tortoise to have ever existed,<ref name="TEWG2015">{{cite journal |author1=Rhodin, A.G.J. |author2=Thomson, S. |author3=Georgalis, G. |author4=Karl, H.-V. |author5=Danilov, I.G. |author6=Takahashi, A. |author7=de la Fuente, M.S. |author8=Bourque, J.R. |author9=Delfino M. |author10=Bour, R. |author11=Iverson, J.B. |author12=Shaffer, H.B. |author13=van Dijk, P.P. |year=2015 |title=Turtles and tortoises of the world during the rise and global spread of humanity: first checklist and review of extinct Pleistocene and Holocene chelonians. |journal=Chelonian Research Monographs |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=000e.1–66 |doi=10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |collaboration=Turtle Extinctions Working Group |hdl=11336/62240}}</ref> the sabertooth cat ''[[Megantereon|Megantereon falconeri]]'',''<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Stimpson |first=Christopher M. |date=May 2024 |title=Siwalik sabrecats: review and revised diagnosis of Megantereon fossils from the foothills of the Himalaya |journal=Royal Society Open Science |language=en |volume=11 |issue=5 |bibcode=2024RSOS...1131788S |doi=10.1098/rsos.231788  |doi-access=free|issn=2054-5703 |pmc=11076117 |pmid=38720790}}</ref>'' ''[[Sivatherium giganteum]],'' the largest known [[Giraffidae|giraffid]],<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Basu |first1=Christopher |last2=Falkingham |first2=Peter L. |last3=Hutchinson |first3=John R. |date=January 2016 |title=The extinct, giant giraffid ''Sivatherium giganteum'': skeletal reconstruction and body mass estimation |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |article-number=20150940 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2015.0940 |pmc=4785933 |pmid=26763212}}</ref> and the ape ''[[Sivapithecus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelley |first1=J. |date=1988 |title=A new large species of Sivapithecus from the Siwaliks of Pakistan |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=305–324 |doi=10.1016/0047-2484(88)90073-5|bibcode=1988JHumE..17..305K }}</ref>
''[[Sivapithecus]]'' (a kind of [[ape]], formerly known as ''Ramapithecus'') is among many [[fossil]] finds in the Sivalik region.


The Sivalik Hills are also among the richest fossil sites for large animals anywhere in [[Asia]]; the hills had revealed that all kinds of animals lived there. They were early ancestors to the [[sloth bear]]; ''[[Sivatherium]]'', an ancient giraffe; and ''[[Megalochelys atlas]]'', a giant tortoise named the Sivaliks giant tortoise;  amongst other creatures.
Remains of the [[Lower Paleolithic|Lower]]-[[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Soanian]] culture dating to around 500,000 to 125,000 years [[Before Present]] were found in the Sivalik region.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3 phenomenon? A morphometric assessment |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=1434–1440 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.001|year=2007|last1=Lycett|first1=S. J.|bibcode=2007JArSc..34.1434L }}</ref> Contemporary to the [[Acheulean]], the Soanian culture is named after the [[Soan River|Soan Valley]] in the Sivalik Hills of [[Pakistan]]. The Soanian archaeological culture is found across Sivalik region in present-day India, Nepal and Pakistan.<ref name="SchugWalimbe2016">{{cite book|editor1=Schug, G. R. |editor2=Walimbe, S. R. |title=A Companion to South Asia in the Past |date=2016 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Oxford, Chichester |isbn=978-1-119-05547-1 |author=Chauhan, P. |chapter=A decade of paleoanthropology in the Indian Subcontinent. The Soanian industry reassessed |page=39 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xv-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39}}</ref>


A number of fossil [[ratites]] were reported from the Sivalik Hills, including the extinct [[Asian ostrich]], ''[[Dromaius]] sivalensis'' and ''[[Hypselornis]]''. However, the latter two species were named only from toe bones that have since been identified as belonging to an [[ungulate]] mammal and a [[crocodilian]], respectively.<ref name='Lowe'>{{cite journal |last=Lowe |first=P. R. |year=1929 |title=Some remarks on ''Hypselornis sivalensis'' Lydekker. |journal=[[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]] |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=571–576 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1929.tb08775.x}}</ref>
==Ecosystem==
 
The [[carbon stock]] and [[carbon sequestration]] rates of the Churia forests differ among different forest management regimes and are highest in protected areas.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Thapa |first1=H. B. |title=Churia forests of Nepal |url=http://www.dfrs.gov.np/downloadfile/CHURE_REPORT_1453193322.pdf |archive-date=2017-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508190912/http://www.dfrs.gov.np/downloadfile/CHURE_REPORT_1453193322.pdf |publisher=Forest Resource Assessment Nepal, Department of Forest Research and Survey, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal |date=2014 |lccn=2015515752}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Subedi |first1=B. |last2=Lamichhane |first2=P. |last3=Magar |first3=L. K. |last4=Subedi |first4=T. |date=2022 |title=Aboveground carbon stocks and sequestration rates of forests under different management regimes in Churia region of Nepal |url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/BANKO/article/view/45442 |journal=Banko Janakari |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |doi=10.3126/banko.v32i1.45442|doi-access=free }}</ref> Early twentieth-century engineering studies of the Punjab Himalaya and adjoining Siwalik Hills provided some of the earliest documented recognition of the environmental consequences of deforestation in the region. Work by L. B. Holland and H. M. Glover (1930) explicitly linked the disappearance of forests in the outer Himalaya to increased surface runoff, soil erosion, reduced groundwater retention, and more frequent and severe flooding, noting that formerly forested catchments had become degraded, sediment-laden, and less capable of sustaining stable water supplies.<ref>Holland, L. B.; Glover, H. M. (1930). ''Erosion in the Punjab Himalaya and its probable effect on water supplies''. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress of the Irrigation Branch, Buildings and Roads Branch, and Railway Branch North West Railway (Pakistan Engineering Congress). https://pecongress.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/P18-PAPER135.pdf</ref><ref>Vardon, J. (1930). ''Some Interesting Tube Wells on the North Western Railway''. In: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress of the Irrigation Branch, Buildings and Roads Branch, and Railway Branch NWR (Pakistan Engineering Congress). https://pecongress.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/P18-PAPER139.pdf
== Demographics ==
</ref>
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2020}}
The low human population density in the Sivalik Hills and along the steep southern slopes of the [[Lower Himalayan Range]] created a cultural, linguistic, and political buffer zone between populations in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|plains]] to the south and the hills beyond the Mahabharat escarpment, enabling different evolutionary paths with respect to language and culture.
 
==In culture==
The [[Indian Navy]]'s [[Shivalik class frigate|''Shivalik''-class frigate]] is named after these ranges.


==See also==
==See also==
[[File:River Ganga meandering through the Shivalik ranges, Rishikesh.jpg|thumb|upright|Ganga river cutting through the Sivalik hills]]
<!-- Please help by converting this to an "Outline" article and/or create/add to a navigation template. -->
<!-- Please help by converting this to an "Outline" article and/or create/add to a navigation template. -->
; Subranges of Sivalik (from north to south)
; Subranges of Sivalik
* [[Dundwa Range]]
* [[Dundwa Range]]
* [[Margalla Hills]]
* [[Margalla Hills]]
* [[Shivalik Fossil Park]]
* [[Shivalik Fossil Park]]
; Geological subdivisions of Himalayas (from north to south) 
; Geological subdivisions of Himalayas
* [[Indus-Yarlung suture zone]]
* [[Indus-Yarlung suture zone]]
*[[Karakoram fault system]]
*[[Karakoram fault system]]
*[[Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains]]
*[[Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains]]
*[[Main Himalayan Thrust]]
*[[Main Himalayan Thrust]]
* [[Lower Himalayan Range|Lower/Lesser Himalaya]]
* [[Lower Himalayan Range]]
; Geographical subdivisions of Himalayas (from east to west) 
; Geographical subdivisions of Himalayas
* [[Eastern Himalaya]]
* [[Western Himalayas]]
* [[Eastern Himalaya]]s
* [[Indian Himalayan Region]], [[Geology of Bhutan]] and [[Geology of Nepal]]
* [[Indian Himalayan Region]], [[Geology of Bhutan]] and [[Geology of Nepal]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)]], [[Geography of Ladakh]], [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] and [[Geology of Pakistan]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)]], [[Geography of Ladakh]], [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] and [[Geology of Pakistan]]


==References==
==References==
{{Commons category|Shivalik Hills}}
{{EB1911 poster|Siwalik Hills}}
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{coord|27|46|N|82|24|E|source:kolossus-fiwiki|display=title}}
{{Himalayas}}
{{Sister bar|auto=1|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Siwalik Hills}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Uttarakhand}}


[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Himalayas]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Himalayas]]
[[Category:Hills of Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]
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[[Category:Hills of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Hills of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Hills of Sikkim]]
[[Category:Hills of Sikkim]]
[[Category:Hills of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]]
[[Category:Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]]

Latest revision as of 21:53, 21 March 2026


Sivalik Hills
Sivalik Hills and Ganges River
Dimensions
Length2,400 km (1,500 mi)
Geography
Locationnorthern Indian subcontinent
Range coordinates27°46′N 82°24′E / 27.767°N 82.400°E / 27.767; 82.400
Parent rangeouter Himalayas
Geology
Type of rockTertiary

The Sivalik Hills, also known as Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas. The literal translation of "Sivalik" is 'tresses of Shiva'.[1] The hills are known for their numerous fossils, and are also home to the Soanian Middle Paleolithic archaeological culture.[2]

Geography[edit | edit source]

The Sivalik Hills are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River; they are 10–50 km (6.2–31.1 mi) wide with an average elevation of 1,500–2,000 m (4,900–6,600 ft). Between the Teesta and Raidāk Rivers is a gap of about 90 km (56 mi).[3] They are known for their Neogene and Pleistocene aged vertebrate fossils.[4]

Geology[edit | edit source]

Geologically, the Sivalik Hills belong to the Tertiary deposits of the outer Himalayas.[5] They are chiefly composed of sandstone and conglomerate rock formations, which are the solidified detritus of the Himalayas[5] to their north; they are poorly consolidated. The sedimentary rocks comprising the hills are believed to be 16–5.2 million years old.[6]

They are bounded on the south by a fault system called the Main Frontal Thrust, with steeper slopes on that side. Below this, the coarse alluvial Bhabar zone makes the transition to the nearly level plains. Rainfall, especially during the summer monsoon, percolates into the Bhabar, then is forced to the surface by finer alluvial layers below it in a zone of springs and marshes along the northern edge of the Terai or plains.[7]

Prehistory[edit | edit source]

Further information: South Asian Stone Age § Siwalik Hills
Skeleton of the gigantic tortoise Megalochelys atlas, the largest known to have ever existed, and one of the best known Sivalik fossils

The Sivalik Hills are well known for fossils of vertebrates, spanning from the Early Miocene, until the Middle Pleistocene, around 18 million to 600,000 years ago.[8][9]

Some of the best known fossils from the hills include Megalochelys atlas, the largest known tortoise to have ever existed,[10] the sabertooth cat Megantereon falconeri,[11] Sivatherium giganteum, the largest known giraffid,[12] and the ape Sivapithecus.[13]

Remains of the Lower-Middle Paleolithic Soanian culture dating to around 500,000 to 125,000 years Before Present were found in the Sivalik region.[14] Contemporary to the Acheulean, the Soanian culture is named after the Soan Valley in the Sivalik Hills of Pakistan. The Soanian archaeological culture is found across Sivalik region in present-day India, Nepal and Pakistan.[2]

Ecosystem[edit | edit source]

The carbon stock and carbon sequestration rates of the Churia forests differ among different forest management regimes and are highest in protected areas.[15][16] Early twentieth-century engineering studies of the Punjab Himalaya and adjoining Siwalik Hills provided some of the earliest documented recognition of the environmental consequences of deforestation in the region. Work by L. B. Holland and H. M. Glover (1930) explicitly linked the disappearance of forests in the outer Himalaya to increased surface runoff, soil erosion, reduced groundwater retention, and more frequent and severe flooding, noting that formerly forested catchments had become degraded, sediment-laden, and less capable of sustaining stable water supplies.[17][18]

See also[edit | edit source]

Ganga river cutting through the Sivalik hills
Subranges of Sivalik
Geological subdivisions of Himalayas
Geographical subdivisions of Himalayas

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Balokhra, J. M. (1999). The Wonderland of Himachal Pradesh (Revised and enlarged fourth ed.). New Delhi: H. G. Publications. ISBN 978-81-8465-975-7.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Chauhan, P. (2016). "A decade of paleoanthropology in the Indian Subcontinent. The Soanian industry reassessed". In Schug, G. R.; Walimbe, S. R. (eds.). A Companion to South Asia in the Past. Oxford, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-119-05547-1.
  3. ↑ Kohli, M. S. (2002). "Shivalik Range". Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage. Indus Publishing. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-81-7387-135-1.
  4. ↑ Kaur, A. P. (2022). "New fossil mammalian assemblages and first record of ostrich from the Pinjore (Pinjor) formation (2.58–0.63 Ma) of Siwalik Hills near Chandigarh, northern India". Quaternary Science Reviews. 293 107694. Bibcode:2022QSRv..29307694K. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107694.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Siwalik Hills" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 163–164.
  6. ↑ Gautam, P.; Fujiwara, Y. (2000). "Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of Siwalik Group sediments of Karnali River section in western Nepal". Geophysical Journal International. 142 (3): 812–824. Bibcode:2000GeoJI.142..812G. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00185.x. hdl:2115/38248.
  7. ↑ Mani, M.S. (2012). Ecology and Biogeography in India. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 690.
  8. ↑ Nanda, A.C. (2002). "Upper Siwalik mammalian faunas of India and associated events". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 21 (1): 47–58. Bibcode:2002JAESc..21...47N. doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00013-5.
  9. ↑ Patnaik, R. (2013). "Indian Neogene Siwalik Mammalian Biostratigraphy. An Overview". Fossil Mammals of Asia. New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/wang15012-017.
  10. ↑ Rhodin, A.G.J.; Thomson, S.; Georgalis, G.; Karl, H.-V.; Danilov, I.G.; Takahashi, A.; de la Fuente, M.S.; Bourque, J.R.; Delfino M.; Bour, R.; Iverson, J.B.; Shaffer, H.B.; van Dijk, P.P.; et al. (Turtle Extinctions Working Group) (2015). "Turtles and tortoises of the world during the rise and global spread of humanity: first checklist and review of extinct Pleistocene and Holocene chelonians". Chelonian Research Monographs. 5 (8): 000e.1–66. doi:10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015. hdl:11336/62240.
  11. ↑ Stimpson, Christopher M. (May 2024). "Siwalik sabrecats: review and revised diagnosis of Megantereon fossils from the foothills of the Himalaya". Royal Society Open Science. 11 (5). Bibcode:2024RSOS...1131788S. doi:10.1098/rsos.231788. ISSN 2054-5703. PMC 11076117. PMID 38720790.
  12. ↑ Basu, Christopher; Falkingham, Peter L.; Hutchinson, John R. (January 2016). "The extinct, giant giraffid Sivatherium giganteum: skeletal reconstruction and body mass estimation". Biology Letters. 12 (1) 20150940. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0940. PMC 4785933. PMID 26763212.
  13. ↑ Kelley, J. (1988). "A new large species of Sivapithecus from the Siwaliks of Pakistan". Journal of Human Evolution. 17 (3): 305–324. Bibcode:1988JHumE..17..305K. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(88)90073-5.
  14. ↑ Lycett, S. J. (2007). "Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3 phenomenon? A morphometric assessment". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (9): 1434–1440. Bibcode:2007JArSc..34.1434L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.001.
  15. ↑ Thapa, H. B. (2014). Churia forests of Nepal (PDF). Forest Resource Assessment Nepal, Department of Forest Research and Survey, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal. LCCN 2015515752. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2017.
  16. ↑ Subedi, B.; Lamichhane, P.; Magar, L. K.; Subedi, T. (2022). "Aboveground carbon stocks and sequestration rates of forests under different management regimes in Churia region of Nepal". Banko Janakari. 32 (1): 15–24. doi:10.3126/banko.v32i1.45442.
  17. ↑ Holland, L. B.; Glover, H. M. (1930). Erosion in the Punjab Himalaya and its probable effect on water supplies. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress of the Irrigation Branch, Buildings and Roads Branch, and Railway Branch North West Railway (Pakistan Engineering Congress). https://pecongress.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/P18-PAPER135.pdf
  18. ↑ Vardon, J. (1930). Some Interesting Tube Wells on the North Western Railway. In: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress of the Irrigation Branch, Buildings and Roads Branch, and Railway Branch NWR (Pakistan Engineering Congress). https://pecongress.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/P18-PAPER139.pdf

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