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{{Short description|State in southern India}}
{{Infobox Settlement
{{About|the Indian state}}
<!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage-->
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
|official_name          = Kerala
{{good article}}
|other_name            =
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
|native_name            =  കേരളം<!-- for cities whose native name is not in English -->
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
|nickname              =
{{Infobox settlement
|settlement_type        = State of [[India]]
| type                    = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
|motto                  =
| name                    = Kerala
| image_blank_emblem      = Government of Kerala Logo.svg
| blank_emblem_size        = 100px
| blank_emblem_type        = [[Emblem of Kerala|Emblem]]
| image_skyline            = {{Photomontage
  | photo1a = Niyamasabha.jpg
  | photo2a = Alappuzha Boat Beauty W.jpg
  | photo2b = Kochi Skyline.jpg
  | photo3a = The View of the Athirapally Falls during the onset of Monsoon.jpg
  | photo3b = Muzhappilangad Drive-in Beach 2.jpg
  | photo4a = Munnar hillstation kerala.jpg
  | spacing = 2
  | space = 2
  | position = center
  | color_border = white
  | color = white
  | size = 225
  | foot_montage = '''Clockwise from top:'''<br />[[Niyamasabha Mandiram]], [[Kochi]] city skyline, Sunset at [[Muzhappilangad Beach|Muzhappilangad Drive-in Beach]], [[Munnar]] hill station, [[Athirappilly Falls]], [[Kettuvallam|Houseboat]]
  }}
| image_map                = IN-KL.svg
| map_caption              = Location of Kerala
| map_caption1            = Map of Kerala
| coordinates              = {{coord|10|76|region:IN-KL|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint            = Kochi
| nickname                = [[God's Own Country]], Spice Garden of India, Land of Coconuts, Land of Trees, The Jewel of South India<ref>{{Cite news|title=Explore Kerala, the jewel of South India, on this virtual tour|url=https://www.pehalnews.in/explore-kerala-the-jewel-of-south-india-on-this-virtual-tour/263600/|last=Pehal News Team|date=12 November 2020|access-date=14 November 2020|work=Pehal News}}</ref>
| subdivision_type        = Country
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|India}}
| established_title        = Statehood
| established_date        = {{start date and age|df=yes|1956|11|1}}
| seat_type                = Capital
| seat                    = [[Thiruvananthapuram]]
| parts_type              = [[List of Indian districts|Districts]]
| parts_style              = para
| p1                      = [[List of districts in Kerala|14]]
| governing_body          = [[Government of Kerala]]
| leader_title            = [[Governors of Kerala|Governor]]
| leader_name              = [[Arif Mohammad Khan]]
| leader_title1            = [[Chief Ministers of Kerala|Chief&nbsp;Minister]]
| leader_name1            = [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] ([[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]])
| leader_title2            = [[Legislature of Kerala|Legislature]]
| leader_name2            = {{nowrap|[[Unicameral]] ([[List of constituencies of Kerala Legislative Assembly|141 seats]])}}
| leader_title3            = [[List of current Members of Parliament from Kerala|Parliamentary constituencies]]
| leader_name3            = {{plainlist|
* [[Rajya Sabha]] ([[List of current members of the Rajya Sabha#Kerala|9 seats]])
* [[Lok Sabha]] ([[List of members of the 17th Lok Sabha#Kerala|20 seats]])
  }}
| leader_title4            = [[High Courts of India|High Court]]
| leader_name4            = [[Kerala High Court]]
| unit_pref                = Metric<!-- or US or UK -->
| area_total_km2          = 38863
| area_rank                = [[List of states and union territories of India by area|21st]]
| elevation_footnotes      =
| elevation_m              =
| elevation_max_m          = 2695
| elevation_max_point      = <!-- for denoting the measurement point --> [[Anamudi]]
| elevation_min_m          = −2.2
| elevation_min_point      = <!-- for denoting the measurement point --> [[Kuttanad]]
| population_total        = 34630192
| population_as_of        = 2018
| population_footnotes    = <ref>{{Cite book|title=Annual Vital Statistics Report – 2018|publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Kerala|year=2020|location=Thiruvananthapuram|pages=55|url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf}}</ref>
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_rank          = [[List of states and union territories of India by population|13th]]
| population_demonym      = [[Keralite]], [[Malayali]]
| population_note          =
| timezone1                = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1              = +05:30
| iso_code                = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-KL]]
| registration_plate      = [[List of RTO districts in Kerala|KL]]
| demographics_type1      = GSDP {{nobold|(2020-2021)}}
| demographics1_footnotes  = <ref name="MOSPI">{{cite web|url=https://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls|title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India|date=15 March 2021|access-date=23 June 2021}}</ref>
| demographics1_title1    = [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|Total]]
| demographics1_info1      = {{INRConvert|9.78|lc}}<!--9.78064-->
| demographics1_title2    = [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|Per capita]]
| demographics1_info2      = {{INRConvert|281872}}<!--Net state domestic product per capita-->
| blank_name_sec2          = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] {{nobold|(2019)}}
| blank_info_sec2          = {{increase}} 0.782<ref name="snhdi-gdl"/> ({{color|green|High}}) · [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|1st]]
| blank1_name_sec2        = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]] {{nobold|(2018)}}
| blank1_info_sec2        = 96.2%<ref name="Literacy survey_2018">{{cite web |title=Literacy Survey, India (2017–18) |date=8 September 2020 |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/at-96-2-kerala-tops-indias-literacy-rate-chart-again-andhra-pradesh-ranks-lowest-with-66-4-8796401.html |publisher=Firstpost |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref>
| blank2_name_sec2        = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]] {{nobold|(2011)}}
| blank2_info_sec2        = 1084 [[females|♀]]/1000 [[males|♂]]<ref name="pc-census2011">{{cite web |title=Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban) |url=https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India |access-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127163347/https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| demographics_type2      = Languages
| demographics2_title1    = Official
| demographics2_info1      = [[Malayalam]]<ref name=langoff>{{cite web |url=https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |title=52nd report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2014 to June 2015) |page=132 |date=29 March 2016 |work=Ministry of Minority Affairs (Government of India) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics2_title2    = Additional&nbsp;official
| demographics2_info2      = [[English language|English]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Malayalam to be official language |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-is-officiallanguage-from-may-1/article18259641.ece |date=28 April 2017 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Hindi is not an 'official' language in Kerala Assembly |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/hindi-is-not-an-official-language-in-kerala-assembly/article6190937.ece |date=12 July 2014 |work=The Hindu |issn=0971-751X|language=en-IN |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref>
| website                  = {{URL|https://kerala.gov.in/}}
| module                  = {{Infobox place symbols| embedded=yes
| region = Kerala
| region_type= <!-- Type of state or region (default is State) -->
| country  = India
| flag  =
| emblem  = [[Emblem of Kerala]]  [[File:Government of Kerala Logo.svg|50px|left]]
| language  = [[File:Word Malayalam.svg|50px|left]] [[Malayalam]]<ref name=langoff/>
| motto  =
| bird  = [[File:Great Hornbill Goa.jpg|50px|left]] [[Buceros bicornis|Great hornbill]]
| butterfly = [[File:MalabarBandedPeacock Chamakkav Basking.jpg|50px|left]] [[Papilio buddha]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jacob |first1=Aneesh |title='Budha Mayoori' to be named Kerala's state butterfly |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/technology/science/budha-mayoori-to-be-named-kerala-s-state-butterfly-1.3305480 |work=Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
| fish  = [[File:Etroplus suratensis.jpg|50px|left]] [[Green chromide]]
| flower  = [[File:Konnamaram.JPG|50px|left]] [[cassia fistula|Kanikonna (Cassia fistula)]]
| fruit  = [[File:Ripe jackfruit.jpg|50px|left]] [[Jackfruit]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Jackfruit to be Kerala's state fruit; declaration on March 21 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/jackfruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-march-21-5101170/ |date=17 March 2018 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref>
| mammal  = [[File:Elephas maximus (Bandipur).jpg|50px|left]] [[Indian elephant]]
| tree  = [[File:Coconut Tree - Flickr - sajinrajknilambur.jpg|50px|left]] [[Cocos nucifera|Coconut tree]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Symbols |url=https://www.kerenvis.nic.in/Database/Symbols_1430.aspx |website=ENVIS Centre: Kerala |access-date=21 March 2018}}</ref>
  }}
| official_name            =
}}
 
'''Kerala''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|k|ɛr|ə|l|ə}} {{respell|KERR|ə|lə}}; {{IPA-ml|ke:ɾɐɭɐm|lang|Ml-Keralam.ogg}}) is a [[States and union territories of India|state]] on the [[Malabar Coast]] of [[India]].<ref name="mlb">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Malabar-Coast |title=Malabar Coast |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |access-date= 26 May 2021}}</ref> It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the [[States Reorganisation Act]], by combining [[Malayalam]]-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Malabar District|Malabar]], [[South Canara]], and [[Travancore]].<ref name="Malabar"/><ref name="Kerala"/> Spread over {{convert|38863|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, Kerala is the 21st [[List of states and union territories of India by area|largest Indian state by area]]. It is bordered by [[Karnataka]] to the north and northeast, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the east and south, and the [[Laccadive Sea|Lakshadweep Sea]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition |year=1953 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization |access-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005131902/https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2018}}</ref> to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], Kerala is the [[List of states of India by population|13th-largest Indian state by population]]. It is divided into 14 [[List of districts of Kerala|districts]] with the capital being [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. [[Malayalam]] is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |title=Kerala – Principal Language |access-date=27 November 2018 |work=Government of India}}</ref>
 
The [[Chera Dynasty]] was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The [[Ay kingdom]] in the deep south and the [[Mushika dynasty|Ezhimala kingdom]] in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the [[Common Era]] (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000&nbsp;[[Common Era|BCE]]. The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of [[Pliny the elder|Pliny]] as well as the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus]] around {{CE|100|link=y}}. In the 15th century, the [[spice trade]] attracted [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] traders to Kerala, and paved the way for [[Colonial India|European colonisation]] of India. At the time of [[Indian independence movement]] in the early 20th century, there were two major [[princely states]] in Kerala: [[Travancore State|Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]]. They united to form the state of [[Thiru-Kochi]] in 1949. The [[Malabar District|Malabar region]], in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the [[Madras province]] of [[British India]], which later became a part of the [[Madras State]] post-independence. After the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]], the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the [[Malabar district]] of [[Madras State]] (excluding [[Gudalur taluk]] of [[The Nilgiris District|Nilgiris district]], [[Lakshadweep]] Islands, [[Topslip]], the [[Attappadi]] Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of [[Kasaragod]] (now [[Kasaragod District]]) in [[South Canara]] ([[Tulunad]]), and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of [[Kanyakumari district]], and Shenkottai taluks).<ref name="Kerala"/>
 
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in [[India]], 3.44%; the highest [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest [[literacy]] rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India;<ref name="Literacy survey_2018"/> the highest life expectancy, 77 years; and the highest sex ratio, 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by poverty rate|second-least impoverished state]] in India according to the Annual Report of [[Reserve Bank of India]] published in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Table 162, Number and Population Below Poverty Line|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=16603|year=2013|publisher=Reserve Bank of India, Government of India|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602074949/https://www.rbi.org.in/SCRIPTs/PublicationsView.aspx?id=16603|archive-date=June 2, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=SDGs India Index | url=https://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in/#/ranking | date=31 December 2019}}</ref> Kerala is the [[Urbanisation in India|second-most urbanised major state]] in the country with [[List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth|47.7% urban population]] according to the [[2011 Census of India]].<ref name="ubn"/> The state topped in the country to achieve the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] according to the annual report of [[NITI Aayog]] published in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kerala tops sustainable development goals index|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/kerala-tops-sustainable-development-goals-index-11577729046641.html|last=Gireesh Chandra Prasad|date=30 December 2019|access-date=4 December 2020|work=Livemint}}</ref> The state has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]] with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly [[English language|English]] and [[Malayalam]]. [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]] is practised by more than half of the population, followed by [[Islam in Kerala|Islam]] and [[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]. The culture is a synthesis of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]], [[South Indian culture|Dravidian]], [[Arab culture|Arab]], and [[Culture of Europe|European]] cultures,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=55 |language=en }}</ref> developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.
 
The [[economy of Kerala]] is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|8th-largest]] in India with {{INRConvert|8.55|t}} in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of {{INRConvert|222|k}}.<ref name="MOSPI"/> The [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]] contributes around 65% to state's [[Gross value added|GSVA]], while the [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]] contributes only 8%.<ref name="eco">{{Cite book|title=Economic Review 2020 – Volume I|last=Government of Kerala|publisher=Kerala State Planning Board|year=2021|location=Thiruvananthapuram|url=https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf}}</ref> The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]] during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on [[remittances]] from a large [[Malayali]] expatriate community. The production of [[Black pepper|pepper]] and [[natural rubber]] contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, [[coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]] and spices are important. The state is situated between [[Arabian Sea]] to the west and [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for {{convert|595|km|mi}}, and around 1.1&nbsp;million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the state's income. Kerala is one of the prominent [[Tourism in Kerala|tourist destinations]] of India, with [[Beaches in Kerala|coconut-lined sandy beaches]], [[Kerala Backwaters|backwaters]], [[hill station]]s, [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic tourism]] and [[tropical]] greenery as its major attractions.
 
==Etymology==
The word ''Kerala'' is first recorded as ''Keralaputo'' ('son of [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the [[Maurya empire|Maurya emperor]] [[Ashoka]] (274–237&nbsp;BCE), one of [[Edicts of Ashoka|his edicts]] pertaining to welfare.<ref>{{Cite book|last=P. C. Alexander|title=Buddhism in Kerala|pages=23}}</ref> At that time, one of three states in the region was called [[Chera Dynasty|{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Cheralam}}]] in Classical Tamil: {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Chera}} and {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Kera}} are variants of the same word.<ref name="Sainz1972">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOEBAAAAMAAJ |title=Cuba y la Casa de Austria |publisher=Ediciones Universal |year=1972 |page=120 |author=Nicasio Silverio Sainz |access-date=6 January 2013}}</ref> The word {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Cheral}} refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for 'lake'.<ref name="Marr1985">{{cite book |author=John R. Marr |title=The Eight Anthologies: A Study in Early Tamil Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3gOAAAAYAAJ |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |page=263}}</ref> {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Keralam}} may stem from the Classical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] {{transliteration|ta|ISO|cherive-alam}} 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'<ref name="AlexDeborah2014">{{cite book|author1=Rayson K. Alex|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1swxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226|title=Culture and Media: Ecocritical Explorations|author2=S. Susan Deborah|author3=Sachindev P.S.|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2014|isbn=978-1443861908|page=226}}</ref> or {{transliteration|ta|ISO|chera alam}} 'land of the Cheras'.
 
One [[folk etymology]] derives ''Kerala'' from the [[Malayalam]] word {{transliteration|ml|ISO|kera}} 'coconut tree' and {{transliteration|ml|ISO|alam}} 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',<ref name="Sadasivan2000">{{cite book|author=S. N. Sadasivan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA101|title=A Social History of India|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2000|isbn=978-8176481700|page=101}}</ref> which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.<ref name="PreedyWatson2011">{{cite book|author1=Victor R. Preedy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6lYoH8rwywC&pg=PT400|title=Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention|author2=Ronald Ross Watson|author3=Vinood B. Patel|publisher=Academic Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0123756893|page=400}}</ref>
 
The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as ''Cherapadha'' is the late Vedic text [[Aitareya Aranyaka]]. Kerala is also mentioned in the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]], the two Hindu epics.<ref name="Menon3"/> The ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' mentions the ecclesiastical office of the [[Thachudaya Kaimal]] who is referred to as {{transliteration|ml|ISO|Manikkam Keralar}}, synonymous with the deity of the [[Koodalmanikyam]] temple.<ref>See Sahyadri Kanda Chapter 7 in Skanda Purana.  Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3447025225}}.</ref><ref>Who's Who in Madras 1934</ref> The [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to Kerala as ''Celobotra''.<ref name="Caldwell1998">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92 |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages |year= 1998 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120601178 |page=92 |author=Robert Caldwell |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref>
 
Kerala was alternatively called ''[[Malabar Coast|Malabar]]'' in the [[Indian Ocean trade|foreign trade circles]]. Earlier, the term ''Malabar'' had also been used to denote [[Tulu Nadu]] and [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]] which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web
| author = J. Sturrock | year=1894
| title= Madras District Manuals – South Canara (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3200/page/n1/mode/2up
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| author = V. Nagam Aiya | year=1906
| title=The Travancore State Manual | publisher=Travancore Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/travancorestate00aiyagoog/page/n10/mode/2up
}}</ref> The people of Malabar were known as ''[[Malabars]]''. Until the arrival of the [[East India Company]], the term ''Malabar'' was used as a general name for Kerala, along with the term ''Kerala''.<ref name="Malabar">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> From the time of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (6th century CE) itself, the [[Arabs|Arab]] sailors used to call Kerala as ''Male''. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the ''Topography'' written by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]]. This mentions a pepper emporium called ''Male'', which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name ''Male'' is thought to come from the [[Malayalam]] word ''Mala'' ('hill').<ref>C. A. Innes and F. B. Evans, ''Malabar and Anjengo, volume 1'', Madras District Gazetteers (Madras: Government Press, 1915), p. 2.</ref><ref>M. T. Narayanan, ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kHtbkuXruzwC& Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar]'' (New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 2003), xvi–xvii.</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] ({{CE|973–1048}}) is the first known writer to call this country ''Malabar''.<ref name="Malabar"/> Authors such as [[Ibn Khordadbeh]] and [[Al-Baladhuri]] mention Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="KMMohammad">Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–34.</ref> The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''.<ref name="Logan"/> According to [[William Logan (author)|William Logan]], the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the [[Malayalam]] word ''Mala'' (hill) and the [[Persian Language|Persian]]/[[Arabic]] word ''Barr'' (country/continent).<ref name="Logan"/>
 
==History==
{{Main|History of Kerala}}
 
=== Traditional sources ===
[[File:Parashurama with axe.jpg|alt=|thumb|left|220px| Portrait of [[Parashurama]] by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] relating to [[Keralolpathi]].]]
 
According to the Sangam classic ''[[Purananuru]]'', the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king [[Senguttuvan|Senkuttuvan]] conquered the lands between [[Kanyakumari]] and the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Menon|first=A. Sreedhara|title=Kerala History and its Makers|publisher=D C Books|year=1987|isbn=978-8126421992|page=24}}</ref> Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.<ref name=":0" /><ref>''Ancient Indian History'' By Madhavan Arjunan Pillai, p. 204 {{ISBN?}}</ref> According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work ''[[Keralolpathi]]'', the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage [[Parasurama]], the sixth [[Daśāvatāra|avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] (hence, Kerala is also called ''Parasurama Kshetram'' 'The Land of Parasurama' in Hindu mythology).<ref>S.C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p. 18</ref> Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to legend, this new area of land extended from [[Gokarna, India|Gokarna]] to [[Kanyakumari]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Aiya VN|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC|title=The Travancore State Manual|publisher=Travancore Government Press|year=1906|pages=210–12|access-date=12 November 2007}}</ref> The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parasurama invoked the Snake King [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]], who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. [[P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar]] theorised, that [[Senguttuvan]] may have been inspired by the [[Parasurama]] legend, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Srinivisa Iyengar|first=P. T.|title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D.|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1929|isbn=978-8120601451|location=Madras|page=515}}</ref>
 
Another much earlier [[Puranic]] character associated with Kerala is [[Mahabali]], an [[Asura]] and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]], driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord ''Vishnu'', who took his fifth incarnation as ''[[Vamana]]'' and pushed Mahabali down to [[Patala|netherworld]] to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the [[Onam]] festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.<ref name="Rinehart2004">{{cite book|author=Robin Rinehart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA146|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2004|isbn=978-1576079058|page=146|access-date=28 July 2012}}</ref> The [[Matsya Purana]], among the oldest of the 18 [[Puranas]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Goldberg|first=Ellen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUhlxBozntoC&pg=PA20|title=The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0791453254|page=20|access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kemmerer|first=Lisa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFEL2yjkbAAC&pg=PA78|title=Animals and World Religions|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0199912551|page=78|access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> uses the [[Malaya Mountains]] of Kerala (and [[Tamil Nadu]]) as the setting for the story of [[Matsya]], the first [[Dashavatara|incarnation]] of Vishnu, and [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the first man and the king of the region.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA250|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=2011|isbn=978-0143414216|page=250|access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ragozin|first=Zenaide A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T16d-eRG5VkC&pg=PA341|title=Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-1417944637|page=341|access-date=21 March 2013}}</ref>
 
====Ophir====
[[File:Poovar Kerala.jpg|thumb|[[Poovar]] is often identified with Biblical [[Ophir]]]]
[[Ophir]], a port or region mentioned in the [[Bible]],<ref>[https://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ophir "Ophir"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> famous for its [[wealth]], is often identified with some coastal areas of Kerala. According to legend, the [[King Solomon]] received a cargo from Ophir every three years ([[1 Kings]] 10:22) which consisted of [[gold]], [[silver]], [[sandalwood]], [[pearl]]s, [[ivory]], apes, and [[peacock]]s.<ref>{{citation |last=Schroff |first=Wifred H. |title=The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924030139236 |year=1912 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Company |location=New York |page=41}}</ref> ''A Dictionary of the Bible'' by [[Sir William Smith]], published in 1863,<ref name="Smith">Smith, William, ''A dictionary of the Bible'', Hurd and Houghton, 1863 (1870), p. 1441</ref> notes the Hebrew word for parrot ''Thukki'', derived from the Classical Tamil for peacock ''Thogkai'' and Cingalese ''Tokei'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/eastons-bible-dictionary/peacock.html|title=Peacock - Easton's Bible Dictionary Online|website=biblestudytools.com}}</ref> joins other Classical Tamil words for ivory, cotton-cloth and apes preserved in the Hebrew Bible. This theory of Ophir's location in [[Tamilakam]] is further supported by other historians.<ref>Ramaswami, Sastri, ''The Tamils and their culture'', Annamalai University, 1967, p. 16</ref><ref>Gregory, James, ''Tamil lexicography'', M. Niemeyer, 1991, p. 10</ref><ref>Fernandes, Edna, ''The last Jews of Kerala'', Portobello, 2008, p. 98</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, Volume I
Almug Tree Almunecar→ALMUG or ALGUM TREE. The Hebrew words Almuggim or Algummim have translated Almug or Algum trees in our version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11). The wood of the tree was very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of India), along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was used in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, and for the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, as well as for harps and psalteries. It is probably the red sandal-wood of India (Pterocarpus santalinus). This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order Papilionaceæ. The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained, and of fine red colour. It is different from the white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the produce of Santalum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural order. Also, see notes by George Menachery in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Vol. 2 (1973)</ref> The most likely location on the coast of Kerala conjectured to be Ophir is [[Poovar]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]] District (though some Indian scholars also suggest [[Beypore]] as possible location).<ref name="Menon1967">{{citation |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society &#91;Sales Department&#93;; National Book Stall |page=58}}</ref><ref name="Aiyangar2004">{{citation |last=Aiyangar |first=Sakkottai Krishnaswami |title=Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htArUg0OMpcC&pg=PA60 |year=2004 |orig-year=first published 1911 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120618503 |pages=60–}}</ref> The [[Books of Kings]] and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] tell of a joint expedition to Ophir by King Solomon and the [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyrian]] king [[Hiram I]] from [[Ezion-Geber]], a port on the [[Red Sea]], that brought back large amounts of gold, precious stones and '[[Algum|algum wood]]' and of a later failed expedition by king [[Jehoshaphat]] of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].{{efn-lr|The first expedition is described in ''[[1 Kings]] 9:28; 10:11; [[1 Chronicles]] 29:4; [[2 Chronicles]] 8:18; 9:10'', the failed expedition of Jehoshaphat in ''[[1 Kings]] 22:48''}}  The famous 'gold of Ophir' is referenced in several other books of the Hebrew Bible.{{efn-lr|''[[Book of Job]] 22:24; 28:16; [[Psalms]] 45:9; [[Isaiah]] 13:12''}}{{notelist-lr}}
 
====Cheraman Perumals====
{{main article|Legend of Cheraman Perumals}}
[[File:Chera King's Sword given to the Zamorin of Calicut.png|thumbnail|Portrait of the sword of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], relating to the legend of Cheraman Perumal.]]
The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the ''Cheraman Perumals'' (literally the [[Chera dynasty|Chera kings]]) of Kerala.<ref name="a">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 31–32.</ref> The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.<ref>Kesavan Veluthat, ‘The ''Keralolpathi'' as History’, in ''The Early Medieval in South India'', New Delhi, 2009, pp. 129–46.</ref> The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).<ref name="b">Noburu Karashima (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146–47.</ref><ref name="c">Frenz, Margret. 2003. ‘Virtual Relations, Little Kings in Malabar’, in ''Sharing Sovereignty. The Little Kingdom in South Asia,'' eds Georg Berkemer and Margret Frenz, pp. 81–91. Berlin: Zentrum Moderner Orient.</ref> According to the legend, ''Rayar'', the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the [[Western Ghats|Ghats]], invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like ''Udaya Varman Kolathiri'', ''Manichchan'', and ''Vikkiran'' of [[Eranad]]). The ''Cheraman Perumal'' was assured by the ''Eradis'' (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the ''Rayar''.<ref name="d">Logan, William. ''Malabar.'' Madras: Government Press, Madras, 1951 (reprint). 223–40.</ref> The battle lasted for three days and the ''Rayar'' eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).<ref name="d" /> Then the last ''Cheraman Perumal'' divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him.<ref name="a" /><ref name="b" /><ref name="c"/> The ''Eradis'' of [[Nediyiruppu]], who later came to be known as the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the ''Cheraman Perumal''{{'s}} sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").<ref name="c" /><ref name="d" />
 
According to the [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]] and some other narratives,<ref name="INS">{{cite book|last1=Kumar|first1=Satish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+tajuddeen+malik+dinar&pg=PA346|title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136704918|page=346|language=en|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="iiip">{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Dr Y. P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbqfCwAAQBAJ&q=ravi+varma+cheraman&pg=PT69|title=Islam in India and Pakistan A Religious History|publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd|year=2016|isbn=978-9385505638|language=en|access-date=20 June 2020}}</ref> "Once a ''Cheraman Perumal'' probably named Ravi Varma<ref name="iiip"/> was walking with his queen in the palace, when he witnessed the [[splitting of the moon]]. Shocked by this, he asked his astronomers to note down the exact time of the splitting. Then, when some [[Arab]] merchants visited his palace, he asked them about this incident. Their answers led the King to [[Mecca]], where he met Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] and converted to [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Varghese|first1=Theresa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ|title=Stark World Kerala|publisher=Stark World Pub.|year=2006|isbn=978-8190250511|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kumar|first1=Satish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA346|title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136704918|page=346}}</ref><ref name="sochistory">{{Citation|last=S.N.|first=Sadasivan|title=A Social History of India|pages=303–05|year=2000|chapter=Caste Invades Kerala|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&q=cheraman+perumal&pg=PA306|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=817648170-X}}</ref> It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an [[Arabic]] manuscript of anonymous authorship known as ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]''.<ref name="Prange">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. p. 98. {{ISBN?}}</ref> The 16th century [[Arabic]] work ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' authored by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] of [[Ponnani]], as well as the medieval [[Malayalam]] work ''[[Keralolpathi]]'', also mention about the departure of last ''Cheraman Perumal'' of Kerala into [[Mecca]].<ref>History of Travancore by Shangunny Menon, page 63</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nainar|first=S. Muhammad Hussain|url=https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage|title=Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language|publisher=University of Madras|year=1942|location=}}</ref> The [[Maharaja]]hs of the kingdom of [[Travancore]] in [[British Raj|pre-Independence India]] would say at their swearing in, "I will keep this sword until the uncle who has gone to Mecca returns".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Katz|first=Nathan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Who Are the Jews of India?|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0520213234|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Pre-history===
{{Main|Pre-history of Kerala}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG|caption1=A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]], [[Kerala, India]].
| image2 = Edakkal Stone Age Carving.jpg|caption2=[[Stone Age]] (6,000&nbsp;BCE) writings of [[Edakkal Caves]] in Kerala.
}}
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near [[Changanassery]], thus supporting the hypothesis.<ref name="Menon2007">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA20 |access-date=27 July 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=20–21}}</ref> Pre-historical archaeological findings include [[dolmen]]s of the [[Neolithic]] era in the [[Marayur]] area of the [[Idukki district]], which lie on the eastern highland made by [[Western Ghats]]. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from ''muni'' ([[hermit]] or [[Index of religious honorifics and titles|sage]]) and ''ara'' (dolmen).<ref name="Unlocking the secrets of history">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050126210416/https://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2005 |location=Chennai, India |title=Unlocking the secrets of history |date=6 December 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal Caves]], in [[Wayanad]] date back to the Neolithic era around 6000&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{cite book |author=Subodh Kapoor |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2184 |access-date=1 August 2012 |year= 2002 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-8177552577 |page=2184}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wayanad |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/web/guest/wayanad |website=kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref> Archaeological studies have identified [[Mesolithic]], Neolithic and [[Megalithic]] sites in Kerala.<ref name="AroraSingh116">{{cite book |author1=Udai Prakash Arora |author2=A. K. Singh |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122 |access-date=6 October 2012 |year=1999 |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8186565445 |page=116}}</ref> The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the [[Paleolithic|Paleolithic Age]], through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages.<ref name="google">{{cite book |author1=Udai Prakash Arora |author2=A. K. Singh |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122 |access-date=6 October 2012 |year= 1999 |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8186565445 |pages=118, 123}}</ref> Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation;<ref name="AroraSingh1999">{{cite book |author1=Udai Prakash Arora |author2=A. K. Singh |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122 |access-date=6 October 2012 |year= 1999 |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8186565445 |page=123}}</ref> historians suggest a possible relationship with [[Indus Valley Civilization]] during the late [[Bronze Age]] and early [[Iron Age]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece |work=The Hindu |title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala |date=29 September 2009 |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref>
 
===Ancient period===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Silk Road]] map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).|right]]
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]]
[[File:Ezhimala beach.JPG|thumb|[[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]], the early historic headquarters of [[Mushika dynasty]], which was succeeded by the kingdom of [[Kolathunadu|Kannur]] later.]]
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000&nbsp;BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]] and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |first=Kaavya |last=Pradeep Kumar |work=The Hindu |title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link |date=28 January 2014 |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006"/>{{rp|79}} Kerala's spices attracted ancient [[Arab]]s, [[Babylonians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Egyptians]] to the [[Malabar Coast]] in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Phoenicians]] established trade with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=57–58}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57"/> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57"/> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57"/>
 
The ''Land of Keralaputra'' was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being [[Chola Empire|Chola]], [[Pandya Empire|Pandya]], and [[Satiyaputras|Satiyaputra]].<ref name="SmithJackson2008">{{cite book |author1=Vincent A. Smith |author2=A. V. Williams Jackson |title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bP7DzXQBoM4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=1 August 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1605204925 |page=166}}</ref> Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], the first dominant dynasty who ruled Kerala, and had its capital at [[Karur]].<ref name="The Cambridge Shorter History of India">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 |access-date=10 October 2012 |publisher=CUP Archive |page=193 |id=GGKEY:2W0QHXZ7K40}}</ref><ref name="Dwivedi1994">{{cite book |author=Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi |title=Evolution of Education Thought in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idERT6Tg4MMC&pg=PA164 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year= 1994 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110598 |page=164}}</ref> These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as [[Tamilakam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kanakasabhai |first=V. |title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VuvshP5_hg8C |year=1997 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120601505 |access-date=16 June 2009}}</ref> The region around [[Coimbatore]] was ruled by the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] during [[Sangam period]] between 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the [[Palakkad Gap]], the principal trade route between the [[Malabar Coast]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Trade">{{cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S|title=Roman connection in Tamil Nadu|url=https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th|access-date=28 October 2011|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=28 January 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919235748/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007%2F01%2F28%2F&prd=th|archive-date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Along with the [[Ay kingdom]] in the south and the [[Ezhimala kingdom]] in the north, the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] formed the ruling kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era (CE).<ref name="Menon65">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA65 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |pages=65 |isbn=978-8126415786 |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king [[Uthiyan Cheralathan]] ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in [[Kuttanad]],<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA385 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131716779 |page=384 }}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9380607344 |pages=60–61}}</ref> and controlled the port of [[Muziris]], but its southern tip was in the kingdom of [[Pandyas]],{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=385}} which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as ''[[Nelcynda]]'' (or ''Neacyndi'') in [[Quilon]].<ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQipbjusDyQC&q=nelcynda&pg=PA301 |title=History of ancient geography – Google Books |author=James Oliver Thomson |publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers|access-date=30 July 2009 |isbn=978-0819601438 |year=1948}}</ref> ''[[Tyndis]]'' was a major center of trade, next only to [[Muziris]], between the Cheras and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India, Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010</ref> The lesser known [[Ay kingdom|Ays]] and [[Ezhimala kingdom|Mushikas]] kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book |author=S. S. Shashi |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwswAQAAIAAJ |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-8170418597 |page=1207}}</ref><ref name="Ramunny1993">{{cite book |author=Murkot Ramunny |title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA3 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=1993 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110529 |page=3}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century CE) states that the port of ''[[Tyndis]]'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos'' ([[Chera dynasty]]).<ref name=":2">Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology,'' ''14'', 334–350.</ref> The [[North Malabar]] region, which lies north of the port at ''[[Tyndis]]'', was ruled by the kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] during [[Sangam period]].<ref name="Malabar"/> The port at ''[[Tyndis]]'' which was on the northern side of ''[[Muziris]]'', as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar"/> Its exact location is a matter of dispute.<ref name="Malabar"/> The suggested locations are [[Ponnani]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Beypore]]-[[Chaliyam]]-[[Kadalundi]]-[[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Koyilandy]].<ref name="Malabar"/>
 
According to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a region known as ''[[Limyrike]]'' began at ''[[Kannur|Naura]]'' and ''[[Tyndis]]''. However the [[Ptolemy]] mentions only ''[[Tyndis]]'' as the ''[[Limyrike]]'''s starting point. The region probably ended at [[Kanyakumari]]; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day [[Malabar Coast]]. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 [[sesterces]]. According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html |title=Ancient History Sourcebook: Pliny: Natural History 6.96-111. (On India) |date=6 November 2013 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/https://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html |archive-date=6 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] mentioned that ''[[Limyrike]]'' was prone to raids by pirates.<ref>Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis.</ref> The [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] mentioned that the ''[[Limyrike]]'' was a source of [[Malabar pepper]]s.<ref>Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). Christian Topography. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–373.</ref><ref>Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301.</ref> In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially [[Malabar pepper]]. The Cheras had trading links with [[Ancient China|China]], [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=false Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227045308/https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris |date=27 December 2016 }} Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref> In foreign-trade circles the region was known as ''Male'' or ''Malabar''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1c_Minattur_MalayaWhatsInAName.pdf |title=Malaya: What's in the name |publisher=siamese-heritage.org |access-date=7 August 2012 |author=Joseph Minattur |page=1}}</ref> [[Muziris]], [[Tyndis]], [[Kannur|Naura]], Nelcynda, and [[Purakkad|Barace]], were among the principal ports at that time.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |author=K. K. Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-8170990260 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Contemporary [[Sangam literature]] describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for [[Malabar pepper]]. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]], around 118 or 166&nbsp;BCE, under the patronage of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]], king of the [[Hellenistic civilisation|Hellenistic]] [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in Egypt. Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of ''[[Augustus]]'' and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]], the only surviving map of the Roman ''[[cursus publicus]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA246 |access-date=7 August 2012 |year= 2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0670084784 |pages=246–}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar_2001">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120601451 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref>
 
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name="google2">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120601451 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |pages=192–95 |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref> The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=false ''The Israelis (Jews) of India: A Story of Three Communities'']  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226115854/https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn%3A9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA |date=26 December 2016 }} by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|978-9652781796}}.</ref><ref name="Hillel1832">{{cite book |author=David D'Beth Hillel |title=The Travels of Rabbi David D'Beth Hillel: From Jerusalem, Through Arabia, Koordistan, Part of Persia, and Indudasam (India) to Madras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5NeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR9 |year=1832 |publisher=author |page=135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Jews in India and the Far East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_v-nQEACAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=24–26 |isbn=978-0837126159}}</ref> Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as [[Herodotus]] (484–413&nbsp;BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden.<ref name="Kusuman"/> In the 4th century, the [[Knanaya]] or Southist Christians also migrated from [[Persia]] and lived alongside the early [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syriac Christian]] community known as the [[St. Thomas Christians]] who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=false ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5'']  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226115908/https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn%3A9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA |date=26 December 2016 }} by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0802824172}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Geoffrey Wainwright |title=The Oxford History Of Christian Worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0195138863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5VQUdZhx1gC |page=666 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> ''Mappila'' was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; Israelite (Jewish), Syrian Christian, and [[Muslim]] immigration account for later names of the respective communities: [[Juda Mappila]]s, [[Mappila|Muslim Mappilas]], and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappilas]].<ref name="BMalieckal">* Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L |title=The Indian Christians of St Thomas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year= 1982 |isbn=978-0521212588 |page=171}}</ref> The earliest [[Saint Thomas Christian Churches]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Susan Bayly |title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0521891035 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |page=40 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> [[Cheraman Juma Masjid|Cheraman Jumu'ah Masjid]] (traditionally dated to "629 CE" by the Mappilas)—regarded as "the first mosque of India"<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=1999 |isbn=978-0765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>—and [[Paradesi Synagogue]] (1568 CE)—the oldest active synagogue in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Nathan Katz |title=Who Are the Jews of India? |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0520213234 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWX6pF2PTJwC |page=245 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>—were built in Kerala.<ref name="Dialogue">{{cite book |author=Rolland E. Miller |title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |year=1993 |isbn=978-8120811584 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC |page=50}}</ref>
 
===Early medieval period===
[[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] granted to [[Saint Thomas Christians]] by [[Venad]] ([[Kollam]]) ruler [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]], testified about merchant guilds and trade corporations in Early Medieval Kerala. The sixth plate also contains a number of signatures of the witnesses to the grant in [[Arabic]] (Kufic script), [[Middle Persian]] (cursive Pahlavi script) and [[Judeo-Persian]] (standard square [[Hebrew]] script).<ref name="cereti">{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=9783447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref>]]
[[Nambudiri|Namboothiri]] [[Brahmin]]s migrated to [[Malabar District|Northern Kerala]] from [[Tulu Nadu]] during the early Middle Ages. Apart from introducing the caste system, they also changed the socio-economic life of the people by commissioning new religious centres.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar|last=M. T. Narayanan|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2003}}</ref> A [[Later Chera Dynasty|second Chera Kingdom]] (c. 800–1102), also known as [[Kulasekhara dynasty (Venad)|Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram]] (present-day [[Kodungallur]]), was established by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]], which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from [[Nagercoil]] to [[Thiruvalla]] was ruled by [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay kings]], who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book |author=K. Balachandran Nayar |title=In quest of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=1974 |publisher=Accent Publications |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=8 August 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=97}}</ref> Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the [[Bhakti movement]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=8 August 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=123–31}}</ref> A [[Malayali|Keralite]] identity, distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]], became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century.<ref name="Asher2013">{{cite book |author=R Asher |title=Malayalam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRNTAQAAQBAJ&pg=PR24 |year= 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136100840 |at=Introduction p. xxiv}}</ref> The origin of [[Malayalam calendar]] dates back to year 825 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |title=Kollam Era |publisher=Indian Journal History of Science |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527163650/https://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Time measurement and calendar construction|author=Broughton Richmond|year=1956|pages=218|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Kerala|author=R. Leela Devi|publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot|year=1986|pages=408|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of [[Naduvazhi]]s, with each province comprising a number of ''Desams'' under the control of chieftains, called as ''Desavazhis''.<ref name="Sreedhar123"/> [[Mamankam festival]], which was the largest native festival, was held at [[Tirunavaya]] near [[Kuttippuram]], on the bank of river [[Bharathappuzha]].<ref name="Logan"/><ref name="Malabar"/> [[Athavanad]], the headquarters of ''[[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]]'', who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.<ref name="Logan"/><ref name="Malabar"/>
 
[[Sulaiman al-Tajir]], a [[Persians|Persian]] merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]] (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and [[China]] at that time, based at the port of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=India Charitram|last=Menon|first=A. Shreedhara|publisher=DC Books|year=2016|isbn=9788126419395|location=Kottayam|pages=219}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 CE), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 CE), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 CE), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar|last=Razak|first=Abdul|publisher=|year=2013}}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004079298|pages=458–59}}</ref><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1996|isbn=978-8171545797|pages=54–55|access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref> The known earliest mention about [[Muslim]]s of Kerala is in the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=978-3447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref>
 
[[File:Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|left|A panorama of port [[Kozhikode]], shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', 1572)]]
 
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010321010740/https://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 March 2001 |title=The Buddhist History of Kerala |publisher=Kerala.cc |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> The social system became fractured with divisions on [[Caste system in kerala|caste]] lines.<ref>{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=9 August 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=138}}</ref> Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of [[Pandyan dynasty|Later Pandyas]] and [[Later Cholas]].<ref name="Balachand"/> However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern [[Venad|Venad kingdom]] was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into thirty small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorin of Kozhikode]] in the north, [[Venad|Kollam]] in the far-south, [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]] in the south, and [[Kolathunadu|Kannur]] in the far north. The port at [[Kozhikode]] held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while [[Kollam]] (Quilon), [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]] (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.<ref name="Malekandathil">''The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800''. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)</ref> The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of [[Eranad]], which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day [[Malappuram district]].<ref name="Malabar"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the [[Malayalam]] speaking region during the [[Middle Age]]s.<ref name="Varier">Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997</ref><ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered larger parts of central Kerala after the seize of [[Tirunavaya]] from [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], which were under the control of the king of [[Kingdom of Cochin|''Perumbadappu Swaroopam'']] (Cochin). The ruler of [[Perumpadappu, Malappuram|Perumpadappu]] was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from [[Kodungallur]] to [[Kochi]]. In the 15th century, the status of Cochin was reduced to a vassal state of Kozhikode.<ref name="Varier"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> The ruler of [[Kolathunadu]] ([[Kannur]]) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of 15th century.<ref name="Malabar"/><ref name="Varier"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/>
[[File:Uru.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Uru (boat)|Uru]]'', a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at [[Beypore]], [[Kozhikode]]]]
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ([[Quilon]]) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ([[Koyilandy]]) in the north.<ref name="Varier"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> [[Ibn Battuta]] (1342–1347), who visited the city of [[Kozhikode]] six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Ibn Battuta]], H. A. R. Gibb |year=1994 |volume=IV |title=The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D 1325–1354 |location=London }}</ref> [[Ma Huan]] (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ([[Zheng He]])<ref>[[Ma Huan]]: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, ''The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores'', translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 [[Hakluyt Society]], reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. {{ISBN|9748496783}}</ref> states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession (''[[Marumakkathayam]]''). [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzak]] (1442–43), [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1445), [[Afanasy Nikitin]] (1468–74), [[Ludovico di Varthema]] (1503–1508), and [[Duarte Barbosa]] witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the [[Indian subcontinent]] where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.<ref>Varthema, Ludovico di, ''The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D.1503–08'', translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London</ref><ref>Gangadharan. M., ''The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa'' (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam.</ref>
 
The king [[Deva Raya II]] (1424–1446) of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] conquered about the whole of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> He defeated the [[Zamorin]] of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of [[Kollam]] around 1443.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> [[Fernão Nunes]] says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> He built a fort at [[Ponnani]] in 1498.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/>
 
===Late medieval period===
[[File:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg|left|thumbnail|A 1652 Map of India ([[Malabar Coast]] is highlighted separately on the right side)]]
[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The path [[Vasco da Gama]] took to reach [[Kozhikode]] (black line) in 1498, which was also the [[Age of Discovery|discovery of a sea route]] from [[Europe]] to India, and eventually paved way for the [[Colonial India|European colonisation]] of [[Indian subcontinent]].]]
[[File:Bolgatty Palace.jpg|thumbnail|[[Bolgatty Palace]], built in 1744 by [[Dutch Malabar]], also acted as the [[Resident minister|British Residency]] in [[Kochi]]]]
The maritime [[spice trade]] monopoly in the [[Arabian Sea]] stayed with the Arabs during the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]]. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European [[Age of Discovery]]. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in [[Kappad]] [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.<ref>{{cite book |author=Charles Corn |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha America |pages=4–5 |isbn=978-1568362496}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=PN Ravindran |year=2000 |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |publisher=CRC Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |page=3 |isbn=978-9057024535 |access-date=11 November 2007}}</ref><ref name="Curtin1984">{{cite book |author=Philip D. Curtin |year=1984 |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4IiYFhliv4C |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=144 |isbn=978-0521269315}}</ref> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the Malabar Coast and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author=Knox, Robert | author-link=Robert Knox (sailor) | year=1681 | title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages=19–47 |publisher=Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place=London| title-link=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref> They established a trading center at [[Tangasseri]] in [[Quilon]] during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296 |title=Kollam – Kerala Tourism |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=5 November 2015}}</ref> The [[Zamorin]] of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] and a fort. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them.
[[File:Mattancherry palace at night.jpg|left|thumbnail|The [[Mattancherry Palace]] at [[Kochi]] was built and gifted by the Portuguese as a present to the [[Kingdom of Cochin]] around 1545]]
[[File:Bekal Fort Kasargod.jpg|thumbnail|[[Bekal Fort]] at [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]] built in 1650 CE, the largest fort in Kerala]]
The ruler of the [[Kingdom of Tanur]], who was a vassal to the [[Zamorin of Calicut]], sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar"/> As a result, the [[Kingdom of Tanur]] (''[[Tirur Taluk|Vettathunadu]]'') became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] also sided with [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]].<ref name="Malabar"/> Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from [[Vettom Grama Panchayath|Vettom]].<ref name="Malabar"/> However, the [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the [[Battle of Cochin (1504)]].<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book|title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I)|last=Logan|first=William|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2010|isbn=978-8120604476|location=New Delhi|pages=631–66}}</ref> However, the allegiance of the [[Mappila]] merchants in [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] region still stayed under the [[Zamorin of Calicut]].<ref name="Makhdoom">{{cite book
| author=S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942
| title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras
| url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
}}</ref>
[[File:British Residency in Asramam, Kollam.jpg|right|thumb|[[British Residency]] in [[Asramam]], [[Kollam]]]]
The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When [[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at [[Fort Kochi]] ([[Fort Emmanuel]]) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book |author=J. L. Mehta |year=2005 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA324 |access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-1932705546 |pages=324–27}}</ref> Fort St Angelo or [[St. Angelo Fort]] was built at [[Kannur]] in 1505 and [[St Thomas Fort|Fort St Thomas]] was built at [[Kollam|Kollam(Quilon)]] in 1518 by the Portuguese.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/kollam-mayor-inspects-tangasseri-fort/article1790645.ece |title=Kollam Mayor inspects Tangasseri Fort |work=The Hindu |date=1 February 2007 |access-date=9 September 2019}}</ref> However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in [[South Malabar]]; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.<ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Arun Kumar |title=Give Indian Navy its due |url=https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |access-date=23 January 2021 |work=[[The Asian Age]] |date=11 February 2017}}</ref> ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books  (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
Books [https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm]</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Roland E. Miller.
''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], who is considered as the father of modern [[Malayalam literature]], was born at [[Tirur]] (''[[Kingdom of Tanur|Vettathunadu]]'') during Portuguese period.<ref name="Logan"/><ref name="Malabar"/>
 
In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the [[Kingdom of Tanur#Battles at Chaliyam Fort|battle at Chaliyam Fort]].<ref>{{cite book |author=K. K. N. Kurup |year=1997 |title=India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmXcBCKEcAC&pg=PA51 |access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110833 |pages=37–38}}</ref> An insurrection at the [[Port of Quilon]] between the [[Arabs]] and the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] led to the end of the Portuguese era in [[Quilon]]. The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of [[Arakkal kingdom]], near [[Kannur]], who were the vassals of the [[Kolathiri]], ruled over the [[Lakshadweep]] islands.<ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book|author=Henry Morse Stephens|title=Albuquerque|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|series=[[Rulers of India series]]|year=1897|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-8120615243|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The [[Bekal Fort]] near [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]], which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by [[Shivappa Nayaka]] of [[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi]].<ref name="Bekal">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/a-portion-of-kasaragods-bekal-forts-observation-post-caves-in/article28993345.ece/amp/ |title= A Portion of Kasaragod's Bekal Forts Observation Post Caves in |date=12 August 2019 |work=The Hindu}}</ref>
 
{{multiple image
| align = left
| image1 = Kannur Fort 7.jpg
| width1 = 215
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[St. Angelo Fort]] at [[Kannur]], built by the Portuguese in 1505
| image2 = De Lannoy Surrender.JPG
| width2 = 215
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Eustachius De Lannoy]] of the [[Dutch East India Company]] surrenders to Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Kingdom of Travancore]] after the [[Battle of Colachel]]. (Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]])
| footer =
}}
In 1602, the [[Zamorin]] sent messages to [[Aceh]] promising the Dutch a fort at [[Kozhikode]] if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], and handed over to the Portuguese.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2">Sanjay Subrahmanyam. "The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650". Cambridge University Press, 2002</ref> A Dutch fleet under Admiral [[Steven van der Hagen]] arrived at Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with [[Kozhikode]] on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the [[Dutch East India Company]] made with an Indian ruler.<ref name="Malabar"/> By this time the kingdom and the port of [[Kozhikode]] was much reduced in importance.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2"/> The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the [[Dutch East India Company]] was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and [[Ponnani]], including spacious storehouses.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2"/>
 
The Portuguese were ousted by the [[Dutch East India Company]], who during the conflicts between the [[Saamoothiri|Kozhikode]] and the [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]], gained control of the trade.<ref name="South Asia 2006">{{cite book |title=South Asia 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=289|isbn = 978-1857433180}}</ref> They lost to Dutch at [[Quilon]] after 1661 and later, the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] left south-western coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailyo.in/politics/goa-conquest-portuguese-indian-history-colonialism-christianity-hinduism/story/1/14633.html |title=How the Portuguese used Hindu-Muslim wars – and Christianity – for the bloody conquest of Goa |publisher=Dailyo.in |access-date=9 September 2019}}</ref> The arrival of [[East India Company|British]] on [[Malabar Coast]] can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain [[William Keeling]] arrived at [[Kozhikode]], using three ships.<ref name="Malabar"/> It was in these ships that Sir [[Thomas Roe]] went to visit [[Jahangir]], the fourth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], as [[British Empire|British envoy]].<ref name="Malabar"/> In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in 18th century.<ref name="d_1664"/> The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in turn were weakened by constant battles with [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Travancore Royal Family]], and were defeated at the [[Battle of Colachel]] in 1741.<ref name="google3">{{cite book |author=Murkot Ramunny |year=1993 |title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA57 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110529 |pages=57–70}}</ref> An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region.<ref name="Singh2010">{{cite book |author=Anjana Singh |title=Fort Kochi in Kerala, 1750–1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC&pg=PA22 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004168169 |pages=22–52}}</ref><ref name="Iyer1995">{{cite book |author=S. Krishna Iyer |title=Travancore Dutch relations, 1729–1741 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUtuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1995 |publisher=CBH Publications |isbn=978-8185381428 |page=49}}</ref><ref name="Lannoy1997">{{cite book |author=Mark de Lannoy |title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: history and state formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKjZAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1997 |publisher=Leiden University |isbn=978-9073782921 |page=190}}</ref> In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree [[Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma]] annexed all the kingdoms up to [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Political History of Modern Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA140 |access-date=10 August 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-8126421565 |page=140}}</ref> The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([[Malabar District]]), along with [[Fort Kochi]], [[Tangasseri]], and [[Anchuthengu]] in southern Kerala, came under direct [[British raj|British rule]] until [[Independence of India|India became independent]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Educational Britannica Educational |title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA311 |access-date=15 September 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1615302024 |page=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Territories and States of India |url=https://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/342157450.pdf |publisher=Europa |access-date=14 April 2012 |year=2002 |pages=144–46}}</ref> Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Kozhikode]] in the battle of [[Purakkad]] in 1755.<ref name="AHoT 162">{{cite book|last1=Shungoony Menon|first1=P.|title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times|date=1878|publisher=Higgin Botham & Co.|location=Madras|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n212 162]–164|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog|access-date=5 May 2016|language=en|format=pdf}}</ref>
[[File:From a map by Emanuel Bowen, 1744.jpg|thumb|A 1744 map of [[Malabar Coast]] (Malabar coast is on the left side)]]
[[File:Kanakakkunnu Palace DSW.jpg|alt=|thumb|220x220px|[[Kanakakkunnu Palace]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. Thiruvananthapuram became a major city on [[Malabar Coast]] after the ruler [[Marthanda Varma]] annexed all minor kingdoms up to [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] to form [[Travancore]] in 18th century CE.]]
 
===British era===
The island of [[Dharmadom]] near [[Kannur]], along with [[Thalassery]], was ceded to the [[East India Company]] in 1734, which were claimed by all of the [[Kolathiri|''Kolattu Rajas'']], [[Kingdom of Kottayam|''Kottayam Rajas'']], and [[Arakkal kingdom|''Arakkal Bibi'']] in the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following the [[cession]].<ref name="Innes">{{cite book
| author=Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908
| title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) |page=451
| publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up
}}</ref><ref name="Logan" /> In 1761, the British captured [[Mahé, India|Mahé]], and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of [[Kadathanadu]].<ref name="Mahé"/> The British restored [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.<ref name="Mahé"/> In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of [[Mahé, India|Mahé]].<ref name="Mahé"/> In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] was handed over to the French in 1785.<ref name="Mahé">{{cite web|url=https://mahe.gov.in/mws/leftmenupages/history.html|title=History of Mahé|access-date=19 April 2021|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232052/https://mahe.gov.in/mws/leftmenupages/history.html|archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>
[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|left|thumbnail|Kerala in [[British Raj|British India (1909)]]. [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]], were the major cities of the state at that time as indicated in the map]]
In 1757, to resist the invasion of the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorin of Kozhikode]], the [[Palakkad]] Raja sought the help of the [[Hyder Ali]] of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]].<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an [[East India Company]] ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([[Malabar District|Malabar region]]) including [[Kolathunadu]], [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]], [[Kadathanadu]], [[Zamorin of Calicut|Kozhikode]], [[Kingdom of Tanur|Tanur]], [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], and [[Palakkad]] were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref name="Rai">{{cite book |author=Raghunath Rai |title=History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&pg=PA14 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=FK Publications |isbn=978-8187139690 |pages=14–}}</ref> His son and successor, [[Tipu Sultan]], [[Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasions by Tipu Sultan|launched campaigns]] against the expanding [[British East India Company]], resulting in two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="MuseumDallapiccola2010">{{cite book |author1=British Museum |author2=Anna Libera Dallapiccola |title=South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIzWapiacQcC&pg=PA12 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-0714124247 |pages=12–}}</ref><ref name="ThorpeEdgar">{{cite book |author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe |author2=Thorpe Edgar |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=RA1-PA99 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131758304 |page=99}}</ref> Tipu ultimately ceded the [[Malabar District]] and [[South Kanara]] to the company in the 1790s as a result of the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] and the subsequent [[Treaty of Seringapatam]]; both were annexed to the [[Bombay Presidency]] (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of [[British India]] in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively.<ref name="The Edinburgh Gazetteer: Or, Geographical Dictionary: Containing a Description of the Various Countries, Kingdoms, States, Cities, Towns, Mountains, &c. of the World; an Account of the Government, Customs, and Religion of the Inhabitants; the Boundaries and Natural Productions of Each Country, &c. &c. Forming a Complete Body of Geography, Physical, Political, Statistical, and Commercial with Addenda, Containing the Present State of the New Governments in South America...">{{cite book |title=The Edinburgh Gazetteer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xRIyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA63 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1827 |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green |pages=63–}}</ref><ref name="Kumar1965">{{cite book |author=Dharma Kumar |title=Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labor in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=psw5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA87 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1965 |publisher=CUP Archive |pages=87– |id=GGKEY:T72DPF9AZDK}}</ref><ref name="Ittaman2003">{{cite book |author=K.P. Ittaman |title=History of Mughal Architecture Volume Ii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ5lFywZAqYC&pg=PA30 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-8170170341 |pages=30–}}</ref> Later in 1800, both of the [[Malabar District]] and [[South Canara]] were separated from Bombay presidency to merge them with the neighbouring [[Madras Presidency]].<ref name="Malabar"/> The company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Superintendent of Government Printing |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras |publisher=Government of India |location=Calcutta |year=1908 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXglUxeS_WkC |page=22}}</ref>
 
By the end of 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under [[suzerainty]].<ref name="RajTharakan1981">{{cite report |last1=Raj |first1=Kakkadan Nandanath |author-link1=K. N. Raj |last2=Tharakan |first2=Michael |author-link2=P. K. Michael Tharakan |title=Agrarian reform in Kerala and its impact on the rural economy: a preliminary assessment, issue 49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JF6FAAAAIAAJ |year=1981 |pages=2–3 |series=World Employment Programme research working paper |location=Geneva |publisher=[[International Labour Office]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of [[Pazhassi Raja|Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja]], who had popular support in [[Thalassery]]-[[Wayanad]] region.<ref name="Malabar"/> The municipalities of [[Kozhikode]], [[Palakkad]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Kannur]], and [[Thalassery]], were founded on 1 November 1866<ref name="Ref1">{{cite web|url=https://www.lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |title=Chronological List of Central Acts (Updated up to 17-10-2014) |website=Lawmin.nic.in |access-date=2016-08-07}}</ref><ref name="c1881">{{cite book |last1=Lewis McIver |first1=G. Stokes |title=Imperial Census of 1881 Operations and Results in the Presidency of Madras |year=1883 |publisher=E.Keys at the Government Press |location=Madras |page=444 |edition=(Vol II) |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Imperial_Census_of_1881/b_YIAAAAQAAJ?hl=en |access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="google.co.in">{{cite book |last1=Presidency |first1=Madras (India |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Statistical Appendix For Malabar District. |year=1915 |publisher=The Superintendent, Government Press |location=Madras |page=20 |edition=Vol.2 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Madras_district_gazetteers_Malabar_distr/aUEwnQEACAAJ?hl=en |access-date=2 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="frowde">{{cite book |last1=Henry Frowde, M.A. |first1=Imperial Gazetteer of India |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908–1909 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |edition=New |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> of the [[British Indian Empire]], making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The [[Malabar Special Police]] was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at [[Malappuram]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beating the retreat: The Malabar Special Police is no longer the trigger-happy unit|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/beating-the-retreat-the-malabar-special-police-is-no-longer-the-trigger-happy-unit/|last=KP Saikiran|date=10 October 2020|access-date=13 November 2020|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> British in Malabar also converted Thiyyar army, called as ''Thiyya pattalam'' into a special regiment centered at Thalassery called as The [[Thiyyar Regiment]] in 1904.<ref>L.K.A.Iyer,  ''[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Mysore_Tribes_and_Castles/XGSuAwWHa0kC The Mysore Tribes and caste]''. Vol.III, A Mittal Publish. Page.279, Google Books</ref><ref>Nagendra k.r.singh ''[https://google.com/books/edition/Global_Encyclopaedia_of_the_South_Indian/Xcpa_T-7oVQC Global Encyclopedia of the South India Dalit's Ethnography]'' (2006) page.230, Google Books</ref><ref>L.Krishna Anandha Krishna Iyer(Divan Bahadur) ''[https://google.com/books/edition/The_Cochin_Tribes_and_Castes/hOyqKkYi6McC The Cochin Tribes and Caste]'' Vol.1. Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1962. Page. 278, Google Books</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Iyer|first=L. K. Anantha Krishna|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7757|title=The Cochin tribes and castes vol.I|year=1909|publisher=Higginbotham, Madras}}</ref> There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the 20th century; most notable among them is the 1921 [[Malabar Rebellion]] and the social struggles in [[Travancore]]. In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rebelled against the [[British Raj]].<ref name="Qureshi1999">{{cite book |author=M. Naeem Qureshi |title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C |year=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004113718 |pages=445–47}}</ref> The [[Battle of Pookkottur]] adorns an important role in the rebellion.<ref name="tottenham grf">Tottenham GRF (ed), The Mappila Rebellion 1921–22, Govt Press Madras 1922 P 71</ref> Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of 20th century, leading to the 1936 [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes.<ref name="Smith1976">{{cite book |author=Bardwell L. Smith |title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07Y3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |access-date=31 July 2012 |year=1976 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004045101 |pages=35–42}}</ref>
 
===Post-colonial period===
After India was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] in 1947 into [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], [[Travancore]] and [[Kochi]], part of the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] were merged on 1 July 1949 to form [[Travancore-Cochin]].<ref name="Sabharwal2007">{{cite book |author=Gopa Sabharwal |title=India Since 1947: The Independent Years |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKySGJAGVEQC&pg=PA23 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0143102748 |pages=23–}}</ref> On 1 November 1956, the [[taluk]] of [[Kasaragod District|Kasargod]] in the [[South Kanara District (Madras Presidency)|South Kanara district]] of Madras, the [[Malabar district|Malabar district of Madras]] (excluding the islands of [[Lakshadweep]]), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and [[Sengottai]] taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form the state of Kerala under the [[States Reorganisation Act]].<ref name="Kerala">{{Cite web|url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf|title=The States Reorganisation Act, 1956|website=legislative.gov.in|publisher=Government of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nossiter |first1=Thomas Johnson |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |year=1982 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520046672 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&pg=PA12 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="SinghKarafin2009">{{cite book |author1=Sarina Singh |author2=Amy Karafin |author3=Anirban Mahapatra |title=South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC |access-date=6 January 2013 |year= 2009 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1741791556}}</ref> A [[Communist]]-led government under [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]] resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in [[1957 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1957]].<ref name="SinghKarafin2009"/> It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere.<ref name=Hindu>{{cite news |title=50 years of development |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/50-years-of-development/article1655056.ece?ref=archive |access-date=30 August 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 April 2007 |author=K.G. Kumar}}</ref><ref name="Desai2006">{{cite book |author=Manali Desai |title=State Formation and Radical Democracy in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60m9znJQmmkC&pg=PA142 |access-date=31 August 2013 |year= 2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0203967744 |page=142}}</ref><ref name="ChitkaraŚarmā1997">{{cite book |author1=Madan Gopal Chitkara |author2=Baṃśī Rāma Śarmā |title=Indian Republic: Issues and Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YrmNURVoroC&pg=PA134 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1997 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-8170248361 |pages=134–}}</ref> His government implemented [[Land reform in Kerala|land]] and [[Kerala Education Act 1958 (Act 6 of 1959)|educational reforms]].<ref name="Encyclopædia"/>


==Geography==
{{Photomontage
{{Main|Geography of Kerala}}
| photo1a =
{{Multiple image
| photo2a = Kerala backwaters, Vembanad Lake, Houseboats, India.jpg
|align= right
| photo2b = Rice fields of Kuttanad.jpg
|direction = vertical
| photo3a = Athirappilly Waterfalls 1.jpg
|width= 220
| photo3b = 01KovalamBeach&Kerala.jpg
|header_align = left/right/center
| photo4a = Kathakali -Play with Kaurava.jpg
|footer_align = left/right/center
| size = 220
|header_background =
| position = center
|footer_background =
| spacing = 3
|image1 = AnaimudiPeak DSC 4834.jpg
| color = #FFFFFF
|caption1 = [[Anamudi]], the highest peak in [[South India]].
| border = 3
|image2 = DR0071DSC 9245.jpg
| color_border = green
|caption2 = [[Tea]] and [[Coffee]] are produced in the hilly terrains of [[Wayanad]].
|image3 = Kumarkom.jpg
|caption3 = [[Vembanad]], a portion of [[Kerala backwaters]], is the longest lake in India.
|image4 = Light house in Ponnani.jpg
|caption4 = [[Ponnani Lighthouse]] beach
}}
}}
The state is wedged between the [[Lakshadweep Sea]] and the [[Western Ghats]]. Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical and Anatomical Characteristic of Wood of Some Less-Known Tree Species of Kerala |url=https://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf |work=Kerala Forest Research Institute|publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> Kerala experiences humid [[tropical rainforest climate]] with some cyclones. The state has a coast of {{convert|590|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Marine Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=44 |website=fisheries.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> and the width of the state varies between {{convert|11|and|121|km|mi|0}}.<ref name="Nair1994">{{cite book |author=V. Balakrishnan Nair |title=Social Development and Demographic Changes in South India: Focus on Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTS4OO9lcdgC&pg=PA15 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8185880501 |page=15}}</ref> Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{cite book |author1=Srikumar Chattopadhyay |author2=Richard W. Franke |title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC&pg=PA110 |access-date=19 March 2019 |year=2006 |isbn=978-8180692949}}</ref>{{rp|110}} [[Pre-Cambrian]] and [[Pleistocene]] geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.<ref name="Geological Survey Water-supply Paper">{{cite book |title=Geological Survey Water-supply Paper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qUYAQAAIAAJ&pg=SL4-PA6 |access-date=19 March 2019 |year=1961 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=4}}</ref><ref name="SharmaKumari2008">{{cite book |author1=Pradeep Sharma |author2=Y. Dharnai Kumari |author3=Tirunagaram Lakshmamma |title=Status Of Women And Family Planning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2b6Ok2EcnBIC&pg=PA217 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8183563260 |page=217}}</ref> A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.<ref name="LimitedKitchen2010">{{cite book |author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited |author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen |title=India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA100 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1741964387 |page=100}}</ref>
|image_skyline          = Government of Kerala Logo.svg
The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' [[rain shadow]].<ref name=ChattopadhyayFranke2006/>{{rp|110}} 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,<ref name="Sadasivan2003">{{cite book |author=S. N. Sadasivan |title=River Disputes in India: Kerala Rivers Under Siege |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhrRboi5kOcC&pg=PA223 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8170999133 |page=223}}</ref> and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.<ref name="Darpan2006">{{cite book |author=Pratiyogita Darpan |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QegDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT72 |access-date=18 November 2012 |date=September 2006 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |page=72}}</ref><ref name="India2008">{{cite book |author=Motilal (UK) Books of India |title=Tourist Guide Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA11 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Sura Books |isbn=978-8174781642 |page=11}}</ref> The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near [[Palakkad]]; hence also known Pal''ghat'', where the [[Palakkad Gap]] breaks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chandran Nair |first1=Dr.S.Sathis |title=India – Silent Valley Rainforest Under Threat Once More |url=https://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/wrr2004/silentvalley.htm |website=rainforestinfo.org.au |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref> The Western Ghats rise on average to {{convert|1,500|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off}} [[above sea level]],<ref name="Biju2006">{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC&pg=PA63 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2006 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8183241298 |page=63}}</ref> while the highest peaks reach around {{convert|2,500|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref name="Hussain">{{cite book |author=Hussain |title=Geography Of India For Civil Ser Exam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUzKCZxvNQoC&pg=SA2-PA9 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0070667723 |page=2}}</ref> [[Anamudi]] in the [[Idukki]] district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of {{convert|2,695|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunter |first=William Wilson |author2=James Sutherland Cotton |author3=Richard Burn |author4=William Stevenson Meyer |author5=Great Britain India Office |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=11 |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1909 |access-date=16 May 2015 |ref=imp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |archive-date=16 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite news |url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/flora-fauna/32507340_1_world-heritage-list-western-ghats-border-town |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131192257/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/flora-fauna/32507340_1_world-heritage-list-western-ghats-border-town |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 January 2013 |title=UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site |date=2 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.<ref name="UNESCO"/> The [[Athirappilly Falls]], which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as ''The [[Niagara Falls|Niagara]] of India''.<ref name="Athirappilly">{{cite news | url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees | title=The Times of India: Latest News India, World & Business News, Cricket & Sports, Bollywood | access-date=2 July 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621233624/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees | archive-date=21 June 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | url-status=dead }}</ref> It is located in the [[Chalakudy River]] and is the largest waterfall in the state.<ref name="Athirappilly"/> [[Wayanad]] is the sole [[Plateau]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book
|imagesize              =
| author = William Logan | year=1887
|image_caption          = Government Logo
| title= Malabar Manual (Volume-II) | publisher=Madras Government Press
|image_flag            =  
| url= https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/mode/2up
|flag_size              =
}}</ref> The eastern regions in the districts of [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]], [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] ([[Chaliyar]] valley at [[Nilambur]]), and [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]] ([[Attappadi]] Valley), which together form parts of the [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] and a continuation of the [[Mysore Plateau]], are known for natural [[Gold]] fields, along with the adjoining districts of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dmg.kerala.gov.in/mineral-resources/|title=Mineral Resources|website=Department of Mining and Geology – Government of Kerala}}</ref>
|flag_link              =
[[File:Topography of Kerala.png|left|thumb|Topography of Kerala]]
|image_seal            =
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006"/>{{rp|33}} and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [[brackish]] canals, lakes, [[estuaries]],<ref name="Moss2010">{{cite book |author=Danny Moss |title=Public Relations Cases: International Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0-CJ3djEdEC&pg=PA41 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0415773362 |page=41}}</ref> and rivers known as the [[Kerala Backwaters]].<ref name="Thorpe2012">{{cite book |author=Edgar Thorpe |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cruroSVFoUC&pg=RA3-PA38 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131767344 |page=3}}</ref> [[Kuttanad]], also known as ''The Rice Bowl of Kerala'', has the [[List of extreme points of India#Altitudes|lowest altitude in India]], and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kerala Boat Ferries Lone Passenger To Help Her Take Exam|url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752|last=Press Trust of India|date=1 June 2020|access-date=17 November 2020|work=NDTV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/13/stories/2003071300600200.htm|title=Thirst below sea level|last=Suchitra|first=M|date=2003-08-13|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2020-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922101804/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/thirst-below-sea-level/article28523147.ece |archive-date=2019-09-22}}</ref> The country's longest lake [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad]], dominates the backwaters; it lies between [[Alappuzha]] and [[Kochi]] and is about {{convert|200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in area.<ref name="Husain">{{cite book |author=Majid Husain |title=Understanding: Geographical: Map Entries: for Civil Services Examinations: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9VGKfQ-sQsC&pg=RA9-PT18 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0070702882 |page=9 |year=2011}}</ref> Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.<ref name="IWAI_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) |year=2005 |title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport |journal=IWAI (Ministry of Shipping) |url=https://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20050204175110/http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2005 |access-date=19 January 2006}}</ref> Kerala's [[List of rivers in Kerala|44 rivers]] include the [[Periyar River|Periyar]]; {{convert|244|km|mi|0}}, [[Bharathapuzha]]; {{convert|209|km|mi|0}}, [[Pamba River|Pamba]]; {{convert|176|km|mi|0}}, [[Chaliyar River|Chaliyar]]; {{convert|169|km|mi|0}}, [[Kadalundipuzha River|Kadalundipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Chalakudy River|Chalakudipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Valapattanam River|Valapattanam]]; {{convert|129|km|mi|0}} and the [[Achankovil River]]; {{convert|128|km|mi|0}}. The average length of the rivers is {{convert|64|km|mi|0}}. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.<ref name=riverreport>{{cite book |last=India. |first=Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8171885942}}</ref> As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in [[river delta|delta]], they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.<ref name="Padmalal">Padmalal D, Maya K, Sreebha S & Sreeja R, (2007), "Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of [[Vembanad lake]], Southwest coast of India", ''Environmental Geology'' 54(4), 879–89. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z springerlink.com]. Retrieved 17 July 2009.</ref> The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]],<ref name="Jha2010">{{cite book |author=M.K. Jha |title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C&pg=PA81 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9048124978 |page=81}}</ref> and in 2018 received [[2018 Kerala floods|the worst flooding]] in nearly a century.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |title=Worst floods in nearly a century kill 44 in India's Kerala state amid torrential monsoon rains |last=Baynes |first=Chris |date=15 August 2018 |work=The Independent |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref>
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===Climate===
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With around 120–140 rainy days per year,<ref name="Chacko_2002">{{Cite journal |last1=Chacko |first1=T. |last2=Renuka |first2=G. |year=2002 |title=Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at Kariavattom, Kerala |journal=Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci) |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=79 |title-link=Kariavattom |bibcode=2002InEPS.111...79T |doi=10.1007/BF02702224|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{rp|80}} Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the [[Southwest monsoon|southwest summer monsoon]] and [[Northeast monsoon|northeast winter monsoon]].<ref name="Devrep">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=223 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.<ref name="Devrep"/> The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the [[Indian Peninsula]], because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".<ref name="Jain">{{cite book |author=RK Jain |title=Geography 10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hOybWJeZN0C&pg=PA110 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Ratna Sagar |isbn=978-8183320818 |page=110}}</ref> The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,<ref name="Together with Social Science Term II">{{cite book |title=Together with Social Science Term II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOA1nsSU8JYC&pg=PA112 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Rachna Sagar |isbn=978-8181373991 |page=112}}</ref> making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.<ref name="google6">{{cite book |author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe |author2=Thorpe Edgar |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=SL7-PA168 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131758304 |page=7}}</ref><ref name="Aggarwal">{{cite book |author1=N.N. Kher |author2=Jaideep Aggarwal |title=A Text Book of Social Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV6k0FvIC4sC&pg=RA5-PA16 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pitambar Publishing |isbn=978-8120914667 |page=5}}</ref> The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.<ref name="google7">{{cite book |author1=Sarina Singh |author2=Amy Karafin |author3=Anirban Mahapatra |title=South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC&pg=PA15 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2009 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1741791556 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Reddy">{{cite book |author=S.V. Jeevananda Reddy |title=Climate Change: Myths and Realities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_GMTXRtxJ8C&pg=PA71 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Jeevananda Reddy |page=71 |id=GGKEY:WDFHBL1XHK3}}</ref> In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Rao |title=Agricultural Meteorology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd-3lt-yAtAC&pg=PA173 |publisher=PHI Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-8120333383 |pages=173–74 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923&nbsp;mm (115&nbsp;in) annually.<ref name="IMD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html |title=Hydromet Division Updated/Real Time Maps |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |access-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062728/https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250&nbsp;mm (49&nbsp;in); the mountains of the eastern [[Idukki district]] receive more than 5,000&nbsp;mm (197&nbsp;in) of [[Precipitation (meteorology)#Orographic precipitation|orographic precipitation]]: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Brenkert |first1=A. |last2=Malone |first2=E. |year=2003 |title=Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation |journal=Joint Global Change Research Institute }}</ref>{{rp|26, 46, 52}} The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8&nbsp;°C to 36.7&nbsp;°C.<ref name="moef">{{cite web |last=Sudha |first=T. M. |title=Opportunities in participatory planning to Evolve a Landuse Policy for Western Ghats Region in Kerala |url=https://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf |publisher=Department of Town and Country Planning, Kerala |page=14 |access-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325095604/https://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5&nbsp;°C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5&nbsp;°C in the eastern highlands.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/>{{rp|65}}
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{{Weather box|location = Kerala
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|map_caption            = Location of Kerala in the Republic of India
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|Jan low C = 22
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| subdivision_type        = Country
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| subdivision_name        = {{flag|India}}
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| subdivision_type1      = [[Regions of India|Region]]
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| subdivision_name1      = [[South India]]
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|Jul low C = 23
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|Sep low C = 23
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|Oct low C = 23
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|Nov low C = 23
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|Dec low C = 22
| leader_title            = [[Governors of Kerala|Governor]]
|year low C = 22
| leader_name            =
|rain colour=green
| leader_title1          = [[Chief Ministers of Kerala|Chief&nbsp;Minister]]
|Jan rain mm = 8.7
| leader_name1            =
|Feb rain mm = 14.7
| leader_title2          = [[Legislature of Kerala|Legislature]]
|Mar rain mm = 30.4
| leader_name2            = [[Unicameral]] ({{ref|leg|*}} seats)
|Apr rain mm = 109.5
|leader_title3          =
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|Jun rain mm = 649.8
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|Jul rain mm = 726.1
|leader_name4          =
|Aug rain mm = 419.5
| established_title      = Established
|Sep rain mm = 244.2
| established_date        =
|Oct rain mm = 292.3
|established_title2    = <!-- Incorporated (town) -->
|Nov rain mm = 150.9
|established_date2      =
|Dec rain mm = 37.5
|established_title3    = <!-- Incorporated (city) -->
|source 1 =<ref name="IMD"/><ref name="moef"/>
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|date=May 2012}}
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|unit_pref              = <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired-->
==Flora and fauna==
|area_footnotes        =
{{Main|Flora and fauna of Kerala}}
|area_total_km2        = 38863 <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion-->
{{Multiple image
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|caption1 = An [[Bengal tiger|Indian tiger]] in [[Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary]]
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|image2 = Highland Grassland Shola of Silent Valley National Park.jpg
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|caption2 = [[Silent Valley National Park]]
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|caption3 = The [[Cardamom Hills]] are notable for [[biodiversity]]
|population_as_of                = 2011
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|population_total                = 33,387,677
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}}
Most of the [[biodiversity]] is concentrated and protected in the [[Western Ghats]]. Three quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to 18th century.<ref name="History">{{cite web |url=https://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=2 |title=History |access-date=12 August 2015 |publisher=Kerala forests and wildlife department}}</ref> {{As of|2004}}, over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species; 1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala, 900 are [[Herbalism|medicinal]], and 159 are [[Threatened species|threatened]].<ref name="Sreedharan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Sreedharan TP |year=2004 |title=Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054155/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|11}} Its 9,400&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> and 100&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] (''shola'') forests (highest elevations—100&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|12}} Four of the world's [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]], [[Ashtamudi Lake]], [[Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands]], and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=342}} as well as 1455.4&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] and 1828&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of the [[Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=347}} Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Jayarajan M |year=2004 |title=Sacred Groves of North Malabar |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054142/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|6–7}} much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]].<ref name="Evans2008">{{cite book |author=Julian Evans |title=The Forests Handbook, Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ol_CCkYQNKIC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470756836 |page=235}}</ref> Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats.<ref name="google8">{{cite book |author1=R. P. Singh |author2=Zubairul Islam |title=Environmental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180697746 |page=172 |year=2012}}</ref><ref name="Geer2008">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Anna Enrica van der Geer |title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ3quxh9gsgC&pg=PA7 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004168190 |page=7}}</ref> The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in [[Nilambur]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-world-s-oldest-teak-trees-dying-in-kerala-1255723|title=World's oldest teak trees dying in Kerala|date=13 May 2009|website=DNA India}}</ref>


Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of [[mammal]]s (1 endemic), [[List of birds of Kerala|500 species of birds]], 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of [[amphibian]]s (36 endemic).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007224232/https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443|url-status=dead|title=View of A checklist of the vertebrates of Kerala State, India &#124; Journal of Threatened Taxa|archive-date=7 October 2016|website=threatenedtaxa.org}}</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, [[Soil salinity|salinisation]], and resource extraction. In the forests, ''sonokeling'', ''[[Dalbergia]] latifolia'', ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'', ''[[Erythrina]]'', and ''[[Cinnamomum aromaticum|Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include [[bamboo]], wild black pepper, wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, ''Vetiveria zizanioides''.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|12}} [[Indian elephant]], [[Bengal tiger]], [[Indian leopard]], [[Nilgiri tahr]], [[common palm civet]], and [[grizzled giant squirrel]]s are also found in the forests.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|12, 174–75}} Reptiles include the [[king cobra]], [[Viperidae|viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[mugger crocodile]]. Kerala's birds include the [[Malabar trogon]], the [[great hornbill]], [[Kerala laughingthrush]], [[darter]] and [[southern hill myna]]. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as [[Heteropneustes fossilis|Kadu]], [[Red Line Torpedo Barb]] and ''choottachi''; [[orange chromide]]—''Etroplus maculatus'' are found.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Institute |first1=Kerala Forest Research |title=Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala: Freshwater fishes |year=2003 |publisher=Kerala Forest Research Institute |isbn=978-8185041544 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYcPAQAAMAAJ&q=fishes+in+kerala |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|163–65}} Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; ''[[Stygarctus keralensis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vishnudattan |first1=N. K. |display-authors=etal |title=A new Tardigrade species, Stygarctus keralensis sp. nov. (Arthrotardigrada: Stygarctidae) from the intertidal zone of Southwest coast of India |url=https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/42726 |date=15 June 2021 |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=4985 |issue=3 |page=381391 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4985.3.5 |pmid=34186802 |s2cid=235688035 }}</ref>
'''Kerala''' is a [[state]] in the [[Republic of India]]. It is in the south-west of the country. The west coast of the state is on the [[Arabian Sea]]. [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]] are to the east.
{{clear}}


==Subdivisions==
The [[capital (city)|capital]] [[city]] of the state is [[Thiruvananthapuram]], even though the city of [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] is more densely populated. The area of Kerala is 15,005 [[square mile|mi<sup>2</sup>]] (38,863 [[km]]<sup>2</sup>), which is bigger than [[Bhutan]] but smaller than [[Switzerland]]. In traditional Indian geography, it is part of [[South India]].
[[File:Administrative Divisions of Kerala (2020).svg|thumb|230px|Administrative Subdivisions]]
{{Main|Districts of Kerala|Corporations, municipalities and taluks of Kerala|List of cities and towns in Kerala}}{{See also|Local governance in Kerala}}


The state's [[List of districts of Kerala|14 districts]] are distributed among six regions: [[North Malabar]] (far-north Kerala), [[South Malabar]] (north-central Kerala), [[Kochi]] (central Kerala), [[Northern Travancore]], [[Central Travancore]] (southern Kerala) and [[Southern Travancore]] (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into [[Revenue Divisions of Kerala|27 revenue subdivisions]] and [[List of talukas of Kerala|77 taluks]], which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ildm.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Revenue-Guide-2018.pdf |title=Revenue Guide 2018 |date= |website=[[Government of Kerala]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kerala.gov.in/revenue-department |title=Revenue department, government of Kerala |access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref>
There are 14 [[districts]] in Kerala. They are [[Alappuzha]], [[Ernakulam]], [[Idukki]], [[Kannur]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kollam]], [[Kottayam]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Malappuram]], [[Palakkad]], [[Pathanamthitta]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Thrissur]], and [[Wayanad]].
Since the [[List of amendments of the Constitution of India|73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India]], the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 [[District Panchayat]]s, 152 [[Block panchayat|Block Panchayats]], 941 [[Gram panchayat|Grama Panchayats]], [[Municipalities of Kerala|87 Municipalities]], [[List of municipal corporations in Kerala|six Municipal Corporations]] and one [[Township]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Local Self Governance in Kerala |url=https://kerala.gov.in/local-self-governance#:~:text=Local%20Self-Governance%20Page&text=At%20present,%20there%20are%201200,Municipalities%20and%206%20Municipal%20Corporations |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=28 September 2020 }}</ref>
[[Mahé, India|Mahé]], a part of the Indian [[union territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-date=16 June 2004 |title=Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) |access-date=1 November 2008 |publisher=Census Commission of India}}</ref> though {{convert|647|km}} away from it,<ref name="ShiraAssociates.2012">{{cite book |author1=Dezan Shira |author2=Associates. |title=Doing Business in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YjXW41yMwQC&pg=PT313 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3642276187 |pages=313–}}</ref> is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.<ref name="Menon2002">{{cite book |author1=D Banerjea |author2=N. R. Madhava Menon |title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Axfuc5A8mxMC&pg=PA9 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8177648713 |pages=9–}}</ref>


In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in 18th century.<ref name="d_1664">{{Cite news|title=50 years on, Kochi still has a long way to go|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms|last=M K Sunil Kumar|date=26 September 2017|access-date=1 June 2021|work=The Times of India}}</ref> The municipalities of [[Kozhikode]], [[Palakkad]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Kannur]], and [[Thalassery]], were founded on 1 November 1866<ref name="Ref1" /><ref name="c1881" /><ref name="google.co.in" /><ref name="frowde" /> of the [[British Indian Empire]], making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of [[Thiruvananthapuram]] came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of [[Sree Chithira Thirunal]], Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |title=Thiruvananthapuram |url=https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 |date=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918085703/https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 |archive-date=18 September 2010 |access-date=4 April 2022}} Year of becoming a corporation</ref> The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of [[India]] as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at [[Kozhikode Municipal Corporation|Kozhikode]] in the year 1962.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080209134539/https://www.hindu.com/2008/02/05/stories/2008020561140500.htm Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency redrawn Delimitation impact], ''The Hindu'' 5 February 2008</ref> There are six [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipal corporations]] in Kerala that govern [[Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode Municipal Corporation|Kozhikode]], [[Kochi Municipal Corporation|Kochi]], [[Kollam Municipal Corporation|Kollam]], [[Thrissur Municipal Corporation|Thrissur]], and [[Kannur Municipal Corporation|Kannur]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project |url=https://www.ksudp.org |publisher=Local Self Government Department}}</ref> The [[Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation]] is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named [[Kochi UA]] is the largest urban agglomeration.<ref>{{cite web |title=City Information|url=https://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32 |work=Cochin International Airport |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kochi]], [[Kollam]], [[Thrissur]] are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cities best to earn a living are not the best to live: Survey |url=https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics |work=The Times of India |date=26 November 2007}}</ref>
== Language ==
People in Kerala speak [[Malayalam]]. More than 90% of the people can read the language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/keralas-literacy-rate-up-by-3-says-aksharalaksham-survey/articleshow/62647777.cms|title=Kerala literacy: Kerala's literacy rate up by 3%, says Aksharalaksham survey {{!}} Thiruvananthapuram News - Times of India|last1=Jan 25|first1=TNN {{!}} Updated|last2=2018|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2019-09-21|last3=Ist|first3=13:58}}</ref> A mix of [[English language|English]] and [[Malayalam]] is called Manglish. Manglish is used by people in Kerala, who can speak it very easily and fluently.


==Government and administration==
== Culture ==
{{Main|Government of Kerala|Kerala Legislature}}
Kerala is known for traditional arts and people enjoy [[traditional]], [[percussion]]-filled music. They also enjoy [[tribal ceremonies]], [[martial arts]], and sports such as [[soccer]], [[cricket]], and [[badminton]]. Kerala is popular for [[Kalaripayattu]], a martial arts form and [[Kathakali]], a Hindu performance art. Most of the people have access to the internet, TVs, newspapers, and books. The average amount of reading per week is about seven hours. The [[literacy rate]] is approximately 99.7%.<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{cite document |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |date=2001 |title=Kerala: Human Development Fact Sheet |pages=1 }}</ref>
{{See also|Politics of Kerala|Political parties in Kerala}}
{{wide image|Pattom Skyline panoramo 02.jpg|600px|align-cap=center|The city of [[Thiruvananthapuram]] serves as the administrative headquarters of Kerala.}}
{{Multiple image
|align= right
|direction = vertical
|width= 220
|header_align = left/right/center
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|image1 = High Court of Kerala Building.jpg
|caption1 = The Kerala High Court complex in [[Kochi]].
|image2 = Kerala Government Secretariat.jpg
|caption2 = The Kerala Secretariat in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] – seat of executive administration of Kerala, and formerly of the legislative assembly
|image3 = Niyamasabha Mandiram.JPG
|caption3 = The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] Building in [[Thiruvananthapuram]]
}}
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the [[United Democratic Front (India)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), led by the [[Indian National Congress]]; and the [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|Left Democratic Front]] (LDF), led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). {{As of|2021|alt=As of}} [[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]], the LDF is the ruling coalition; [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while [[V. D. Satheesan]] of the Indian National Congress is the [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly|Leader of the Opposition]]. According to the [[Constitution of India]], Kerala has a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]]; [[universal suffrage]] is granted to residents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |title=Kerala Government – Legislature |publisher=Government of kerala |access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> The government is organised into the three branches:


# Legislature: The [[unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature, the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] popularly known as Niyamasabha, comprises elected members and special office bearers; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. The state has 140 assembly constituencies.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Kerala Legislature |url=https://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=17 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619040353/https://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 |archive-date=19 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The state elects 20 and 9 members for representation in the [[Lok Sabha]] and the [[Rajya Sabha]], respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm |title=Our Parliament |publisher=Parliamentofindia.nic.in |access-date=25 February 2010}}</ref>
===Provincial symbols of Kerala===
# Executive: The [[Governors of Kerala|Governor of Kerala]] is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the [[President of India]].<ref name="govern">{{cite web |url=https://www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731095433/https://rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 July 2009 |title=Responsibilities |access-date=13 November 2015 |publisher=Kerala Rajbhavan }}</ref> [[Arif Mohammad Khan]] is the Governor of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |title=Legislative Assembly of Kerala: Official Website |publisher=niyamasabha.org |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref> The [[executive (government)|executive authority]] is headed by the [[Chief Minister of Kerala]], who is the head of government and is vested with extensive executive powers; the head of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly is appointed to the post by the Governor.<ref name=govern/> The Council of Ministers has its members appointed by the Governor, taking the advice of the Chief Minister.<ref name=govern/> The executive administration is based in Thiruvananthapuram at [[Kerala Government Secretariat|State Secretariat]] complex. Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called [[District collector]] for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[panchayat]]s'', for which [[Local Body Election in Kerala|local body elections]] are regularly held, govern local affairs.<ref name="Chaudhary2009">{{cite book |author=Shyam Nandan Chaudhary |title=Tribal Development Since Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBX1EJVhjGEC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180696220 |page=235}}</ref>
<gallery>
# Judiciary: The [[judiciary]] consists of the [[Kerala High Court]] and a system of lower courts.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Judiciary |url=https://www.allindiajudges.org/Judgment/FNJPC2.htm |publisher=All-India Judges Association |access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> The High Court, located in Kochi,<ref name="Congress (US)2010">{{cite book |author1=U S Congress |author2=Congress (U.S.) |title=Congressional Record, V. 153, Pt. 1, January 4, 2007 to January 17, 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3bLOwbeOZYC&pg=PA1198 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0160868245 |page=1198}}</ref> has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional ''[[pro tempore]]'' justices {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=High Court of Kerala Profile |url=https://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html |publisher=High Court of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]].<ref name="Banerjea2002">{{cite book |author=D. Banerjea |title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6NWL-a14mkC&pg=PA80 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8177648720 |page=80}}</ref><ref name="SharmaB.k.2007">{{cite book |author1=Sharma |author2=Sharma B.k. |title=Intro. to the Constitution of India, 4/e |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC&pg=PA261 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8120332461 |page=261}}</ref>
File:Great-Hornbill.jpg|Provincial bird of Kerala
File:IndianElephant.jpg|Provincial animal of Kerala
File:Starr 031209-0059 Cocos nucifera.jpg|Provincial tree of Kerala
File:Cassia-fistula.jpg|Provincial flower of Kerala
</gallery>


The local government bodies; Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations have existed in Kerala since 1959, however, the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction.<ref name="Capdeck">{{cite web |url=https://www.lenobl.ru/Document/1412700121.pdf |title=An Introduction to local self governments in Kerala |publisher=SDC CAPDECK |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=Mariamma Sanu George |pages=17–20}}</ref> With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in 1994, the state implemented reforms in local self-governance.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |title=Kerala – A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation |publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration |date=April 2009 |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=S M Vijayanand |page=12}}</ref> The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local government with [[Gram panchayat]], [[Block panchayat]] and [[District Councils of India|District Panchayat]] forming a hierarchy.<ref name="TandonMohanty2006">{{cite book |author1=Rajesh Tandon |author2=Ranjita Mohanty |title=Participatory Citizenship: Identity, Exclusion, Inclusion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oPByu7CWoUEC&pg=PA199 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 2006 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0761934677 |page=199}}</ref> The acts ensure a clear demarcation of power among these institutions.<ref name="Capdeck"/> However, the Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of municipality designed to par with the Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |title=Kerala – A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation |publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration |date=April 2009 |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=S M Vijayanand |page=13}}</ref> As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40% of the state plan outlay to the local government.<ref name="IsaacFranke2002">{{cite book |author1=T. M. Thomas Isaac |author2=Richard W. Franke |title=Local Democracy and Development: The Kerala People's Campaign for Decentralized Planning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6v6F2a3Gs0C&pg=PR13 |year= 2002 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0742516076 |page=13}}</ref> Kerala was declared as the first digital state of India on 27 February 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kerala the first digital State|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/kerala-the-first-digital-state/article8291466.ece|last=Special currespondent|date=28 February 2016|access-date=17 November 2020|work=The Hindu}}</ref> The ''India Corruption Survey 2019'' by [[Transparency International]] declared Kerala the least-corrupt state in India.<ref>{{Cite book|title=India Corruption Survey 2019 – Report|last=|publisher=Transparency International India|year=2019|location=|pages=22|url=https://transparencyindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/India-Corruption-Survey-2019.pdf}}</ref> The Public Affairs Index-2020 released by the Public Affairs Centre, India, designated Kerala as the best governed Indian state.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa best governed States: report|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala-goa-and-chandigarh-best-governed-states-ut-report/article32985716.ece|last=PTI|date=30 October 2020|access-date=20 June 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref>
=== Festivals<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://travel-blog.waytoindia.com/10-most-famous-festivals-of-kerala/|title=10 Most Famous Festivals Of Kerala|date=2015-07-14|website=Waytoindia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref>===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="100px" style="text-align:left">
File:Theyyam of Kerala 3.jpg|[[Theyyam]] of Kerala.
</gallery>
The most famous festivals held by Keralites are [[Onam]], the [[harvest]] festival and Vishu, the Malayalam Calendar New Year. In addition to these, temples as well as churches hold festivals in several days of the year. A common tradition in all these festivals is the hosting of the holy flag, which is brought down on the last day of the festival. Some temple festivals are called poorams, and the most famous one among these is 'Thrissur Pooram'. The main attractions of poorams are firecrackers, traditional dance forms like 'Theyyam, Kathakali, Chakyar Koothu etc.'. Festivals are locally known as ''utsavams'' .


==Economy==
=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Economy of Kerala}}
Kerala is one of the biggest tourist attractions in India, both for Indians as well as foreigners. It has beaches, hill stations and extensive backwaters. Kerala is also known for its diverse nature.
{{Panorama
|image  = File:Marine_Drive_Kochi_Night_View_DSW.jpg
|height  = 175
|alt    = Marine Drive, Kochi
|caption = {{center|1=The city of [[Kochi]] is the largest financial, commercial, and industrial hub in Kerala, with the highest [[GDP]] as well as the highest [[List of Kerala cities by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]] in the state.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://spb.kerala.gov.in/ER2017/web_e/ch12.php?id=1&ch=12| title=National and State Income| publisher=[[Kerala State Planning Board]]| access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://community.data.gov.in/top-5-districts-of-kerala-on-the-basis-of-gdp-at-current-price-from-2004-05-to-2012-13| title=Top 5 districts of Kerala on the basis of GDP at current price from 2004–05 to 2012–13| publisher=[[Government of India]]| access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref>}}
}}
After independence, the state was managed as a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] [[welfare economy]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=A virus, social democracy, and dividends for Kerala|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-virus-social-democracy-and-dividends-for-kerala/article31370554.ece|last=Heller|first=Patrick|date=18 April 2020|access-date=2 February 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> From the 1990s, [[neoliberalism|liberalisation]] of the [[mixed economy]] allowed [[Licence Raj]] restrictions against capitalism and [[foreign direct investment]] to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and an increase in employment. In the fiscal year 2018–19, the nominal [[Gross regional domestic product|gross state domestic product]] (GSDP) was {{INRConvert|7.82|lc}}.<ref name="gsdp">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/index.php/economy|title=Gross State Domestic Product of Kerala|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Department of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Kerala|publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref> GSDP growth; 11.4% in 2018–2019<ref name="gsdp"/> and 10.5% in 2017–2018<ref name="gsdp"/> had been high compared to an average of 2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%<ref name="Mohindra_2003">{{Cite journal |author=Mohindra KS |year=2003 |title=A report on women Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Kerala state, India: a public health perspective |journal=Université de Montréal Department de Medicine Social et Prévention }}</ref>{{rp|8}} and 6.0%<ref name="indiaarchive">{{cite web |url=https://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=53 |title=Economy – Kerala – States and Union Territories – Know India: National Portal of India |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre]] |access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> in the 1990s.<ref name="Mohindra_2003"/>{{rp|8}} The state recorded 8.9% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005, higher than the national rate of 4.8%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Provisional results of economic census 2005 |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/economic-census/economic_census_prov_results_2005.pdf |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |access-date=21 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="Varma_2005">{{Cite news |author=Varma MS |title=Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap |work=The Financial Express |date=4 April 2005 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617134031/https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> The "Kerala phenomenon" or "[[Kerala model|Kerala model of development]]" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/>{{rp|48}}<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Tharamangalam J |year=2005 |title=The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India |journal=Political Economy for Environmental Planners |url=https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115072025/https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013 |access-date=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|1}} In 2019–20, the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]] contributed around 63% of the state's [[Gross value added|GSVA]], compared to 28% by [[Secondary sector of the economy|secondary sector]], and 8% by [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]].<ref name="eco"/> In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.<ref name="eco"/>
{{multiple image
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| image1  = Technopark Trivandum Ganga and Yamuna Buildings.jpg
| caption1  = [[Technopark, Trivandrum|Technopark]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]], the first and largest [[information technology]] (IT) park in India
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| image2  = Container terminal.JPG
| caption2  = [[International Container Transshipment Terminal, Kochi|Vallarpadam Terminal]] at [[Kochi]], the first [[container terminal|transshipment terminal]] in India
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| image3  = Focus mall calicut.jpg
| caption3  = A [[Shopping mall]] at [[Kozhikode]]
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| caption4  = [[Mappila Bay]] harbour at [[Kannur]]
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| caption5  = A cruise ship at [[Vizhinjam International Seaport|Vizhinjam]] port.
}}
The state's [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon [[Hospitality industry]], [[Tourism in Kerala|Tourism]], [[Ayurveda]]&Medical Services, Pilgrimage, [[Information technology]], [[Roads in Kerala|Transportation]], Financial sector, and [[Education in Kerala|Education]].<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://slbckerala.com/Economy.aspx|title=Economy of Kerala – 2016|website=slbckerala.com}}</ref> Major initiatives under the industrial sector include [[Cochin Shipyard]], Shipbuilding, Oil refinery, Software Industry, Coastal mineral industries,{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=343}} food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon [[Cash crop]]s.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as [[Coconut]], [[Tea]], [[Coffee]], [[Malabar pepper|pepper]], [[Natural rubber]], [[Cardamom]], and [[Cashew]] in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since 1950's.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The [[Migrant labourers in Kerala]] are a significant [[workforce]] in its industrial and agricultural sectors. Being home to only 1.18% of the total land area of India and 2.75% of its population, Kerala contributes more than 4% to the [[Gross Domestic Product]] of India.
 
Kerala's economy depends significantly on [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|emigrants working in foreign countries]], mainly in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]], and the [[remittance]]s annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.<ref name="rem1">{{cite report |author1=K.P. Kannan |author2=K.S. Hari |title=Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact, 1972–2000 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html |year=2002 |website=[[Research Papers in Economics]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> The state witnessed significant emigration during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2008, the Persian Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 25 lakh(2.5&nbsp;million), who sent home annually a sum of {{USD}}6.81&nbsp;billion, which is the highest among [[States and union territories of India|Indian states]] and more than 15.1% of [[Remittance#Top recipient countries|remittances to India]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2008/08/19/stories/2008081954710500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822060145/https://www.hindu.com/2008/08/19/stories/2008081954710500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 August 2008 |title=GCC residency cap may force lakhs to return |first=Biju |last=Govind |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3&nbsp;billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71&nbsp;billion remittances to the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/remittances--kerala-drives-dollar-flows-to-india-053414379.html |title=Remittances: Kerala drives dollar flows to India |work=[[Yahoo! Finance]] |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over {{INRConvert|1|lc}}, amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about {{INRConvert|7|lc}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/other-news/NRI-deposits-in-Kerala-banks-cross-Rs-1-lakh-crore/articleshow/47769012.cms |title=NRI deposits in Kerala banks cross Rs 1 lakh crore |date=22 June 2015 |access-date=13 November 2015 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> [[Malappuram district]] has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.<ref name="eco"/> A study commissioned by the [[Kerala State Planning Board]], suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.<ref name="Commission2008b">{{cite book |author=India. Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA457 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=396}}</ref>
 
A decline of about 300,000 in the number of emigrants from the state was recorded during the period between 2013 and 2018.<ref name="r">{{Cite journal|title=New Evidences from the Kerala Migration Survey, 2018|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2020/4/special-articles/new-evidences-kerala-migration-survey-2018.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=55|issue=4|pages=7–8|date=25 January 2020}}</ref> The total remittances received by the emigrants stood at {{INRConvert|85100|c}} in the year 2018.<ref name="r"/> According to a study done in 2013, {{INRConvert|17500|c}} was the total amount paid to [[migrant labourers in Kerala|migrant labourers in the state]] every year.<ref name="mig 1">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/migrant-worker-population-in-kerala-touches-25-m/article4421810.ece |title=Migrant worker population in Kerala touches 2.5&nbsp;m |work=Business Line |date=16 February 2013 |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport, storage, communications, tourism, banking, insurance and real estate. In 2011–2012, it contributed 63.2% of the state's GDP, agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15.7%, while manufacturing, construction and utilities contributed 21.1%.<ref name="kerala2">{{cite web |url=https://indiabudget.nic.in/es2011-12/estat1.pdf |date=10 March 2013 |title=Economic Survey 2011–12 Union Budget |publisher=Government of India |access-date=15 November 2015}}</ref> Around 600 varieties<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|5}} of rice, which is Kerala's most used [[staple food|staple]] and cereal crop,<ref name="Balachandran_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Balachandran PG |year=2004 |title=Constraints on Diffusion and Adoption of Agro-mechanical Technology in Rice Cultivation in Kerala |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/59.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|5}} are harvested from 3105.21&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>; a decline from 5883.4&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> in 1990.<ref name="Balachandran_2004"/>{{rp|5}} 6,88,859&nbsp;[[tonne]]s of rice are produced per year.<ref name="GOK_2005c"/> Other key crops include coconut; 899,198&nbsp;ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production,<ref name="Joy_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Joy CV |year=2004 |title=Small Coffee Growers of Sulthan Bathery, Wayanad |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/83.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|13}} or 57,000 tonnes,<ref name="Joy_2004"/>{{rp|6–7}} rubber, cashews, and [[spices]]—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg.
 
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.<ref name="RBI_2002">{{cite web |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |title=State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch |date=March 2002 |work=Reserve Bank of India |access-date=28 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810094850/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2007 }}</ref> On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-you-can-bank-on-every-village-in-Kerala/articleshow/10194261.cms |work=The Times of India |title=Now, you can bank on every village in Kerala |date=1 October 2011 |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> [[Unemployment in Kerala|Unemployment in 2007]] was estimated at 9.4%;<ref>{{cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Jobless no more? |newspaper=Business Line |date=8 October 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece |quote=A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007. |access-date=16 November 2012}}</ref> chronic issues are [[underemployment]], low employability of youth, and a low female [[labour force|labour participation rate]] of only 13.5%,<ref name="Nair_2004">{{Cite book |author=Nair NG |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |title=Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621751 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/72.pdf |access-date=31 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|5, 13}} as was the practice of ''[[Nokku kooli]]'', "wages for looking on".<ref name="Outlook-2008">{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 |first=John |last=Mary |title=Men (Not) At Work |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> (On 30 April 2018, the Kerala state government issued an order to abolish ''Nokku Kooli'', to take effect on 1 May.<ref>{{cite news |title=On May Day, Kerala becomes Nokkukooli-free |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/state-nokkukooli-freefree-to-choose-workers/article23731265.ece |date=30 April 2018 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=3 May 2018}}</ref>) By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.<ref name="princeton6">{{Cite report |last=Deaton |first=Angus |title=Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999–2000 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |date=22 August 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628193845/https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead |page=10 |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref>
 
The [[Grand Kerala Shopping Festival]] (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.<ref name="GKSF begins">{{cite news |title=Shopping festival begins |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece |work=The Hindu |date=2 December 2007 |access-date=24 January 2013}}</ref>  [[Lulu Mall, Thiruvananthapuram|Lulu International Mall]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] is the largest [[Shopping Mall]] in India.<ref>{{cite news|title=LuLu Group: Going places|url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/local/lulu-group-going-places|work=[[Khaleej Times]]|access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Intercropping coconut n Tagetes erecta.jpg|alt=|thumb|Coconuts are an important regional cash crop.]]
The state's budget of 2020–2021 was {{INRConvert|1.15|lc}}.<ref name="Budget">{{cite web |url=https://www.finance.kerala.gov.in/bdgtDcs.jsp |title=Budget In Brief |format=PDF |website=finance.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=4 December 2020}}</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to {{INRConvert|67420|c}} in 2020–21; up from {{INRConvert|55671|c}} in 2019–20. Its [[non-tax revenue]]s (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached {{INRConvert|14587|c}} in 2020–2021.<ref name="Budget"/> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008 |title=Memoranda from States: Kerala |website=fincomindia.nic.in |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> A record total of 223 [[hartal]]s were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over {{INRConvert|2000|c}}.<ref>[https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm Kerala: Hartals Own Country?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043808/https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm |date=4 March 2016 }} 6 July 2008</ref> Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091613/https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 December 2013 |title=India Today On Cm |publisher=Keralacm.gov.in |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref>
 
The [[Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board]] is a government owned [[financial institution]] in the state to mobilize funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/big-push-for-infrastructure-in-budget/article17403255.ece|title=Big push for infrastructure in Budget|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 March 2017|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2017/mar/04/kerala-budget-infrastructure-projects-get-a-major-fillip-1577360.html|title=Kerala Budget: Infrastructure projects get a major fillip|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
In November 2015, the [[Ministry of Urban Development]] selected seven cities of Kerala for a [[List of government schemes in India|comprehensive development program]] known as the [[Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation]] (AMRUT).<ref>{{cite news |title=Modi to address heads of civic bodies on urban revamp |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-to-address-heads-of-civic-bodies-on-urban-revamp/article7336851.ece# |date=20 June 2015 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 June 2015}}</ref> A package of {{INRConvert|2.5|m}} was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.<ref>{{cite news |last=R. Ramabhadran |first=Pillai |title=AMRUT to roll out on a smaller scale |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amrut-to-roll-out-on-a-smaller-scale/article7868199.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |issue=12 November 2015}}</ref>
 
Despite of many achievements, Kerala facing many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.<ref name="Hindu2021">{{cite journal |title=Making sense of Kerala |journal=The Hindu |date=2021-12-13 |last1= Heller |first1=Patrick |last2=Törnquist |first2=Olle |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151547/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |accessdate=2022-03-05 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |quote=Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity. }}</ref>
 
===Information Technology===
[[File:Carnival Info Park Phase - 4.jpg|thumbnail|[[Infopark, Kochi]]]]
Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation of [[Technopark, Trivandrum|Technopark]], Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala. It was the first technology park in India<ref>{{cite web |title=Official site of Kerala IT |url=https://www.keralait.org/search_result.php?project_id=2 |publisher=Department of IT, Government of Kerala |access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Technopark aims to be among top 5 IT investment locations |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/infrastructure/technopark-aims-to-be-among-top-5-it-investment-locations/articleshow/6224254.cms?from=mdr |work=The Economic Times |date=27 July 2010}}</ref> and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007, Technopark became the largest IT Park in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=PI |first=Rajeev |title=God's own country to house largest IT park |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/gods-own-country-to-house-largest-it-park/24662/ |access-date=22 October 2013 |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=3 March 2007}}</ref> Software giants like [[Infosys]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Tata Consultancy Services]], [[Capgemini]], [[HCL Technologies|HCL]], [[UST Global]], NeST and Suntec have offices in the state. The state has a second major IT hub, the [[InfoPark, Kochi|Infopark]] centred in Kochi with "spokes"(it acts as the "hub") in Thrissur and Alleppy. {{As of|2014}}, Infopark generates one-third of total IT Revenues of the state<ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala |date=29 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Infoparks-IT-exports-climb-53-in-FY14/articleshow/45141011.cms |location=Kochi, India |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Infopark's IT exports climb 53% in FY14 |date=14 November 2014}}</ref> with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services, [[Cognizant]], [[Wipro]], UST Global, IBS Software Services etc. and [[Multinational corporation]]s like [[KPMG]], [[Ernst & Young]], [[EXL Service]], [[Etisalat|Etisalat DB Telecom]], [[Nielsen Audio]], [[Affiliated Computer Services|Xerox ACS]], Tata ELXSI etc. Kochi also has another major project [[SmartCity, Kochi|SmartCity]] under construction, built in partnership with Dubai Government. A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around [[Kozhikode]] known as Cyberpark.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cyberpark to place Kozhikode on IT map|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cyberpark-to-place-kozhikode-on-it-map/article5686855.ece|access-date=16 February 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|date=14 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Now, Cyberpark puts Kozhikode on the IT map|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-Cyberpark-puts-Kozhikode-on-the-IT-map/articleshow/30482192.cms|access-date=16 February 2014|newspaper=The Times of India|date=16 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=UL CyberPark marks a first in IT sector|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/ul-cyberpark-marks-a-first-in-it-sector/article8274206.ece|last=Govind|first=Biju|date=24 February 2016|work=The Hindu}}</ref> Kerala is the first Indian state to make Internet access a basic right.<ref name="eco"/> As on 2019, Kerala's Internet penetration rate is the second-highest in India only after to [[Delhi]].<ref name="eco"/>
 
===Industries===
Traditional industries manufacturing items; [[coir]], [[handloom]]s, and [[handicraft]]s employ around one million people.<ref name="KumarKerala2007">{{cite book |author1=S. Rajitha Kumar |author2=University of Kerala |title=Traditional Industries of India in the Globalised World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aBvtAAAAMAAJ |year= 2007 |publisher=University of Kerala |isbn=978-8177081435 |page=223}}</ref> Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in [[Alleppey]] in 1859–60.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Coir Industry |url=https://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/coir.html |work=Indian Mirror |access-date=29 April 2014}}</ref> The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by [[SIDBI]], there are 14,68,104 [[Small and medium enterprises#India|micro, small and medium enterprises]] in Kerala employing 30,31,272 people.<ref name="SIDBI Report 2010">{{cite book |title=SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010 |publisher=Small Industries Development Bank of India |year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario |author=N. Rajeevan |journal=International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management |date=March 2012 |volume=2 |issue=3}}</ref> The [[KSIDC]] has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709062837/https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php |archive-date=9 July 2014 |title=Functions, KSIDC, Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation |access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of [[ilmenite]], [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{Cite journal |author=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |title=Kerala at a Glance |journal=Government of Kerala |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |access-date=22 January 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118031516/https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |archive-date=18 January 2006 }}</ref> Other major sectors are [[tourism in Kerala|tourism]], medical sector, [[Education in Kerala|educational sector]], banking, [[Cochin shipyard|ship building]], [[Kochi Refineries|oil refinery]], infrastructure, manufacturing, [[Residential garden|home gardens]], animal husbandry and [[business process outsourcing]].


===Agriculture===
===Agriculture===
[[File:Ripe jackfruit.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Jackfruit]]s are the state fruit, and are a cultural icon of Kerala.]]
<gallery mode="packed" heights="100px" style="text-align:left">
[[File:Nemmara-paddy.jpg|alt=A field|thumb|A paddy field at [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]], also known as ''The Granary of Kerala'']]
File:Pepper091.jpg|[[Black pepper]]
[[File:Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) fruits.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Black pepper]] is an important cash crop in Kerala, which leads the country in production.]]
File:Rubber trees in Kerala, India.jpg|[[Natural rubber]]
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.<ref name="Sinha2003">{{cite book |author=B.R. Sinha |title=Encyclopaedia Of Professional Education (10 Vol.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdjGoXN3y1AC&pg=PA205 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-8176254106 |pages=204–05}}</ref> Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.<ref name="Remesh2010">{{cite book |author=Babu P. Remesh |title=Dynamics of Rural Labour: A Study of Small Holding Rubber Tappers in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOyNsKXSa0gC&pg=PA52 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180696602 |pages=52–}}</ref><ref name="Commission2008">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA66 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=66–}}</ref> Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.<ref name="google9">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=66 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=406}}
File:Coconut face.jpg|[[Coconut]]
 
File:Blue Hills and Tea Garden at Munnar Kerala.jpg|[[Tea]]
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper<ref name="Limca Book of Records">{{cite book |title=Limca Book of Records |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-JtAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=Bisleri Beverages Limited |page=97}}</ref> and accounts for 85% of the [[natural rubber]] in the country.<ref name="google10">{{cite book |title=South Asia 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=291|isbn=978-1857433180}}</ref><ref name="Economic Affairs">{{cite book |title=Economic Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StHsAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=H. Roy |page=47}}</ref> [[Coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]], and spices—including cardamom, [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]], and [[nutmeg]] are the main agricultural products.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006"/>{{rp|74}}<ref name="Newton">{{cite book |author=James Newton |title=Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT3 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Springwood emedia |isbn=978-1476123080 |pages=3–}}</ref><ref name="B.L.MarkoseMarkose2007">{{cite book |author1=Rajan, S. & B.L.Markose |author2=Baby Lissy Markose |title=Propagation of Horticultural Crops: Vol.06. Horticulture Science Series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19zgbxw-YhYC&pg=PA212 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-8189422486 |pages=212–}}</ref><ref name="Pradhan2009">{{cite book |author=Pradhan |title=Retailing Management 3E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y7Zb_D-_oYC&pg=PA256 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0070152564 |pages=256–}}</ref><ref name="PradeepkumarPradeep2008">{{cite book |author1=T. Pradeepkumar |author2=Kumar, Pradeep |title=Management of Horticultural Crops: Vol.11 Horticulture Science Series: In 2 Parts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA509 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-8189422493 |pages=509–}}</ref><ref name="OsellaOsella2000">{{cite book |author1=Filippo Osella |author2=Caroline Osella |title=Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2000 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0745316932 |pages=235–}}</ref> Around 80% of [[India]]'s export quality cashew kernels are prepared in [[Kollam]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cashew-sector-in-a-tailspin/article8767346.ece |title=Cashew sector in a tailspin |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> The key cash crop is [[Coconut]] and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=407}} In 1960–61, about 70% of the Coconuts produced in India were from Kerala, which have reduced to 42% in 2011–12.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=407}} Around 90% of the total [[Cardamom]] produced in India is from Kerala.<ref name="eco"/> India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.<ref name="eco"/> About 20% of the total [[Coffee]] produced in India are from Kerala.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.<ref name="VarshneyRzóska1976">{{cite book |author1=C.K. Varshney |author2=J. Rzóska |title=Aquatic Weeds in South East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lW3fHiDjHNcC&pg=PA100 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9061935568 |pages=100–}}</ref> Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.<ref name="Dobbie2006">{{cite book |author=Aline Dobbie |title=India the Elephants Blessing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC&pg=PA123 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2006 |publisher=Melrose Press |isbn=978-1905226856 |pages=123–}}</ref> Related [[animal husbandry]] is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalised, and the landless.<ref name="google12">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA420 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=420–}}</ref><ref name="Sarma2003">{{cite book |author=Nripendra N Sarma |title=Consumer Cooperatives and Rural Marketing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wsT5ICijFUsC&pg=PA19 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8170998761 |pages=19–}}</ref> The state government promotes these activities via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the [[Sunandini]].<ref name="SriRoy">{{cite book |author1=Hemant Roy Sri |author2=Shri Hemant Roy |title=Comprehensive Mcqs In Biology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSRkZXyTqZsC&pg=PA696 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Golden Bells |isbn=978-8179680568 |pages=696–}}</ref><ref name="NivsarkarVij2000">{{cite book |author1=A. E. Nivsarkar |author2=P. K. Vij |author3=M. S. Tantia |author4=Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Directorate of Information and Publications on Agriculture |title=Animal genetic resources of India: cattle and buffalo |url=https://archive.org/details/animalgeneticres0000nivs |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research|isbn=978-8171641253 }}</ref>
File:Coffee beans2.jpg|[[Coffee]]
Though the contribution of the agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012–13, through the strength of the allied livestock sector, it has picked up from 7.0% (2011–12) to 7.2%. In the 2013–14 fiscal period, the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7.8%. The total growth of the farm sector has recorded a 4.4% increase in 2012–13, over a 1.3% growth in the previous fiscal year. The agricultural sector has a share of 9.3% in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price, while the secondary and tertiary sectors have contributed 23.9% and 66.7%, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/docs/pdf/stateincome/2014/gdpreport0405to1213.pdf |title=Gross Domestic Product of Kerala and India From 2004–05 to 2012–13 |website=ecostat.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=31 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630191841/https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/docs/pdf/stateincome/2014/gdpreport0405to1213.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
File:Cashew apples.jpg|[[Cashew]]
 
File:Banana three in Réunion.jpg|[[Banana]]
There is a preference for organic products and home farming compared to [[synthetic fertilizers]] and [[pesticide]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/state-to-switch-fully-to-organic-farming-by-2016-mohanan/article6517859.ece |title=State to switch fully to organic farming by 2016: Mohanan |author=K. A. Martin |journal=The Hindu |access-date=30 May 2015 |date=19 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/CM-Will-Get-Total-Organic-Farming-State-Tag-by-2016/2014/11/07/article2511534.ece |title=CM: Will Get Total Organic Farming State Tag by 2016 |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> [[Forest gardening|Forest gardens]] are common and known by the name ''home gardens.'' According to the English horticulturist [[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]], Kerala is "from the [[agroforestry]] point of view, perhaps the world's most advanced country, with an extraordinary intensivity of cultivation of some forest gardens."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hart|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N01940btQAQC|title=Forest Gardening: Cultivating an Edible Landscape, 2nd Edition|year=1996|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|isbn=978-1603580502|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
 
===Fisheries===
[[File:Chinese Fishing Nets with Blue Cloudy Sky in Background at Fort Kochi, Kerala, India.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Cheena vala]]'' (Chinese fishing net)]]
With {{convert|590|km|mi|lk=out|abbr=off}} of coastal belt,<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: Natural Resources |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218084509/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> 400,000 hectares of inland water resources<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: April 2012 |url=https://www.ibef.org/download/Kerala_060710.pdf |publisher=Indian Brand Equity Fund |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,<ref name="Commission1961">{{cite book |author=India. Planning Commission |title=Third five year plan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_G5AAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1961 |publisher=Manager of Publications |page=359}}</ref> Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.<ref name="google13">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA51 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=51}}</ref> According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1&nbsp;million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000&nbsp;tons in 2003–04.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=51 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.<ref name="Handbook"/> During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called ''[[chakara]]''.<ref name="Gulati1984">{{cite book |author=Leela Gulati |title=Fisherwomen on the Kerala Coast: Demographic and Socio-Economic Impact of a Fisheries Development Project |url=https://archive.org/details/fisherwomenonker0000gula |url-access=registration |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1984 |publisher=International Labour Organization |isbn=978-9221036265 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fisherwomenonker0000gula/page/103 103]}}</ref><ref name="Journal of Kerala Studies">{{cite book |title=Journal of Kerala Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSSAAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Kerala. |page=201}}</ref> The waters provide a large variety of fish: [[Pelagic fish|pelagic species]]; 59%, [[Demersal fish|demersal species]]; 23%, [[crustacean]]s, [[Mollusca|molluscs]] and others for 18%.<ref name="Handbook">{{cite book |title=Handbook of Marine Fisheries Conservation and Management |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookmarinefi00graf |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |author1=R. Quentin Grafton |author2=Ray Hilborn |author3=Dale Squires |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookmarinefi00graf/page/n24 10]–12 |isbn=978-0195370287}}</ref> Around 10.5 lakh(1.050&nbsp;million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the {{convert|590|km|adj=on|abbr=off}} coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.
 
====Background radiation levels====
Minerals including [[Ilmenite]], [[Monazite]], [[Thorium]], and [[Titanium]], are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=343}} Kerala's coastal belt of [[Karunagappally]] is known for high background radiation from [[thorium]]-containing [[monazite]] sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 [[Gray (unit)#Effect on the body|mGy/yr]] and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70&nbsp;mGy/yr.<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T |title=Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study. |publisher=Health Physics |date=January 2009 |pmid=19066487}}</ref>
 
==Transportation==
===Roads===
{{Main|Roads in Kerala}}
{{multiple image
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| image1  = Thrissur sixlane.jpg
| caption1  = [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]] Six lane [[Thrissur]] – [[Vadakkencherry]]
<!--image 2-->
| image2  = View point of Thamarassery Churam.jpg
| caption2  = [[Thamarassery Churam]] ([[Mountain pass]])
}}
 
Kerala has {{convert|331904|km|mi}} of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.<ref name="eco"/><ref name="road">{{Cite book|title=Ministry Annual Report (2019–20)|publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India|year=2020|location=New Delhi|url=https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Ministry%20Annual%20Report_2019-20.pdf}}</ref> This translates to about {{convert|9.94|km|mi|2}} of road per thousand people, compared to an average of {{convert|4.87|km|mi|2}} in the country.<ref name="eco"/><ref name="road"/> Roads in Kerala include {{convert|1,812|km|mi}} of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, {{convert|4342|km|mi}} of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, {{convert|27470|km|mi}} of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, {{convert|33201|km|mi}} of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and {{convert|158775|km|mi}} of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.<ref name=":16-17">{{Cite book|title=Basic Road Statistics of India (2016–17)|publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India|year=2019|location=New Delhi|pages=7–18|url=https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Basic%20_Road_Statics_of_India.pdf}}</ref> [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]] has the maximum length of roads among the [[List of districts of Kerala|districts of Kerala]], while [[Wayanad]] accounts for minimum.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=422}} Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]] (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.<ref name="Kerala PWD">{{cite web |title=National Highways in Kerala |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php%3Fpage%3DNH%2520in%2520Kerala%26pageId%3D301&ved=2ahUKEwjRh7jHod7YAhWFmZQKHWSeAeoQFjAOegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw15WM6wG3ueKFD1qj28WEps |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala }} {{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under [[Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board|KIIFB]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Coastal, Hill Highways to become a reality |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/coastal-hill-highways-to-become-a-reality/article19262450.ece |date=12 July 2017 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road ({{convert|1622|km|mi}}) connects [[Kanyakumari]] to [[Mumbai]]; it enters Kerala via [[Talapady]] in [[Kasargod]] and passes through [[Kannur]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Malappuram]], [[Guruvayur]], [[Kochi]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Kollam]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]] before entering [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Kerala PWD"/> [[Palakkad district]] is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern ([[Malabar region|Malabar]]) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, [[Walayar]], is on [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]], in the border town between Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]], through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/districts/palakkad/ |title=District of Palakkad – the granary of Kerala, Silent Valley National Park, Nelliyampathy |publisher=keralatourism.org |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Vyttila Mobility Hub BNC.jpg|thumb|700px|left|A panoramic view of [[Vyttila Mobility Hub]] integrated transit terminal in the city of [[Kochi]]]]
 
The [[Department of Public Works (Kerala)|Department of Public Works]] is responsible for maintaining and expanding the [[List of State Highways in Kerala|state highways system]] and major district roads.<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201055142/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 December 2010 |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 }}</ref> The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the [[GIS]]-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar VS |title=Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month |work=The Hindu |date=20 January 2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304181402/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm |archive-date=4 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kumar VS |title=Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP) |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2003 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512054304/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archive-date=12 May 2008}}</ref> Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Accidentally notorious |work=The Hindu |date=22 September 2003 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm}}</ref> National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are {{convert|45|m|abbr=off}} wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, {{convert|60|m|abbr=off}} wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-parties-finally-toe-nhai-line-of-45m-wide-highways/661729/ |title=Kerala parties finally toe NHAI line of 45-m wide highways |work=Indian Express |date=18 August 2010 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-indias-13-super-highways/20110705.htm |title=Check out India's 13 super expressways |work=Rediff.com |date=5 July 2011 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Special Correspondent |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-against-development-of-five-nhs/article4555024.ece |title=Kerala against development of five NHs |journal=The Hindu |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/states-troubled-highways-a-shocking-revelation-for-centre/article4865464.ece |title=State's troubled highways a shocking revelation for Centre |journal=The Hindu |date=30 June 2013 |access-date=25 September 2013 |author=Staff Reporter}}</ref>
[[File:Ksrtc bus stand calicut.jpg|alt=|thumb|230px|KSRTC Bus Station at [[Kozhikode]]]]
 
====State transport corporation====
{{Main|Kerala State Road Transport Corporation}}
Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937.
 
The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from {{convert|1200000|km}} to {{convert|1422546|km}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralartc.com/html/aboutus.html |title=All about KSRTC |publisher=Keralartc.com |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625184242/https://www.keralartc.com/html/aboutus.html |archive-date=25 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules.<ref>{{cite web |title=KeralaRTC Official Website |url=https://www.keralartc.com/history.html |website=www.keralartc.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gunaseelan |first1=G. John |title=Indian Transport System: An Appraisal of Nationalised Bus Services |year=1994 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8170995562 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Cm_MZcVo-MC&q=Kerala+State+Road+Transport+Corporation%2C&pg=PA194 |language=en}}</ref>
 
The [[Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation]] (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=422}} It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at [[Thevara]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=423}}
 
===Railways===
{{main|List of Railway Stations in Kerala}}
 
[[Southern Railway (India)|Southern Railway]] zone of [[Indian Railways]] operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of [[Idukki district|Idukki]] and [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf |publisher=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation |access-date=18 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906213234/https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]]; [[Thiruvananthapuram Railway division]] and [[Palakkad Railway Division]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Zonal Dream Of Railway Kerala |url=https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala |work=yentha.com |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025033001/https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article1807051.ece |title=Thiruvananthapuram Central to be made a world-class station |date=7 March 2007 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=8 May 2016}}</ref> Kerala's major railway stations are:
 
{{columns-list|colwidth=19em|
* [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC)
* [[Ernakulam Junction railway station|Ernakulam Junction (South)]] (ERS)
* [[Kozhikode]] (CLT)
* [[Kollam Junction railway station|Kollam Junction]] (QLN)
* [[Thrissur railway station|Thrissur]] (TCR)
* [[Palakkad Junction]] (PGT)
* [[Kannur]] (CAN)
* [[Shornur Junction|Shoranur Junction]] (SRR)
* [[Ernakulam Town|Ernakulam Town (North)]] (ERN)
* [[Kottayam]] (KTYM)
* [[Chengannur railway station|Chengannur]] (CNGR)
* [[Alappuzha railway station|Alappuzha]] (ALLP)
* [[Kochuveli]] (KCVL)
* [[Kayamkulam|Kayamkulam Junction]] (KYJ)
* [[Tirur railway station|Tirur]] (TIR)
* [[Kasaragod railway station|Kasaragod]] (KGQ)
* [[Aluva railway station|Aluva]] (AWY)
* [[Thalassery]] (TLY)}}
The first railway line in the state was laid from [[Tirur]] to [[Chaliyam]] ([[Kozhikode]]), with the oldest Railway Station at [[Tirur railway station|Tirur]], passing through [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Parappanangadi]], [[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Kadalundi]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/lifeline-of-malabar-turns-125/article4250472.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |title='Lifeline' of Malabar turns 125  |date=29 December 2012 |access-date= 19 December 2020|last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=S. Anil }}</ref><ref name="Trr">{{Cite news|title=ആ ചൂളംവിളി പിന്നെയും പിന്നെയും...|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/kerala-first-railway-line-tirur-to-beypore-1.3880175|date=17 June 2019|access-date=19 December 2020|work=Mathrubhumi}}</ref> The railway was extended from [[Tirur]] to [[Kuttippuram]] through [[Tirunavaya]] in the same year.<ref name="Trr"/> It was again extended from [[Kuttippuram]] to [[Shoranur]] through [[Pattambi]] in 1862, resulting in the establishment of [[Shoranur Junction railway station]], which is also the largest railway junction in the state.<ref name="Trr"/> Major railway transport between [[Chaliyam]]–[[Tirur]] began on 12 March 1861,<ref name="Trr"/> from [[Tirur]]-[[Shoranur]] in 1862,<ref name="Trr"/> from [[Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section]] in 1902, from [[Kollam–Sengottai branch line|Kollam–Sengottai]] on 1 July 1904, [[Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram trunk line|Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram]] on 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-[[Shoranur]] in 1927, from [[Ernakulam]]–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the [[Thrissur-Guruvayur Section]] in 1994.<ref>{{cite web |title=RailKerala |url=https://www.trainweb.org/railkerala/articles/history.htm |publisher=Trainweb |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> The [[Nilambur–Shoranur line]] is one of the shortest [[broad gauge]] railway lines in [[India]].<ref name="nbr">{{cite web|url=https://nilamburnews.com/m_train.htm|title=The Nilambur news|publisher=Kerala Tourism|access-date=13 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920133828/https://nilamburnews.com/m_train.htm|archive-date=20 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was established in the British era for the transportation of [[Nilambur]] teaks and [[Angadipuram Laterite]] to [[United Kingdom]] through the port at [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="nbr"/> The presence of [[Palakkad Gap]] on [[Western Ghats]] makes the [[Shoranur Junction railway station]] important as it connects the southwestern coast of India ([[Mangalore]]) with the southeastern coast ([[Chennai]]).<ref name="Trade"/>
 
====Kochi Metro====
{{main|Kochi Metro}}
 
[[File:Kochi Metro train at Palarivattom, Aug 2017.jpg|right|thumb|[[Kochi Metro]] train at [[Palarivattom]] Metro station]]
[[Kochi Metro]] is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of {{INRConvert|51.81|b}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/article3219584.ece |title=Metro rail: DMRC demands prompt handing over of land, funds |date=24 March 2012 |newspaper=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India |access-date=24 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/DMRC-sets-early-deadline-for-Kochi-Metro-rail-project/articleshow/20266738.cms |title=DMRC sets early deadline for Kochi Metro rail project |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 May 2013 |access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref> The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long [[Alstom Metropolis|Metropolis]] train sets built and designed by [[Alstom]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/infrastructure/alstoms-new-metropolis-train-set-for-kochi-metro/slideshow/48952471.cms |title=Alstom's new Metropolis train set for Kochi Metro |website=The Economic Times |access-date=21 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2015/9/alstoms-metropolis-for-kochi-design-unveiled-for-the-first-time/ |title=Alstom's Metropolis for Kochi – design unveiled for the first time |website=www.alstom.com |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/metro-train-to-ply-every-5-minutes-carry-1000-persons/article4747161.ece |title=Metro train to ply every 5 minutes, carry 1,000 persons |newspaper=The Hindu |date=25 May 2013 |access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref> It is the first metro system in India to use a [[communication-based train control]] (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/India%E2%80%99s-first-CBTC-metro-system-to-be-ready-in-March/article17335678.ece |title=India's first CBTC metro system to be ready in March |last=Paul |first=John L. |date=20 February 2017 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=[[Kochi]] |access-date=20 January 2018}}</ref> In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Urban Development Ministry]], as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2017/11/01/koci-metro-is-countrys-best-urban-mobility-project.html |title=Kochi Metro zooms past Chennai, Nagpur to emerge best |newspaper=[[Malayala Manorama]] |date=31 October 2017 |access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref>
 
===Airports===
{{main|List of airports in Kerala state}}
[[File:Cochin International Airport Limited.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cochin International Airport]], the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy]]
Kerala has four international airports: {{Cast listing|
* [[Trivandrum International Airport]]
* [[Cochin International Airport]]
* [[Calicut International Airport]]
* [[Kannur International Airport]]
}}
[[Kollam Airport]], established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article252269.ece |title=Aviation school proposal evokes mixed response |journal=The Hindu |date=8 June 2009 |access-date=21 July 2015}}</ref> [[Kannur]] had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when [[Tata Group|Tata]] airlines operated weekly flights between [[Mumbai]] and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at [[Goa]] and Kannur.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sudhakaran, P|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms|title=Kannur flew, way before its first airport|publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com|access-date=13 November 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518022943/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms|archive-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the [[Airport Authority of India]], is among the oldest existing airports in South India. [[Calicut International Airport]], which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the [[Malabar District|Malabar region]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms |work=The Times of India |title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users |date=2 April 2012}}</ref> Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the [[List of the busiest airports in India|seventh busiest]] in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by [[CIAL Solar Power Project|solar energy]]<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |last=Menon |first=Supriya |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34421419 |title=How is the world's first solar-powered airport faring? – BBC News |publisher=Bbc.com |date= 9 October 2015|access-date=21 December 2018|work=BBC News }}</ref> and has won the coveted [[Champions of the Earth|Champion of the Earth]] award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the [[United Nations]].<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2018/jul/26/cial-chosen-for-un-environmental-honour-1848990.html |title=CIAL chosen for UN environmental honour |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=26 July 2018}}</ref> Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a [[public limited company]]; it was funded by nearly 10,000 [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|non-resident Indians]] from 30 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other |publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |date=6 December 1999 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm}}</ref>
Other than civilian airports, [[Kochi]] has a naval airport named [[INS Garuda]]. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the [[Indian Air Force]]. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.
 
===Water transport===
{{main|Ports in Kerala}}
[[File:Cochin Ship Yard Cranes.JPG|alt=|thumb|230px|Cranes at the [[Cochin Shipyard]]]]
Kerala has [[Ports in Kerala|one major port, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports]]. The major port in the state is at [[Cochin Port|Kochi]], which has an area of 8.27&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Vizhinjam International Seaport]], which is currently classified as an intermediate port, is an upcoming major port under construction.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} Other intermediate ports include [[Beypore]], [[Kollam]], and [[Azhikode and Azhikkal|Azheekal]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The remaining ports are classified as minor which include [[Manjeshwaram]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Nileshwaram]], [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Vadakara]], [[Ponnani]], [[Munambam]], Manakodam, [[Alappuzha]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Neendakara]], and [[Valiyathura]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Kerala Maritime Institute]] is headquartered at [[Neendakara]], which has an additional subcentre at [[Kodungallur]] too.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The state has numerous [[Kerala backwaters|backwaters]], which are used for commercial [[inland navigation]]. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is {{convert|1687|km}}.<ref name="google14">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA207 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=207}}</ref> The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the [[water hyacinth]], lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.
 
The {{convert|616|km}} long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting [[Kasaragod]] to [[Poovar]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=423}} It is divided into five sections: {{convert|41|km}} long [[Kasaragod]]-[[Nileshwaram]] reach, {{convert|188|km}} long [[Nileshwaram]]-[[Kozhikode]] reach, {{convert|160|km}} [[Kozhikode]]-[[Kottapuram]] reach, {{convert|168|km}} long [[National Waterway 3]] ([[Kottapuram]]-[[Kollam]] reach), and {{convert|74|km}} long [[Kollam]]-[[Vizhinjam]] reach.<ref name="eco"/> The [[Conolly Canal]], which is a part of West-Coast Canal, connects the city of [[Kozhikode]] with [[Kochi]] through [[Ponnani]], passing through the districts of [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] and [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]. It begins at [[Vadakara]].<ref name="hindu_jan08"/> It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then [[District collector]] of [[Malabar District|Malabar]], H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to [[Kallayi]] Port from hinter lands of Malabar through [[Kuttiady]] and [[Korapuzha]] river systems.<ref name="hindu_jan08">{{cite news|url=https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923092718/https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-09-23|title=Reviving the historic Canoly Canal |date=2005-01-05|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2009-08-16}}</ref> It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through [[Ponnani]], for more than a century.<ref name="hindu_jan08"/> Other important waterways in Kerala include the [[Alappuzha]]-[[Changanassery]] Canal, [[Alappuzha]]-[[Kottayam]]-[[Athirampuzha]] Canal, and [[Kottayam]]-[[Vaikom]] Canal.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}}
 
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Kerala}}
{{See also|Ethnic groups in Kerala|List of people from Kerala}}
{{India census population
|title = Population trend
|region =
|1951= 13549118
|1961= 16903715
|1971= 21347375
|1981= 25453680
|1991= 29098518
|2001= 31841374
|2011= 33406061
|footnote = Source:<ref>[https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref>
|1901=6396262|1911=7147673|1921=7802127|1931=9507050|1941=11031541}}
[[File:Kerala Population Pyramid in 5-year age groups (2011 census).png|left|thumbnail|The [[Population pyramid]] of Kerala]]
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Size, Growth Rate and Distribution of Population |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf |website=Census 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> {{As of|2011}}, Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.<ref name="Census2011cities"/> In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6&nbsp;million people to reach 29.1&nbsp;million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3&nbsp;million by 2011.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |title=Shoreline change assessment for Kerala coast |publisher=National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment and Forests |author1=R Ramesh |author2=R Purvaja |author3=A Senthil Vel |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala is the [[Urbanisation in India|second-most urbanised major state]] in the country with [[List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth|47.7% urban population]] according to the [[2011 Census of India]].<ref name="ubn">{{Cite web|url=https://mohua.gov.in/cms/level-of-urbanisation.php|title=Level of Urbanisation in Indian States|date=|website=mohua.gov.in|publisher=Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India}}</ref> Around 31.8&nbsp;million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.<ref name="Census 2011"/> The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal ''[[Adivasi]]s'', 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.<ref name="Kalathil_2004">{{Cite book |author=Kalathil MJ |year=2004 |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |title=Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621690 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/66.pdf |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|10–12}}
{{Major cities in Kerala}}
 
===Gender===
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-03-05|title=International Women's Day 2017: Kerala and the myth of matriarchy-Living News , Firstpost|url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/kerala-and-the-myth-of-matriarchy-misogyny-is-as-much-part-of-the-state-as-matrilineal-communities-3315458.html|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Firstpost}}</ref> As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lankina |author2=Tomila V. |author3=Getachew, Lullit |year=2013 |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/44929/1/Competitive%20religious%20entrepreneurs%20(lsero).pdf |title=Competitive religious entrepreneurs: Christian missionaries and female education in colonial and post-colonial India |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=43 |pages=103–31 |doi=10.1017/s0007123412000178|s2cid=145185494 }}</ref> Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,<ref>{{Cite web|last=ലേഖകൻ|first=മാധ്യമം|date=2021-07-10|title=ജനസംഖ്യാദിനം; അറിയാം 21 കാര്യങ്ങൾ {{!}} Madhyamam|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/velicham/special-stories/july-11-world-population-day-821671|access-date=2021-07-16|website=www.madhyamam.com|language=en}}</ref> which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's [[Gender Development Index]] was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]], contributed to it.<ref name="Joseph">{{cite book |author=Ammu Joseph |editor=Oommen M.A. |year=1999 |title=Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8170227656 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzV3bQh-L94C |pages=479–86 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>
 
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India and is the only state where women outnumber men.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005"/>{{rp|2}} While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, [[Women's rights|equal rights]] for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences [[social mobility]].<ref>Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 January 14, 1999.</ref><ref>Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |year=1987 |title=Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=447–72 |doi=10.2307/2758883 |jstor=2758883}}</ref>
 
====LGBT rights====
{{Main|LGBT rights in Kerala}}
[[File:Kerala Pride March 2018 IMG 20181007 162532.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Participants at a [[pride parade]] in [[Thrissur]] in October 2018]]
Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2015/11/12/kerala-government-transge_n_8543410.html|title=Kerala Government Has Unveiled A Policy To Enforce Constitutional Rights Of Transgenders|website=The Huffington Post|date=12 November 2015|access-date=28 June 2016}}</ref> Kerala is one of the first [[States and union territories of India|states in India]] to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free [[sex reassignment surgery]] through government hospitals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/804496/why-keralas-free-sex-change-surgeries-will-offer-a-new-lifeline-for-the-transgender-community|title=Why Kerala's free sex-change surgeries will offer a new lifeline for the transgender community|last=Devasia|first=T. K.|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US|access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/After-She-Taxi-Kerala-to-launch-G-Taxi-for-transgenders/articleshow/50792517.cms | title=After She-Taxi, Kerala to launch G-Taxi for transgenders | work=Times of India | date=31 January 2016 | agency=PTI | access-date=25 March 2016 | location=Thiruvananthapuram}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-how-kerala-left-the-country-behind-on-transgender-rights-2145017|title=How Kerala left the country behind on transgender rights|website=dna|language=en-US|access-date=19 March 2016|date=14 November 2015}}</ref> [[Queerala]] is one of the major LGBT organisation in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Affirming their right, they march with pride |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/affirming-their-right-they-march-with-pride/article19484625.ece |date=13 August 2017 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-to-host-its-first-gay-parade/articleshow/6112610.cms|title=Kerala to host its first gay parade|website=The Times of India|date=30 June 2010}}</ref>
 
In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "[[third gender]]" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala-govt-passes-order-use-transgender-instead-thirdother-gender-104584|website=www.thenewsminute.com|access-date=8 July 2019|title=Kerala govt passes order to use 'transgender' instead of 'third/other gender'|date=30 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/only-transgender-in-official-communication/article28235748.ece|title=Only 'transgender' in official communication|last=Roshni|first=R. k|date=30 June 2019|work=The Hindu|access-date=8 July 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
 
In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/mobile/social/social-issues/youth-response-on-homosexual-marriage-mathrubhumi-youth-manifesto-1.5546662|title=സ്വവര്‍ഗ്ഗ വിവാഹം നിയമപരമാക്കണമെന്ന് കേരളത്തിലെ യുവജനങ്ങള്‍|newspaper=Mathrubhumi|language=Malayalam|date=26 March 2021|access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref>
 
===Human Development Index===
{{See also|Kerala Model}}
[[File:2006 Human Development Index for India map by states, HDI data by GoI and UNDP India.svg|thumb|[[Human Development Index]] map for Indian states in 2006, as calculated by [[Government of India]] and [[United Nations Development Programme]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/gendering_human_development_indices_summary_report.pdf|title=Gendering Human Development Indices|date=March 2009|publisher=Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India with UNDP India}}</ref>]]
{{As of|2015}}, Kerala has a [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.<ref name="snhdi-gdl">{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=Global Data Lab |publisher=Institute for Management Research, Radboud University |access-date=25 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> It was 0.790 in 2007–08<ref name="IDHR 2011">{{cite web |title=India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion |url=https://www.im4change.org/docs/340IHDR_Summary.pdf |publisher=Institute of Applied Manpower Research, [[Planning Commission (India)|Planning Commission]], [[Government of India]] |access-date=24 October 2014}}</ref> and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.<ref name="IDHR 2011"/> Comparatively higher spending by the government on [[primary education|primary level education]], [[health care]] and the elimination of [[poverty in India|poverty]] from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;<ref name="UNDP2005">{{cite web |title=Kerala HDR 2005 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/asiathepacific/india/name,3397,en.html |work=Human Development Report |publisher=United Nations |location=Asia and the Pacific |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="UNDP20054">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2005 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf |work=Human Development Report |publisher=United Nations |location=Asia and the Pacific |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310193948/https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.<ref name="hdi kerala chart">{{cite web |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/wire-news/human-development-index-rose-21-per-cent-kerala-tops-chart_603650.html |title=Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart |date=21 October 2011 |work=[[CNBC]] |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="hdi kerala">{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/growth-reforms-lift-living-standards-in-india-human-development-index/articleshow/10447495.cms |title=Growth, reforms lift living standards in India: Human development Index |date=22 October 2011 |access-date=14 November 2015 |work=Economic Times}}</ref> However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.<ref name="UNDP2005"/> Kerala is also widely regarded as the [[public hygiene|cleanest]] and healthiest state in India.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sunil Mani |author2=Anjini Kochar |title=Kerala's Economy: Crouching Tiger, Sacred Cows |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKeRAtvXl8oC&pg=PA121 |access-date=24 September 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126413591 |page=121}}</ref>
 
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest [[literacy rate]] (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the [[Kottayam district]], the literacy rate was 97%.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.pincodeindia.net/literacy-rate-of-kerala.php |title=Literacy Rate in Kerala – 2018}}</ref><ref name="pc-census2011"/><ref name="IBNLiteracy2013"/> The [[life expectancy]] in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India {{As of|2011|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-tops-in-literacy-rate-health-services/article2562589.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Kerala tops in literacy rate, health services |date=22 October 2011 |first=J. |last=Balaji |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2005 Kerala |publisher=State Planning Board |author=Centre for Development Studies Thiruvananthapuram |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala}}</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.<ref name="princeton6"/> The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011–12 |url=https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India |access-date=27 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628120737/https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.<ref>{{Cite report |title=EFA [Education for All] Global Monitoring Report |url=https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923014605/https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2004 |page=156 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Kutty VR |year=2000 |title=Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India |journal=Health Policy and Planning |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=103–09 |doi=10.1093/heapol/15.1.103 |pmid=10731241 |s2cid=7634887 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/5b8dae77713cd5f20a98c547032fc5d0b2618b56 }}</ref> This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/><ref name="Varma_2005"/>{{rp|48}}
 
Kerala has undergone a "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as [[Canada]], [[Japan]], and [[Norway]];.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005"/>{{rp|1}} as 11.2% of people are over the age of 60,<ref name="Varma_2005"/> and due to the low birthrate of 18 per 1,000.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6">{{Cite book |author=Kutty VR |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621607 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/57.pdf |page=6}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in [[Malappuram district]] (2.2) and lowest in [[Pathanamthitta district]] (1.3).<ref>{{cite web |title=Fertility at District Level in India:Lessons from the 2011 Census|url=https://www.ceped.org/IMG/pdf/ceped_wp30.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwio7YjXv9nsAhVJzjgGHUy2BTE4FBAWMAR6BAgJEAE&usg=AOvVaw2PL5xTsjiaBMS96pAhMEX1|author=Christophe Z Guilmoto and Irudaya Rajan|page=31|format=PDF|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref> In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/amp/nation/current-affairs/170316/fertility-rate-to-even-out-in-20-years-in-kerala.html|title=Fertility rate to even out in 20 years in Kerala|website=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref> The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/nation/2017/04/28/kerala-least-corrupt-states-india-karnatak-highest-petty-corruptionkerala-least-corrupt-states-india-karnatak-highest-petty-corruption.html|title=Kerala among the least corrupt states in India, Karnataka tops the list: study|website=OnManorama}}</ref> Transparency International (2005)<ref>{{cite web |title=India Corruption Study&nbsp;– 2005 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |date=June 2005 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413044112/https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 April 2013}}</ref> and ''India Today'' (1997).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jean Dreze |author2=Amartya Sen |title=India: Development and Participation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpOl35r8UHQC&pg=PA368 |access-date=24 September 2012 |year= 2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199257492 |page=368}}</ref> Kerala has the lowest [[homicide]] rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.<ref name="ncrb">{{cite web |url=https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024506/https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2013 |date=21 June 2012 |title=Table–3.1 Incidence And Rate Of Violent Crimes During 2011 |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher [[suicide rate]], lower share of [[earned income]], [[child marriage]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Child marriages remain Kerala's secret shame |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/child-marriages-remain-keralas-secret-shame/article7613216.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |date=4 September 2015 |access-date=4 September 2015 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> complaints of [[sexual harassment]] and limited freedom are reported.<ref name="Joseph"/> The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly [[Child marriage among Muslims in Kerala|higher among the Muslim community]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Naha |first=Abdul Latheef |title=Child marriage cases go up in Malappuram |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/child-marriage-cases-go-up-in-malappuram/article22751598.ece |date=18 February 2018 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/26/child-marriages-shoot-up-in-the-most-unlikely-places-in-kerala.html|title=Child marriages shoot up in the most unlikely places in Kerala|website=OnManorama}}</ref> In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Natu |first=Nitasha |title=Kerala No. 1 in child sex abuse complaints; Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra follow |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/articleshow/72972619.cms |date=25 December 2019 |newspaper=The Time of India |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>
 
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Conviction-rate-up-Kerala-tops-with-over-77/articleshow/48408220.cms |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Times of India |title=Conviction rate up, Kerala tops with over 77% link |date=9 August 2015 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Population-of-homeless-in-rural-India-dips/articleshow/26981896.cms |location=India |work=The Times of India |title=Population of homeless in rural India dips |date=7 December 2013 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cm-told-to-pursue-zero-homeless-kerala-project/article5309749.ece |location=Pathanamthitta, India |work=The Hindu |title=CM told to pursue Zero Homeless Kerala project link |date=3 November 2013}}</ref> The state was also among the lowest in the [[India State Hunger Index]] next only to [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state/articleshow/48494982.cms |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Times of India |title=Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state link |date=15 August 2015}}</ref>
 
===Healthcare===
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|image1 = Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum.jpg
|caption1 = [[Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum]]
|image2 = Kottakkal Arya Vaidya Sala OP Block.jpg
|caption2 = [[Arya Vaidya Sala]], [[Kottakkal]]
}}
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the [[universal health care]] program.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Maya |first1=C |title=The road to universal health care in State |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/the-road-to-universal-health-care-in-state/article5450319.ece |access-date=14 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |date=12 December 2013}}</ref> The [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/><ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/>{{rp|49}} to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004">{{Cite book |author=Krishnaswami P |veditors=Neelakantan S, Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621669 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/63.pdf |access-date=31 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|5}} deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kerala-as-good-as-us-oecd-in-saving-newborn-children/articleshow/57438366.cms |title=Kerala as good as US, OECD in saving newborn children |work=The Times of India |access-date=9 March 2017}}</ref> According to a study commissioned by [[Lien Ying Chow|Lien]] Foundation, a [[Singapore]]-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Patel |first1=Atish |title=Why Kerala is the best place in India to die |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36137285 |date=4 May 2016}}</ref> However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively {{As of|2005|lc=y}}.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004"/>{{rp|5}} Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of [[low birth weight]] is higher than that of many [[first world]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Outbreaks of [[water-borne disease]]s such as [[diarrhoea]], [[dysentery]], [[hepatitis]], and [[typhoid]] among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3&nbsp;million [[water well]]s is an issue worsened by the lack of [[sanitary sewer|sewers]].<ref name="Roy_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Roy MKP |year=2004 |title=Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://services.iriskf.org/data/articles/Document1168200520.8355524.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|5–7}} As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/diabetic-patients-kerala-tops-list-of-indian-states/articleshow/61974164.cms|title=Diabetic patients: Kerala tops list of Indian states|date=8 December 2017|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref>
 
The [[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and the [[World Health Organization]] designated Kerala the world's first "[[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative|baby-friendly]] state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 2002 |title=Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State" |work=United Nations Foundation |url=https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306205352/https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |archive-date=6 March 2010 |access-date=14 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2166677.stm |location=Kochi, India |work=BBC News |title=Indian state wins 'baby-friendly' award |date=1 August 2002}}</ref> Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities.<ref name="NFHS3">{{cite book |url=https://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |title=National Family Health 2005–06 Survey (NFHS-3) Kerala |publisher=International Institute for Population Sciences |year=2008 |location=Deonar, Mumbai |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> [[Ayurveda]],<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004">{{Cite journal |last=Unnikrishnan |first=E |year=2004 |title=''Materia Medica'' of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/80.pdf |access-date=22 January 2006 }}</ref>{{rp|13}} ''[[siddha]]'', and endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'' and ''vishavaidyam'', are practised. Some occupational communities such as [[Kaniyar]] were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.<ref>Angus Stewart, woodburn The Religious attitude: A psychological study of its differentiation, 1927</ref> These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004"/>{{rp|5–6}} and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004"/>{{rp|15}} The ''[[Arya Vaidya Sala]]'' established by [[Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier]] at [[Kottakkal]] (about 10&nbsp;km from [[Malappuram]]) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.<ref name="Warrier">{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pk-warrier-turns-90/article2080601.ece | title= PK Warrier turns 90| work=The Hindu | date=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal - Part 1">{{cite AV media | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nj6YqhsUo0c  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/nj6YqhsUo0c |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live| title=Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1 | publisher=BBC World – India Business Report | date=30 May 2013 | medium=Documentary}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="mal">{{Cite news|title=അമ്പതിന്റെ നിറവില്‍ മലപ്പുറം; മലപ്പുറത്തിന്റെ മാനവിക മഹാപൈതൃകം|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/alamkode-leelakrishnan-writes-about-malappuram-1.3880292|last=Leelakrishnan|first=Alamkode|date=17 June 2019|work=Mathrubhumi}}</ref> It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.<ref name="Warrier"/><ref name="Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal - Part 1"/><ref name="mal"/>
 
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/kerala-becomes-first-state-to-provide-free-cancer-treatment/457976 |title=Kerala becomes first state to provide free cancer treatment – Free Press Journal |website=www.freepressjournal.in |access-date=18 May 2016 |date=11 October 2014}}</ref> People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of [[cancer]]s, [[Liver disease|liver]] and [[Kidney disease|kidney]] diseases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indushealthplus.com/kerala-health-statistics.html|title=Health Statistics and Public Health issues in Kerala|website=Indus Health Plus|language=en|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> In April 2016, the ''Economic Times'' reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/healthcare/health-crisis-in-kerala-the-increase-in-cancer-kidney-and-liver-diseases/articleshow/51950836.cms?intenttarget=no |title=Health crisis in Kerala: The increase in cancer, kidney and liver diseases – The Economic Times |journal=The Economic Times |access-date=18 May 2016 |date=23 April 2016 |last1=Krishnakumar |first1=P. K. |last2=Sanandakumar |first2=S.}}</ref> As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.<ref name="dhs">{{Cite book|title=List of modern medicine institutions (2017–18)|last=Statistics Wing|first=Health Information Cell|publisher=Directorate of Health Services, Government of Kerala|year=2019|location=Thiruvananthapuram|pages=1, 7|url=https://dhs.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/list_10052019.pdf}}</ref>
 
===Language===
{{Pie chart
|float=right
|caption=Languages of Kerala (2011)<ref name="census2011-langreport">{{cite web |title=Language – India, States and Union Territories |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|work=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General |pages=13–14}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Malayalam]] |value1 = 97.02 |color1 = skyblue
|label2 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |value2 = 1.49 |color2 = orchid
|label3 = Others |value3 = 1.49 |color3 = grey
}}
 
[[Malayalam]] is the official language of Kerala,<ref>{{cite news |title=Malayalam to be official language |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-is-officiallanguage-from-may-1/article18259641.ece |date=28 April 2017 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref> and one of the six [[Languages of India|Classical languages of India]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece | title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India}}</ref> There is a significant [[Tamil language|Tamil]] population in [[Idukki district|Idukki]] district, which accounts for 17.48% of its total population.<ref name="lg">{{cite web |title=Census of India – Language |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website= censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Kannada]] are spoken mainly in the northern parts of [[Kasaragod district]], each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.<ref name="lg"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala government to appoint officer to study issues of linguistic minorities |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/government-to-appoint-officer-to-study-issues-of-linguistic-minorities/articleshow/59892625.cms |date=2 August 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |department=City: Thiruvananthapuram |agency=TNN |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>
 
===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Kerala}}
{{multiple image|direction = vertical|total_width=170|caption_align=left|align=left
| image1 = Jain temple, Wayanad IMG 3494 by Joseph Lazer.jpg|caption1=[[Jain Temple, Kidanganad|Jain Temple]] at [[Sultan Bathery]].
| image2 = Thirunavaya (5).jpg|caption2=[[Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple]].
| image3 = Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg|caption3=Model of original [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]].
| image4 = Palayoor St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church.jpg|caption4=[[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor]].
| image5 = Clock Tower Jewish Synagogue, Fort Kochi.jpg|caption5=[[Paradesi Synagogue]].
}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = '''Religion in Kerala''' (2011)<ref name="census_2016_religion">{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]]
|value1 = 54.73
|color1 = darkorange
|label2 = [[Islam in Kerala|Islam]]
|value2 = 26.56
|color2 = Green
|label3 = [[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]
|value3 = 18.38
|color3 = dodgerblue
|label4 = Other or none
|value4 = 0.32
|color4 = Grey
}}
 
[[Hinduism]] is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant [[Muslim]] and [[Christians|Christian]] minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little [[sectarianism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heller |first=Patrick |title=Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]] |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1055–1071 |date=June 1996 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(96)00015-0 <!-- |access-date=4 April 2022 -->}}</ref> According to [[2011 Census of India]] figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.<ref name="censusindia2011religion">{{cite web |title=Population by religious communities |work=Census of India |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html |publisher=Government of India |access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> [[Hindu]]s represent the biggest religious group in all districts except [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]], where they are outnumbered by Muslims.<ref name="thehindu1">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041128124211/https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 November 2004 |location=Chennai, India |title=Increase in Muslim population in the State |date=23 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-not-Goa-has-maximum-no-of-Christians/articleshow/2649158.cms |title=Kerala, not Goa, has maximum no. of Christians |work=The Times of India |publisher=The Times Group}}</ref> As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2016.pdf|title=Vital Statistics 2016|website=Ecostat, Kerala Government.|access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref>
 
The mythological legends regarding the origin of Kerala are Hindu in nature. Kerala produced several saints and movements. [[Adi Shankara]] was a religious philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated the philosophy of [[Advaita]]. He was instrumental in establishing four [[matha]]s at [[Sringeri]], [[Dwarka]], [[Puri]] and [[Jyotirmath]]. [[Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri]] was another religious figure who composed [[Narayaniyam]], a collection of verses in praise of the Hindu God [[Krishna]].
 
Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the mythical Hindu king that moved to [[Arabia]] to meet the Islamic [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |year=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |year= 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en|isbn=978-1136704918 }}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [https://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |year= 2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0330478656 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in {{CE|624}} at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=978-0765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231700245|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987" /><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-8190388788|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref name=Prange /> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] was died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">A. Sreedhara Menon (1978), ''Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction'', East-West Publications, p. 58 {{ISBN?}}</ref> According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, on the western side of Kerala, by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=https://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/https://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 CE) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>
 
According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.<ref name="Miller12">Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.</ref><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'' Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 pp. 458–66 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBkMSIZ2LYC&dq=editions:lTASeHyksMsC&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwik6pvDw-vbAhWLKo8KHdNqBeUQ6AEIKzAB]</ref> The monopoly of overseas spice trade from [[Malabar Coast]] was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.<ref name=":8">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA144|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0415302074|pages=144|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned within the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts.<ref name="abc2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC|title=The Legacy of Kerala|last=Menon|first=A. Sreedhara|publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala|year=1982|isbn=978-8126437986|edition=Reprinted|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Kerala king to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/> A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and [[Arabic]], at [[Muchundi Mosque]] in [[Kozhikode]] mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.<ref name="Narayanan2017">M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) {{ISBN|978-8182671140}}</ref> Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion—secured by the common interest in the spice trade—helped in this development.<ref name=":10">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast''. Cambridge University Press, 2018.</ref> Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow the [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī]] [[Madh'hab|school of religious law]] (''[[Samastha Kerala Jamiat-ul-Ulema]]'') while a large minority follow movements that developed within [[Sunni Islam]]. The latter section consists of majority [[Salafi movement|Salafists]] (''[[Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen]]''). There is a large Keralan diaspora in the [[Middle East]].<ref name="brill12">Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam''. Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.</ref><ref name="Mohammed20072">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCBdogPnnqsC&pg=PA146 |title=Educational Empowerment of Kerala Muslims: A Socio-historical Perspective |author=Prof. U. Mohammed |publisher=Other Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8190388733 |pages=146– |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref>
 
Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of [[Thomas the Apostle]], one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]].<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch"/><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&pg=PA27 |title=The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities |editor-first= Orpa |editor-last=Slapak|publisher= The Israel Museum|location= Jerusalem|year= 2003|page= 27|isbn=9652781797|chapter=The Cochin Jews Of Kerala|first=Barbara C. |last=Johnson}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/592851/Saint-Thomas |title=Saint Thomas |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Menachery">Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956</ref> [[Saint Thomas Christians]] include [[Syro-Malabar Church|Syro-Malabar Catholic]],<ref name="Ponnumuthan1996">{{cite book |author=Selvister Ponnumuthan |title=Authentic Interpretation in Canon Law: Reflections on a Distinctively Canonical Institution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcedqS4jOusC&pg=PA103 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Gregorian&Biblical BookShop |isbn=978-8876527210 |pages=103–}}</ref> [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Syro-Malankara Catholic]],<ref name="Williams1996">{{cite book |author=Raymond Brady Williams |title=Christian Pluralism in the United States: The Indian Immigrant Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1uk6zZQKzAC&pg=PA144 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521570169 |pages=144–}}</ref> [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]],<ref name="AndersonTang2005">{{cite book |author1=Allan Anderson |author2=Edmond Tang |title=Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDZgKELq7AoC&pg=PA248 |access-date= 18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=OCMS |isbn=978-1870345439 |pages=248–}}</ref> [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. pp. 377–. Retrieved 18 November 2012.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons.|isbn=978-1444392548|year=2010}}</ref> [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]],<ref name="Russell2010">{{cite book |author=Thomas Arthur Russell |title=Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmMarHDbglgC&pg=PT40 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2010 |publisher=Universal-Publishers |isbn= 978-1599428772 |pages=40–}}</ref> the [[Saint Thomas Anglicans|Syrian Anglicans]] of the [[Church of South India|CSI]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen Neill |title=A History of Christianity in India: 1707–1858 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC&pg=PA240 |access-date=31 August 2012 |year= 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521893329 |pages=247–49}}</ref> and several [[Pentecostalism in Kerala|Pentecostal and evangelical]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergunder |first1=Michael |title=The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century |year= 2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0802827340 |pages=15–16, 26–30, 37–57 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_South_Indian_Pentecostal_Movement_in/XGiv3riaunQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Pentecostal+evangelical+saint+thomas+syrian+christian&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref> denominations. The origin of the [[Latin Church|Latin Catholic]] Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese [[Padroado]] in the 16th century.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA192 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=192–}}</ref><ref name="RakRaj2008">{{cite book |author1=Knut A. Jacobsen, Selva J. Rak |author2=Selva J. Raj |title=South Asian Christian Diaspora: Invisible Diaspora in Europe and North America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6L5MxlMIcG0C&pg=PA172 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0754662617 |pages=172–}}</ref><ref name="Subramanian2009">{{cite book |author=Ajantha Subramanian |title=Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsd55y4KbeYC&pg=PA95 |access-date= 18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0804786850 |pages=95–}}</ref> As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of [[Anglo-Indians]] in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.<ref>Singh, Anjana. "Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750–1830 The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu." Brill, Leiden Boston: 2010, 3: 92.</ref>
 
[[Judaism]] reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of [[Solomon|King Solomon]].<ref>Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich&nbsp;(ed.) ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora'', Santa Barbara, CA: ABC&nbsp;CLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–12.</ref> They are called [[Cochin Jews]] or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of [[History of the Jews in India|Jews in India]].<ref name="Orpa Slapak"/><ref>Weil, Shalva.&nbsp;India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg&nbsp;Publications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rd&nbsp;edn.]. Katz 200/* Religion */ 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998</ref> There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them [[Aliyah|migrated to Israel]].<ref name="Roland1998">{{cite book |author=Joan G. Roland |title=The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&pg=PA283 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0765804396 |pages=283–}}</ref> The [[Cochin Synagogue|Paradesi Synagogue]] at [[Kochi]] is the oldest synagogue in the [[Commonwealth Nations|Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paradesi Synagogue – tourist attractions at Mattancherry, Ernakulam Kerala Tourism |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kochi/paradeso-synagogue-mattancherry.php |website=www.keralatourism.org}}</ref> [[Jainism in Kerala|Jainism]] has a considerable following in the [[Wayanad district]].<ref name="LockieCarpenter2012">{{cite book |author1=Stewart Lockie |author2=David Carpenter |title=Agriculture, Biodiversity and Markets: Livelihoods and Agroecology in Comparative Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZvlmpwviuMC&pg=PT258 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136546495 |page=258}}</ref><ref name="MathewBaviskar2009">{{cite book |author1=George Mathew |author2=B S Baviskar |title=Inclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DsDOrvROzPEC&pg=PA204 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2009 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-8178298603 |page=204}}</ref>
 
Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka<ref>{{cite book |title=Malayalam Literary Survey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5BkAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Kerala Sahitya Akademi |page=121}}</ref> but vanished by the 12th century CE.<ref name="Ram1999">{{cite book |author=Manakkadan Manicoth Anand Ram |title=Influx: Crete to Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mj4wAQAAIAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Keerthi Publishing House |page=5}}</ref> Certain Hindu communities such as the [[Samantha Kshatriya|Samantan Kshatriyas]], [[Ambalavasi]]s, [[Nair]]s, [[Thiyya]]s and some Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''[[marumakkathayam]]'',<ref name="Devi2010">{{cite book |author1=R. Raman Nair |author2=L. Sulochana Devi |title=Chattampi Swami: An Intellectual Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-JRfipEdV0C&pg=PA33 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=South Indian Studies |isbn=978-8190592826 |pages=33–}}</ref><ref name="RaoRao2000">{{cite book |author1=Monika Böck, Aparna Rao |author2=Aparna Rao |title=Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQOLBhSPRtIC&pg=PA180 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1571819116 |pages=180–}}</ref> although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence.<ref name="Mathews2001">{{cite book |author=M. Mohan Mathews |title=India, Facts & Figures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJERxbWDcJUC&pg=PA133 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-8120722859 |pages=133–}}</ref> Other [[Muslim]]s, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris, most of the [[Ambalavasi|Ambalavasi castes]] and the Ezhavas followed ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.<ref name="google17">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA219 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=219–}}</ref><ref name="GOK_2002b">{{Cite journal |author=Government of Kerala |year=2002 |title=Marumakkathayam |journal=Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala) |url=https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/kathayam.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060521080409/https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/kathayam.htm |archive-date=21 May 2006 |access-date=29 January 2006}}</ref> Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.<ref name="Encyclopædia">"Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008</ref> However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.<ref name="Lindberg_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Lindberg A |date=July 2004 |title=Modernization and Effeminization in India: Kerala Cashew Workers since 1930 |journal=18th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies (EASAS) |citeseerx=10.1.1.456.2192}}</ref>{{rp|1}}
{{clear}}
 
==Education==
{{Main|Education in Kerala}}
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The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including [[series expansion]] for trigonometric functions.<ref name="roy">{{cite journal |last=Roy |first=Ranjan |year=1990 |title=Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha |journal=Mathematics Magazine |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=291–306 |doi=10.2307/2690896 |jstor=2690896}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Pingree |first=David |author-link=David Pingree |title=Hellenophilia versus the History of Science |year=1992 |journal=Isis |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=554–63 |jstor=234257 |doi=10.1086/356288 |quote=One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400&nbsp;A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series ''without'' the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution. |bibcode=1992Isis...83..554P|s2cid=68570164 }}</ref> The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics was based at [[Kingdom of Tanur|''Vettathunadu'']] ([[Tirur Taluk|Tirur region]]).<ref name="roy"/> In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the [[Church Mission Society]] missionaries to promote mass education.<ref>{{cite news |title=Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi |newspaper=The Hindu |date=13 November 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Missionaries-led-State-to-renaissance-Pinarayi/article16444369.ece |quote=Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women’s education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of ‘equality’ into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala to celebrate CMS mission |url=https://churchmissionsociety.org/our-stories/kerala-celebrate-cms-mission |date=9 November 2016 |website=Church Mission Society |access-date=4 April 2022 |quote=Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.'{{hsp}} }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/1999/39/special-articles/growth-literacy-kerala.html|title=Growth of Literacy in Kerala|date=5 June 2015|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|pages=7–8|via=www.epw.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=District Handbooks of Kerala |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf |date=March 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319183020/https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2009 |url-status=dead |pages=19–20 |publisher=Department of Information & Public Relations Government of Kerala |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=Sreedhara |title=A survey of Kerala History |year=1996 |publisher=S.Viswanathan Printers and Publishers |location=Madras |pages=339, 348–49 |isbn=978-8126415786 |url=https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history |access-date=20 March 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824143707/https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history |url-status=dead }}</ref> Following the recommendations of the [[Wood's despatch]] of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of [[grant-in-aid]] to attract more private initiatives.<ref name="Devrep53-58"/> The efforts by leaders such as [[Ayya Vaikundar|Vaikunda Swami]], [[Narayana Guru]], [[Ayyankali]], and [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara]] in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like [[Nair Service Society]], [[Sree Narayana Trust|SNDP]], [[Muslim Educational Society]], Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.<ref name="Devrep53-58">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=53–58 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>
 
According to the first economic census, conducted in 1977, 99.7% of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within {{convert|2|km|mi}}, 98.6% had a middle school within {{convert|2|km|mi}} and 96.7% had a high school or higher secondary school within {{convert|5|km|mi}}.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006"/>{{rp|62}} In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.<ref name="Soundarapandian2000">{{cite book |author=Mookkiah Soundarapandian |title=Literacy Campaign in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVhHEC449yoC&pg=PA21 |year= 2000 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171415533 |page=21}}</ref> In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.<ref>{{Cite news |author=D Suresh Kumar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-tops-primary-education-index/articleshow/3587924.cms |title=Kerala tops primary education index |work=The Times of India |date=13 October 2008 |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.<ref name="Devrep255-258">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=255–58 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.<ref name="IBNLiteracy2013">{{cite news |title=Tripura tops literacy rate with 94.65 per cent, leaves behind Kerala |url=https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913005546/https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 September 2013 |access-date=12 February 2015 |work=IBNLive |date=9 September 2013}}</ref> In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its ''Athulyam'' literacy programme.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/kerala-becomes-1st-indian-state-achieve-100-primary-education-662878 |title=Kerala becomes 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education |date=12 January 2016 |access-date=14 January 2016 |work=International Business Times}}</ref>
 
The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as ''4+3+3'', which signifies the number of years for each stage.<ref name="Devrep255-258"/> After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in [[Junior college|Higher Secondary Schooling]] in one of the three major streams—[[liberal arts]], commerce, or science.<ref name="Edu_Ker"/> Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional undergraduate (UG) degree-college programmes. The majority of public schools are affiliated with the [[State Council of Educational Research and Training, Kerala]] (SCERT Kerala). There are 15,892 schools under the SCERT, of which 5,986 are [[State school|government schools]], 8,183 are aided schools, and the rest are either [[Unaided educational institution|un-aided]] or technical schools.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in/|title=Kerala School Data Bank|access-date=2020-12-05|website=sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in|publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref> Other educational boards are the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE), the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), and the [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer instruction in English or Malayalam.<ref name="Edu_Ker">{{cite web |title=Education in Kerala |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218082340/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Though the cost of education is generally considered low in Kerala,<ref>Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", [[Economic and Political Weekly]], 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 55</ref> according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households was reported to be {{INRConvert|41}} for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also revealed that the rural-urban difference in household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.<ref>Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 56</ref>
 
[[CMS College]], [[Kottayam]], established in 1817, is the first western-style college, and one of the oldest colleges, in India. [[Government Brennen College, Thalassery]], founded by philanthropist [[Edward Brennen]] in 1862, and [[Government Victoria College, Palakkad]], founded in 1866, are among the oldest educational institutions in India.
 
The [[KITE Kerala]] is a state owned [[special purpose company]] under education department of the [[Government of Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/education/keralas-itschool-project-now-a-government-company-kite-cm-pinarayi-vijayan-launches-logo-4785993/|title=Kerala's 'IT@school' project now a government company 'KITE'|website=indianexpress.com|date=7 August 2017|access-date=2018-09-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kite.kerala.gov.in/KITE/index.php/welcome/about_us|title=Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education|website=Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education about us page|access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref> It was developed to support [[Information and communications technology|ICT]] enabled education for schools in the state. The erstwhile [[IT@School Project]] was transformed into KITE for extending its scope of operations in August 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/keralas-itschool-project-now-a-govt-company/article9805422.ece|title=Kerala's IT@school project now a govt company|website=www.thehindubusinessline.com|access-date=2018-09-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/kerala-governments-it-school-project-formed-into-government-company-as-kite-1734509|title=Kerala Government's IT@school Project Formed Into Government Company|last=S|first=Shihaubudeen Kunju|date=7 August 2017|publisher=NDTV|access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref> Kerala is the first Indian state to have ICT-enabled education with hi-tech classrooms in all public schools.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala becomes first state to have hitech classrooms in all public schools|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/education-2/kerala-has-become-first-state-to-have-hi-tech-classrooms-in-all-public-schools-cm-pinarayi-vijayan/2103844/ |work=Financial Express |date=12 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala becomes first state to have hitech classrooms in all public schools, says CM|url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/kerala-has-become-first-state-have-hi-tech-classrooms-in|work=NDTV |date=12 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Kerala topped in the ''School Education Quality Index'' published by [[NITI Aayog]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Niti Aayog's School Education Quality Index: Kerala tops, UP worst performer|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/niti-aayogs-school-education-quality-index-kerala-tops-up-worst-performer-1569845124-1|last=Bakshi|first=Gorki|date=30 September 2019|access-date=4 December 2020|work=Jagranjosh}}</ref>
 
The [[Indian Naval Academy]], located at [[Ezhimala]], is Asia's largest, and the world's third-largest, naval academy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Navy-Training Academy-proposed Expansion |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/627521/navy-training-academy-proposed-expansion.html |work=Deccan Herald |date=11 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Asia's largest naval academy opened |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/319812 |work=Arab News |date=10 January 2009 |language=en}}</ref>
 
{{clear}}
 
==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Kerala}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = left/right/center
| image1 = Malayalamname.svg
| alt1 = ''Malayalam'' in Malayalam script
| caption1 = ''Malayalam'' in [[Malayalam script]]
| image2 = Kathakali BNC.jpg
| alt2 = Kathakali Performance
| caption2 = A [[Kathakali]] artist
| image3 = Muchilottu Bhagavathi Theyyam.jpg
| alt3 = Theyyam
| caption3 = [[Theyyam]], The ritual art of [[North Malabar]]
| image4 = 5 image collage of floral arrangement during the Hindu festival of Onam Kerala.jpg
| alt4 = Pookkalam
| caption4 = During [[Onam]], Kerala's biggest celebration, Keralites create ''pookkalam'' (floral carpet) designs in front of their houses.
| image5 = ThrissurPooram-Kuda.jpg|thumb
| alt5 = Thrissur Pooram festival
| caption5 = [[Thrissur Pooram]] festival
| image6 = Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02.jpg|thumb
| alt6 = Mohiniattam
| caption6 = A ''[[mohiniattam]]'' performance
| image7 = THUNCHAN MEMORIAL.jpg|thumb
| caption7 = The [[Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University]] at [[Tirur]]
| image8 = sadhya DSW.jpg|thumb
| caption8 = Onam [[Sadya]]
| image9 = O by N A Nazeer.jpg|thumb
| caption9 = Kerala elephant
| total_width =
}}
 
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of [[Indian culture]].<ref name="Menon3">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-8126419036 |pages=13–15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> It is a synthesis of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]], [[South Indian culture|Dravidian]], [[Arab culture|Arab]], and [[Culture of Europe|European]] cultures,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=55 |language=en }}</ref> developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.<ref name="Menon1978a">{{cite book |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px5BAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=East-West Publications |page=10}}</ref> It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the [[Malayali people]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala |pages=7–37}}</ref> It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29">{{cite book |author=S. Bhagyalekshmy |title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ |access-date=6 January 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala}}</ref> However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.<ref name="Menon3"/> Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.<ref name="1000hrs"/> The [[Malayalam calendar]], a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,<ref name="Devika2005">{{cite book |author=J. Devika |title=Her-self: Early Writings on Gender by Malayalee Women, 1898–1938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xyr6gXmva-gC&pg=PA5 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-8185604749 |page=5}}</ref> finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.<ref name="Singh2004">{{cite book |author=Kumar Suresh Singh |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bfmnmsBfQ4C&pg=PA1524 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-8179911020 |page=1524}}</ref>
[[Malayalam]], one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's [[official language]].<ref name="Benedikter2009">{{cite book |author=Thomas Benedikter |title=Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA90 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3643102317 |page=90}}</ref> Over a dozen other [[Languages with official status in India|scheduled and unscheduled languages]] are also spoken.<ref name="census2011-langreport"/> Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-51372583|title=Shock after alcohol flows from kitchen taps in Kerala|work=BBC News|date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
 
===Festivals===
{{Main|Temple Festivals of Kerala}}
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA76 |year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=76}}</ref> A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC&pg=PA34 |year=1982 |publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala |isbn=978-8126437986 |page=34}}</ref> Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the [[Thrissur Pooram]].<ref>{{cite book |title=World Encyclopaedia of Interfaith Studies: World religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFwi7qRRgosC |year=2009 |publisher=Jnanada Prakashan |isbn=978-8171392803 |pages=704–10}}</ref> "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The stars of Pooram show are jumbos |date=26 May 2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118212644/https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 November 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Other known festivals are [[Makaravilakku]],<ref name="Ltd.2013b">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA433 |year=2013 |publisher=Biju Mathew |isbn=978-8192128443 |page=433}}</ref> [[Chinakkathoor Pooram]], [[Attukal Pongala]] and [[Nenmara Vallangi Vela]]<ref name="Stott2014">{{cite book |author=David Stott |title=Kerala Footprint Focus Guide: Includes Kochi, Alappuzha, Thrissur, Periyar, River Nila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Jx8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |year= 2014 |publisher=Footprint Travel Guides |isbn=978-1909268791 |page=94}}</ref> Other than these, festivals locally known as [[utsavam]]s are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.<ref name="NarayananKurup1976">{{cite book |author1=M. G. S. Narayanan |author2=K. K. N. Kurup |title=Historical Studies in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvELAAAAIAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Department of History, University of Calicut |pages=68–81}}</ref> Processions often include traditional music such as [[Panchari melam]] or [[Panchavadyam]].<ref name="Killius2006">{{cite book |author=Rolf Killius |title=Ritual Music and Hindu Rituals of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_fZAAAAMAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=B.R. Rhythms |isbn=978-8188827077 |page=61}}</ref> [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]] are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]] are observed by the Christians.<ref name="Malabar"/>
 
====Onam====
{{Main|Onam}}
Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.<ref name="Choondal1980">{{cite book |author=Chummar Choondal |title=Kerala Folk Literature |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnQOAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Kerala Folklore Academy}}</ref><ref name="Menon2007b">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA80 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=80–}}</ref> It is a local festival of Kerala<ref name="Darpan2006b">{{cite book |author=Pratiyogita Darpan |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lugDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT83 |year= 2006 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |page=624}}</ref> consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.<ref>{{cite book |title=Purāṇam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfxjAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=All-India Kasiraja Trust. |page=17}}</ref> Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)<ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA66 |year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=66}}</ref> and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King [[Mahabali]].<ref name="MythOnam">{{cite news |last1=Praveen |first1=M. P. |title=Myth, mystique, and traditions of Onam |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/myth-mystique-and-traditions-of-onam/article2433921.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |date=8 September 2011}}</ref> The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as [[Vallam Kali]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vallamkali – Resplendent Water Regattas of Kerala {{!}} Kerala Boat Races{{!}} Onam{{!}} Kerala Backwaters {{!}} Kerala|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kerala-article/2020/vallamkali-resplendent-water-regattas-of-kerala/1017|access-date=2021-06-09|website=Kerala Tourism|language=en}}</ref> [[Pulikali]],<ref name="Ltd.2013">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA535 |year= 2013 |publisher=Biju Mathew |isbn=978-8192128443 |page=535}}</ref> Pookkalam,<ref>{{cite book |title=A Biblical Approach to Indian Traditions and Beliefs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f35VH7LrZ1IC&pg=PA90 |year=2008 |publisher=Armour Publishing Pte Ltd |isbn=978-9814222396 |page=90}}</ref> Thumbi Thullal<ref name="Mohapatra2013">{{cite book |author=J Mohapatra |title=Wellness In Indian Festivals & Rituals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdpzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |year= 2013 |publisher=Partridge Pub |isbn=978-1482816907 |page=142}}</ref> and [[Onavillu]].<ref name="(Princess.)1998">{{cite book |author=Gouri Lakshmi Bayi (Princess.) |title=Thulasi garland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lcvAAAAYAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|isbn=978-8172761103 }}</ref>
 
===Dance===
{{Main|Arts of Kerala}}
Kerala is home to a number of [[performance art]]s. These include five classical dance forms: [[Kathakali]], [[Mohiniyattam]], [[Koodiyattom]], [[Ottan thullal|Thullal]] and [[Krishnanattam]], which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf |title=Classical Dance Art Forms of Kerala |author=Kala Menon |journal=Sruti Ranjini |date=November 2004 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=11}}</ref> [[Kerala natanam]], [[Thirayattam]],<ref>"Thirayattam" (Folklore Text-Malayalam), State Institute of language, Kerala {{ISBN|978-8120042940}}</ref> [[Kaliyattam]], [[Theyyam]], [[Koothu]] and [[Padayani]] are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.<ref name="Menon2008">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=Cultural heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA106 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=106}}</ref> Some traditional dance forms such as [[Oppana]] and [[Duffmuttu]] were popular among the Muslims of the state,<ref name="google19">{{cite book |author=Motilal (UK) Books of India |title=Tourist Guide Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA8 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 2008 |publisher=Sura Books |isbn=978-8174781642 |page=8}}</ref> while [[Margamkali]] and [[Parichamuttukali]] are popular among the Syrian Christians and [[Chavittu nadakom]] is popular among the Latin Christians.<ref name="Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar1991">{{cite book |author=Kāvālaṃ Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar |title=Folklore of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xH6BAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1991 |publisher=National Book Trust, India |page=146|isbn=978-8123725932 }}</ref><ref name="Kasbekar2006">{{cite book |author=Asha Kasbekar |title=Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C&pg=PA43 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1851096367 |pages=43–44}}</ref>
 
===Music===
{{main article|Music of Kerala}}
The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2">{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-8126421572 |pages=48–51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The development of the indigenous classical music form, [[Sopana Sangeetham]], illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2"/> [[Carnatic music]] dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of [[Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma]]'s popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29"/> Raga-based renditions known as ''sopanam'' accompany ''kathakali'' performances.<ref name="SchechnerAppel1990">{{cite book |author1=Richard Schechner |author2=Willa Appel |title=By Means of Performance: Intercultural Studies of Theatre and Ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K5ZuV_nn7KkC&pg=PA145 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521339155 |page=145}}</ref> ''Melam''; including the ''paandi'' and ''panchari'' variants, is a more percussive style of music:<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000">{{cite book |author1=Simon Broughton |author2=Mark Ellingham |author3=Richard Trillo |title=World Music Volume 2 Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific: The Rough Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA97 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1858286365 |page=97}}</ref> it is performed at ''[[mandir|Kshetram]]''-centered festivals using the ''[[chenda]]''. ''Panchavadyam'' is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument.<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000"/> Kerala's visual arts range from [[Murals of Kerala|traditional murals]] to the works of [[Raja Ravi Varma]], the state's most renowned painter.<ref name="Menon2"/> Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' (Northern Ballads), ''Thekkan pattukal'' (Southern Ballads), ''Vanchi pattukal'' (Boat Songs), ''[[Mappila Pattukal]]'' (Muslim songs) and ''Pallipattukal'' (Church songs) are a few of them.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-8126421572 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>
 
===Cinema===
{{Main|Malayalam cinema}}
[[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam films]] carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.<ref name="Menon">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |first=Sreedhara |last=Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC |isbn=978-8126419036 |pages=128–29 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |first=Amaresh |last=Datta |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC |isbn=978-8126018031 |pages=751–53}}</ref> Directors from Kerala, like [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]], [[Mankada Ravi Varma]], [[G. Aravindan]], [[Bharathan]], [[P. Padmarajan]], [[M.T.Vasudevan Nair]], [[K.G. George]], [[Priyadarshan]], [[John Abraham (director)|John Abraham]], [[Ramu Karyat]], [[K S Sethumadhavan]], [[A. Vincent]] and [[Shaji N Karun]] have made a considerable contribution to the Indian [[parallel cinema]]. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as [[Mohanlal]], [[Mammootty]], [[Satyan]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]], [[Sheela]], [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]], [[Miss Kumari]], [[Jayan]], [[Adoor Bhasi]], [[Seema (actress)|Seema]], [[Bharath Gopi]], [[Thilakan]], [[Vijaya Raghavan]], [[Kalabhavan Mani]], [[Indrans]], [[Shobana]], [[Nivin Pauly]], [[Sreenivasan]], [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]], [[Manju Warrier]], [[Suresh Gopi]], [[Jayaram]], [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]], [[Shankaradi]], [[Kavya Madhavan]], [[Bhavana Menon]], [[Prithviraj Sukumaran|Prithviraj]], [[Parvathy Thiruvothu|Parvathy (actress)]], [[Jayasurya]], [[Dulquer Salmaan]], [[Oduvil Unnikrishnan]], [[Jagathy Sreekumar]], [[Nedumudi Venu]], [[KPAC Lalitha]], [[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]] and [[Fahad Fazil]]. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gangadhar |first=V. |title=Magic of Sophia Loren |url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031130011344/https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2003 |date=2 October 2003 |department=Sunday Magazine |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |access-date=18 January 2015}}</ref> Since the 1980s, actors [[Mohanlal]] and [[Mammootty]] have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sura's Year Book 2006 |author=Subburaj V.V.K |page=620 |isbn=978-8172541248 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz2WDD8sB0MC |publisher=Sura Books |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as [[K.J. Yesudas]], [[K.S. Chitra]], [[M. G. Sreekumar|M.G. Sreekumar]], [[Vayalar Rama Varma]], [[V. Madhusoodanan Nair]], [[M.T. Vasudevan Nair]] and [[O.N.V. Kurup]],<ref name="indiatimes2">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jnanpith-Awards-for-ONV-Kurup-Akhlaq-Khan-Shahryar/articleshow/6621243.cms |date=24 September 2014 |title=Jnanpith Awards for ONV Kurup, Akhlaq Khan Shahryar |work=The Times of India |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> the last two mentioned being recipients of [[Jnanpith award]], the highest literary award in India.<ref name="upscguide">{{cite web |url=https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219193030/https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 December 2012 |title=Jnanpith Award Winners &#124; UPSC Guide |publisher=upscguide.com |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> [[Resul Pookutty]], who is from Kerala, is only the second Indian to win an [[Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing|academy award for sound design]], for the breakthrough film ''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]''. As of 2018, [[Malayalam cinema]] has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the [[National Film Awards]], [[India]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=358-361}}
 
===Literature===
{{Main|Malayalam Literature}}
The [[Sangam literature]] can be considered as the ancient predecessor of [[Malayalam]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=450}} [[Malayalam literature]] starts from the [[Old Malayalam]] period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),<ref name="Nair1967">{{cite book |author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair |title=History of Malayalam literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=296}}</ref><ref name="Laet1994">{{cite book |author=Sigfried J. de Laet |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ixCyd2lByggC&pg=PA407 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-9231028137 |page=407}}</ref> and the 16th-century poet [[Ezhuthachan|Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry.<ref name="George1998">{{cite book |author=K. M. George |title=Eng when Poetry Comes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA58 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 1998 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126004133 |page=58}}</ref> For the first 600 years of [[Kollam Era|Malayalam calendar]], the literature mainly consisted of the oral [[Ballad]]s such as ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' in [[North Malabar]] and ''Thekkan Pattukal'' in [[Southern Division (Travancore)|Southern Travancore]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=453}} Designated a "[[Classical Language in India]]" in 2013,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927134256/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets [[Cherusseri Namboothiri]],<ref name="Cherussery (Krishnagadha) malayalam author books">{{Cite web |url=https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php?authid=1473 |title=Cherussery (Krishnagadha) malayalam author books |website=keralaliterature.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407052549/https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php%3Fauthid%3D1473 |archive-date=7 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="mlm"/> [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]],<ref name="mlm"/> and [[Poonthanam Nambudiri]],<ref name="mlm"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/the-charms-of-poonthanam-illam/article25308319.ece/amp/ |title=The Charms of Poonthanam Illam |last=Arun Narayanan |date=25 October 2018 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> in the 15th and the 16th centuries of [[Common Era]].<ref name="mlm">{{cite book |title=A Short History of Malayalam Literature |author=Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker |url=https://archive.org/details/ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala}}</ref><ref>Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia</ref> [[Unnayi Variyar]],<ref name="Attakatha sahithyam">{{Cite book |url=https://mgucat.mgu.ac.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=133514&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=132435 |title=Attakatha sahithyam |last=Krishna Kaimal |first=Aymanam |date=1989 |location=Trivandrum, State Institute of Language}}</ref> a probable poet of 17th/18th century CE, and [[Kunchan Nambiar]], a poet of 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form.<ref name="mlm"/> The [[Bharathappuzha]] river, also known as [[Ponnani|River Ponnani]], and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.<ref>{{Cite news|title=The river sutra|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/rivers-have-nurtured-malayalam-literature-and-poetry-since-time-immemorial/article25058214.ece|last=Binoy|first=Rasmi|date=27 September 2018|access-date=24 January 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref>
 
[[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] and [[Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran]] are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.<ref name="google24">{{cite book |author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair |title=History of Malayalam literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |pages=118–21}}</ref><ref name="Sinhā2009">{{cite book |author=Madhubālā Sinhā |title=Encyclopaedia of South Indian literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qQpAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Anmol Publ. |isbn=978-8126137404 |page=97}}</ref><ref name="Vilanilam1987">{{cite book |author=John V. Vilanilam |title=Religious communication in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0UeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Kairali Books International |page=66}}</ref> The "[[triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" (''Kavithrayam''): [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and [[Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer]], are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode.<ref name="Al̲ikkōṭȧ1979">{{cite book |author=Sukumār Al̲ikkōṭȧ |title=Mahakavi Ulloor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VkOAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1979 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=52}}</ref><ref name="Indian and Foreign Review">{{cite book |title=Indian and Foreign Review |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XaRnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1983 |publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |page=25}}</ref><ref name="Tarakan1990">{{cite book |author=Ke. Eṃ Tarakan |title=A brief survey of Malayalam literature: history of literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3nhkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1990 |publisher=K.M. Tharakan |pages=41–52}}</ref> The poets like [[Moyinkutty Vaidyar]] and [[Pulikkottil Hyder]] have made notable contributions to the [[Mappila songs]], which is a genre of the [[Arabi Malayalam]] literature.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108104937/https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 November 2012|title=Mappila songs cultural fountains of a bygone age, says MT|date=31 March 2007|access-date=15 August 2009|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007</ref> The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam ''[[Varthamanappusthakam]]'', written by [[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] in 1785.<ref name="legacy">{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=The legacy of Kerala |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |location=Kottayam, Kerala |isbn=978-81-264-2157-2 |edition=1st DCB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |title=August 23, 2010 Archives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427073541/https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |archive-date=27 April 2013}}</ref> The prose literature, [[Malayalam journalism]], and criticism began after the latter-half of 18th century.<ref name="legacy"/> Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards [[political radicalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65212/Tamil#toc65213|title=South Asian arts|access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> [[Malayalam literature]] has been presented with 6 [[Jnanpith Award|Jnanapith awards]], the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Jnanpith given to Akkitham|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/jnanpith-given-to-akkitham/article32685581.ece|last=Naha|first=Abdul Latheef|date=24 September 2020|access-date=12 June 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrated Malayalam poet Akkitham wins 2019 Jnanpith Award|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/celebrated-malayalam-poet-akkitham-wins-2019-jnanpith-award-119112900926_1.html|last=ANI|date=29 November 2019|access-date=12 June 2021|publisher=Business Standard}}</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] winning poets and writers like [[G. Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], [[Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai]], [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]], [[O. N. V. Kurup]], and [[Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri]], had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.<ref name="google25">{{cite book |author=Subodh Kapoor |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Biographical, Historical, Religious, Administrative, Ethnological, Commercial and Scientific. Mahi-Mewat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mc6C5dVHbGAC&pg=PA4542 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Cosmo |isbn=978-8177552720 |page=4542}}</ref><ref name="Accessions List, South Asia">{{cite book |title=Accessions List, South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPcoAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 1994 |publisher=E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi |page=21}}</ref><ref name="Indian Writing Today">{{cite book |title=Indian Writing Today |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wUtAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Nirmala Sadanand Publishers |page=21}}</ref><ref name="DattaAkademi1987">{{cite book |author1=Amaresh Datta |author2=Sahitya Akademi |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: K to Navalram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QaIRAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=2394|isbn=978-0836424232 }}</ref><ref name="Malayalam Literary Survey">{{cite book |title=Malayalam Literary Survey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5JkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1993 |publisher=Kerala Sahitya Akademi |page=19}}</ref> Later, writers like [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], [[Arundhati Roy]], [[Vaikom Muhammed Basheer]], have gained international recognition.<ref name="MukundanPillai2004">{{cite book |author1=Eṃ Mukundan |author2=C. Gopinathan Pillai |title=Eng Adityan Radha And Others |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N5QcHakKdoC&pg=PP3 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2004 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126018833 |page=3}}</ref><ref name="Maheshwari2002">{{cite book |author=Ed. Vinod Kumar Maheshwari |title=Perspectives On Indian English Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcY2-ldWIKsC&pg=PA126 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year= 2002 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-8126900930 |page=126}}</ref><ref name="Chaudhuri2008">{{cite book |author=Amit Chaudhuri |title=Clearing a Space: Reflections On India, Literature, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQeN2PoAx2IC&pg=PA44 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1906165017 |pages=44–45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=15 October 1997 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260 |first=Sarah |last=Lyall}}</ref>
 
===Cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Kerala}}
Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.<ref name="google26">{{cite book |author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited |author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen |title=India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA10 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1741964387 |page=10}}</ref> Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.<ref name="Majumdar2010">{{cite book |author=Majumdar |title=Consumer Behaviour: Insights From Indian Market |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KF57x1Nrn2UC&pg=RA1-PA79 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8120339637 |page=181}}</ref> A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (''[[idli]]'', ''[[Dosa (food)|dosa]]'', ''[[puttu]]'', ''[[pathiri]]'', ''[[appam]]'', or ''[[idiyappam]]''), [[tapioca]] preparations, or pulse-based [[Vada (food)|vada]].<ref name="Muthachen1970">{{cite book |author=Rachel Muthachen |title=Regional Indian Recipes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5xXz_UFV7QC&pg=PA1 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 1970 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-8172240356 |page=1}}</ref> These may be accompanied by [[chutney]], ''[[Chickpea|kadala]]'', ''[[payasam]]'', ''[[Mung bean|payar]] [[pappadam]]'', ''[[appam]]'', chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.<ref name="Newton"/> [[Porotta]] and [[Biryani]] are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include [[rice and curry]] along with ''[[Rasam (dish)|rasam]]'', ''pulisherry'' and ''[[Sambar (dish)|sambar]]''.<ref name="google27">{{cite book |author=James Newton |title=Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT4 |access-date=17 November 2012 |publisher=Springwood emedia |isbn=978-1476123080 |pages=4–}}</ref> ''[[Sadhya]]'' is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.<ref name="Kannampilly2003">{{cite book |author=Vijayan Kannampilly |title=Essential Kerala Cook Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYfOCaAPb3sC&pg=PA11 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0143029502 |pages=10–11}}</ref> Popular snacks include [[banana chip]]s, yam crisps, [[tapioca chip]]s, [[Achappam]], [[Unni appam]] and ''kuzhalappam''.<ref name="Kerala with Lakshadweep">{{cite book |title=Kerala with Lakshadweep |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJJuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 2005 |publisher=Outlook Publishing |page=27|isbn = 978-8189449018}}</ref><ref name="Koilparampil1982">{{cite book |author=George Koilparampil |title=Caste in the Catholic community in Kerala: a study of caste elements in the inter rite relationships of Syrians and Latins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXnaAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1982 |publisher=Dept. of Sociology, St. Teresa's College |page=233}}</ref><ref name="(Swami.)2000">{{cite book |author=Paramatmananda (Swami.) |title=Talks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p77mUECpIjgC |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Mata Amritanandamayi Center |isbn=978-1879410794 |page=24}}</ref> Seafood specialties include [[karimeen]], prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Cuisine |url=https://www.ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm |publisher=Ecotours |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>
 
[[Thalassery Cuisine]] is varied and is a blend of many influences.
 
===Elephants===
Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700 [[Indian elephants]], owned by temples as well as individuals.<ref name="Varghese2006">{{cite book |author=Theresa Varghese |title=Stark World Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8190250511 |page=224}}</ref> These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them.<ref name="1000hrs">{{cite news |title=India's overworked elephants |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8533776.stm |work=BBC |date=4 March 2010 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of the ''[[sahyadri|sahya]]''".<ref name="Satchidanandan2001">{{cite book |author=K. Satchidanandan |title=Indian Poetry: Modernism and After |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXiNXRM_KzMC&pg=PR14 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126010929 |pages=14–}}</ref> The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the [[Government of Kerala]].<ref name="Profile">{{cite web |title=About Kerala |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=37 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218081930/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=37 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref>
 
==Media==
{{Main|Media in Kerala}}
The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India]] (TRAI).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gfeQc1ZBqIC&pg=PA112 |publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |page=112 |id=GGKEY:BJ6HEPE0NRE}}</ref> The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) |url=https://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Kerala.pdf |website=International Institute for Population SciencesDeonar}}</ref> Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,<ref name=rniindia>{{cite web |url=https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927070139/https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead |title=General Review |access-date=1 September 2006 |publisher=Registrar of Newspapers for India}}</ref> but principally Malayalam and English.<ref name="google28">{{cite book |author=K. M. George |title=Eng when Poetry Comes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA186 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 1998 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126004133 |page=186}}</ref> Kerala has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The DHS Program - India: Standard DHS, 2015-16 |url=https://dhsprogram.com/what-we-do/survey/survey-display-355.cfm |website=dhsprogram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=National Family Health Survey|url=https://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml|website=rchiips.org}}</ref> The most widely circulated [[List of Malayalam language newspapers|Malayalam-language newspapers]] are ''[[Malayala Manorama]], [[Mathrubhumi]], [[Deshabhimani]], [[Madhyamam]], [[Kerala Kaumudi]], [[Mangalam Publications|Mangalam]], [[Chandrika (Malayalam newspaper)|Chandrika]], [[Deepika (newspaper)|Deepika]], [[Janayugam]], [[Janmabhumi]], [[Siraj Daily]]'' and ''[[Suprabhaatham Daily|Suprabhaatham]]''. [[List of Malayalam periodicals|Major Malayalam periodicals]] include ''[[Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu]], [[Vanitha]], [[India Today|India Today Malayalam]], [[Madhyamam Weekly]], [[Grihalakshmi (magazine)|Grihalakshmi]], [[Dhanam (business magazine)|Dhanam]], [[Chithrabhumi]]'' and ''[[Bhashaposhini]]''. ''[[The Hindu]]'' is the most read English language newspaper in the state, followed by ''[[The New Indian Express]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.afaqs.com/news/story/27032_IRS-2010-Q1:-Dailies-in-Kerala-lose-readers-after-gaining-in-the-last-round |title=IRS 2010 Q1: Dailies in Kerala lose readers after gaining in the last round |author=Sangeeta Tanwar |work=Indian Readership Survey |publisher=afaqs.com |location=[[New Delhi, India]] |date=10 May 2010 |access-date=29 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710130841/https://www.afaqs.com/news/story/27032_IRS-2010-Q1:-Dailies-in-Kerala-lose-readers-after-gaining-in-the-last-round |archive-date=10 July 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other dailies include ''[[Deccan Chronicle]], [[The Times of India]], [[Daily News & Analysis|DNA]], [[The Economic Times]]'' and ''[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]''.
[[File:Malayala Manorama New Press in Kollam-3, Apr 2016.jpg|right|thumb|[[Malayala Manorama]] office in [[Kottiyam]], [[Kollam]]]]
[[DD Malayalam]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian language and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]], [[Asianet News]], [[Asianet Plus]], [[Asianet Movies]], [[Surya TV]], [[Surya Movies]], [[Mazhavil Manorama]], [[Manorama News]], [[Kairali TV]], [[Kairali TV|Kairali News]], [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]], [[Media One TV]], [[Mathrubhumi News]], [[Kappa TV]], [[Amrita TV]], [[Reporter TV]], [[Jaihind]], [[Janam TV]], [[Jeevan TV]], [[Kaumudy TV]] and [[Shalom (TV channel)|Shalom TV]]. With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Delhi ranks top in Internet penetration, Kerala comes second|  url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/delhi-ranks-top-in-internet-penetration-kerala-comes-second/article31516751.ece/amp/|date=2020-05-06|access-date=2021-06-27|website=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref> [[Digital media]]s including [[Social media]]s and [[Over-the-top media service in India|OTT services]] are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. Malayalam version of [[Google News]] was launched in September 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.google.com/|title=Google വാർത്ത|website=Google വാർത്ത}}</ref> A sizeable [[People's science movement]] has taken root in the state, and such activities as writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005"/><ref name="Ranjith_2004">{{Cite book |author=Ranjith KS |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Rural Libraries of Kerala |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621812 |pages=20–21 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/78.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref> [[BSNL]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea Limited]], [[Jio]] are the major cell phone service providers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Highlights ofTelecom Subscription Data as on 28thFebruary, 2019 |url=https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.27of2019_0.pdf}}</ref> Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major [[ISP]]s are [[BSNL]], [[Asianet Satellite Communications]], [[Reliance Communications]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea Limited]], [[MTS India|MTS]], [[RailTel Corporation of India|RailWire]] and [[VSNL]]. According to a TRAI report, as of June 2018 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 43.1&nbsp;million and the wireline subscriber base is at 1.9&nbsp;million, accounting for the [[Telephone Density|telephone density]] of 124.15.<ref>{{cite web |title=Highlights of Telecom Subscription Data as on 30th June, 2018 |url=https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PRNo91Eng20082018.pdf |website=TELECOM REGULATORYAUTHORITY OF INDIA}}</ref> Unlike in many other states, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tele-density in Kerala |url=https://www.hindu.com/2011/06/08/stories/2011060857900500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301232932/https://www.hindu.com/2011/06/08/stories/2011060857900500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 March 2012 |year=2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=15 November 2015}}</ref>
 
==Sports==
{{Main|Sports in Kerala}}
[[File:Kerala boatrace.jpg|thumb|The annual [[Vallam Kali|snake boat race]] is performed during [[Onam]] on the [[Pamba River]]]]
[[File:The Sports Hub Trivandrum after T20 IND VS NZL.jpg|thumb|[[Greenfield International Stadium]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]].]]
 
By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including [[Poorakkali]], Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.<ref name="PRD-sports">{{cite web |url=https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm |title=Sports and Games in Kerala |publisher=Public Relations Dept, Kerala |year=2002 |access-date=9 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060428081830/https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm |archive-date=28 April 2006}}</ref> However, ''[[Kalaripayattu]]'', regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muay Thai |publisher=Meyer & Meyer Verlag |author=Arnaud Van Der Veere |year=2012 |page=8 |isbn=978-1841263281}}</ref> Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of [[Snake boat]]s.<ref name="PRD-sports"/>
 
[[File:Jewaharlal Nehru Stadium Kochi ISL.jpg|thumb|[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] in [[Kochi]].]]
 
[[Cricket]] and [[association football|football]] became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like [[Tinu Yohannan]], [[Abey Kuruvilla]], [[Chundangapoyil Rizwan]], [[Sreesanth]], [[Sanju Samson]] and [[Basil Thampi]] found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the [[Kochi Tuskers Kerala|Kochi Tuskers]], played in the [[Indian Premier League]]'s [[2011 Indian Premier League|fourth season]]. However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises.<ref name="India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller">{{Cite news |title=India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller |date=25 September 2007 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130110234429/http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref name="hindu_jul09">{{cite news|url=https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707015857/https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 July 2009|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Minister convenes high-level meet|date=4 July 2009}}</ref> Kerala has only performed well recently in the [[Ranji Trophy]] cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history.<ref name="PRD-sports" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Ranji Trophy: In historic first, Kerala join defending champions Gujarat in quarter-finals |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-domestic/ranji-trophy/ranji-trophy-in-historic-first-kerala-join-defending-champions-gujarat-in-quarter-finals/articleshow/61836301.cms |date=28 November 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts [[Kerala Blasters FC]] in the [[Indian Super League]]. The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most followed football club from [[Asia]] in the social media.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Salikha|first=Adelaida|title=Top FIVE Asian Clubs With Highest Social Media Followers, Up to October 2018 {{!}} Seasia.co|url=https://seasia.co/2018/10/31/top-five-asian-clubs-with-highest-social-media-followers-up-to-october-2018|access-date=2020-09-17|website=Good News from Southeast Asia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-18|title=Indian Football: Five most-followed clubs on social media|url=https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-clubs-social-media-followers/|access-date=2020-09-10|website=Khel Now|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Malayalam News – kerala blasters become fifth Asian club with the biggest social media following {{!}} News18 Kerala, Sports Latest Malayalam News {{!}} ലേറ്റസ്റ്റ് മലയാളം വാർത്ത|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/amp/news/sports/kerala-blasters-become-fifth-asian-club-with-the-biggest-social-media-following-50113.html|access-date=2020-12-05|website=malayalam.news18.com}}</ref> Also, Kozhikode hosts [[Gokulam Kerala FC]] in the [[I-League]] as well as the [[Sait Nagjee Football Tournament]]. Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like [[I. M. Vijayan]], [[C. V. Pappachan]], [[V. P. Sathyan]], [[U. Sharaf Ali]], [[Jo Paul Ancheri]], [[Ashique Kuruniyan]], [[Mohammed Rafi (footballer)|Muhammad Rafi]], [[Jiju Jacob]], [[Mashoor Shereef]], [[Pappachen Pradeep]], [[C.K. Vineeth]], [[Anas Edathodika]], [[Sahal Abdul Samad]], and [[Rino Anto]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/awards.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217141248/https://the-aiff.com/awards.php |archive-date=17 February 2009 |title=AIFF Award Player of the Year |publisher=All India Football Federation |access-date=15 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=James Wray |author2=Ulf Stabe |url=https://twocircles.net/2007sep14/viva_marks_resurgence_kerala_football.html |title=Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football |publisher=Monstersandcritics.com |date=15 September 2007 |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="india">{{cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/sports/indian-football-team-suffer-humiliating-1-9-defeat-to-kuwait_668128.html|publisher=zeenews.india.com|title=Indian football team suffer humiliating 1–9 defeat to Kuwait|date=14 November 2010|access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sportstar|first=Team|title=Sahal recalls journey from university football to senior national team|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/intercontinental-cup-indian-football-sahal-abdul-samad-kerala-blasters-college-university-system/article28436294.ece|access-date=2020-06-06|website=Sportstar|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/field/988334/india-football-stimac-names-10-new-players-in-35-man-probables-list-for-oman-uae-friendlies |title=Bipin Singh, Ishan Pandita in 35-man probables list for Oman,UAE friendlies|website=thescroll.in|date=2 March 2021}}</ref> The Kerala state football team has won the [[Santhosh Trophy]] six times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, and 2018. They were also the runners-up eight times.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524035900/https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 |archive-date=24 May 2012 |title=Past Winners |publisher=All India Football Federation |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref>
 
Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]] and [[M.D. Valsamma]], all three of whom are recipients of the [[Padma Shri]] as well as [[Arjuna Award]], while [[K. M. Beenamol]] and [[Anju Bobby George]] are [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] and Arjuna Award winners. [[T. C. Yohannan]], [[Suresh Babu]], [[Sinimol Paulose]], Angel Mary Joseph, [[Mercy Kuttan]], K. Saramma, [[Rosa Kutty|K. C. Rosakutty]], Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.<ref name="PRD-sports"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://keralaathletics.org/history.html |title=Kerala State Athletics Association: History |publisher=Kerala State Athletics Association |access-date=12 June 2012}}</ref> Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rough Guide to South India |author1=David Abram |author2=Nick Edwards |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2004 |isbn=978-1843531036 |page=64}}</ref> [[Jimmy George]] was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy George |work=Sports Portal |publisher=Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514040141/https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-date=14 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other popular sports include [[badminton]], [[basketball]] and [[kabaddi]].<ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book |author=P.A. Reddy |title=Sports Promotion In India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37m8eRAEX0C&pg=PA119 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year= 2005 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171419272 |pages=31–42}}</ref> The Indian Hockey team captain [[P. R. Shreejesh]], ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include [[K. T. Irfan]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Irfan|first=KT|title=KT Irfan, World Athletics Championships, Moscow|url=https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds|newspaper=NDTV Sports|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814035243/https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds|archive-date=14 August 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
For the [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]] in [[India]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)]], was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/FIFA-Event-at-Kochi-Time-is-Ticking-Away/2016/03/07/article3313714.ece |title=FIFA Event at Kochi: Time is Ticking Away |website=The New Indian Express |access-date=3 April 2016}}</ref> [[Greenfield International Stadium]] at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including [[2015 SAFF Championship]].{{Citation needed span|text=|date=February 2022}}
 
==Tourism==
{{Main|Tourism in Kerala}}
 
Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied [[demographics of Kerala|demographics]], have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'s [[National Geographic Traveler|Traveller]] magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"<ref name="Kerala Tourism">{{cite web |title=Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world |url=https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108151228/https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-date=8 November 2014 |title=Pravasi KairaLi Home |publisher=Pravasikairali.com |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref> and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".<ref name="Kerala India">{{cite web |title=Kerala – The Gateway of India |url=https://forbesindia.com/printcontent/26162 |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=3 January 2012}}</ref> [[Travel and Leisure]] also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".<ref name="Kerala Tourism"/><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime' |publisher=Travel Portal of India |date=27 January 2009 |access-date=11 June 2011 |url=https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904030433/https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |archive-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> In 2012, it overtook the [[Taj Mahal]] to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala beats Taj in Google Search Trends for 2012 |work=Indian Express |date=28 December 2012 |access-date=11 January 2012 |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/tourism-kerala-beats-taj-in-google-search-trends-for-2012/1051412}}</ref> [[CNN Travel]] listed Kerala amongst its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN Travel's 19 places to visit in 2019 |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/places-to-visit-2019/index.html |website=CNN Travel |date=22 May 2019 |language=en |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref>
 
Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions<ref name="Ltd.2012">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Kerala Tradition & Fascinating Destinations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTunBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA314 |year=2012 |publisher=Biju Mathew {{!}} Info Kerala Communications Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-8192128481 |page=314}}</ref> and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.<ref name="Tripays">{{cite web |url=https://www.tripays.com/kerala-family-tour-packages/|date=6 August 2011 |title=Kerala Family Tour Packages |author=Admin |access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.<ref name="keralatourism">{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination-wise-foreign-2010.pdf |date=6 August 2011 |title=Destination Wise Number of Foreign Tourists Visited Kerala During 2010 |author=Saju |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Tourism Statistics">{{cite web |publisher=Government of Kerala, Tourism Department |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/tourismstatistics/Tourist-Statistics2008.pdf |title=Tourist statistics – 2008 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.<ref name="HinduTourism">{{Cite news |author=Santhanam K |title=An ideal getaway |date=27 January 2002 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030623124553/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Tourism beckons |date=11 May 2004 |access-date=9 August 2006 |url=https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Marketing campaigns launched by the [[Kerala Tourism Development Corporation]], the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.<ref name="Tourism">{{cite book |title=Tourism Marketing |author=Dasgupta Devashish |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |isbn=978-8131731826 |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXWAEjcG-FsC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline ''[[God's Own Country|Kerala, God's Own Country]]''.<ref name="Tourism" /> Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.<ref name="Tourism" /> In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5&nbsp;million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics&nbsp;– 2006 |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195845/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.<ref name="bizstd">{{Cite news |title=Tourist inflow to Kerala crosses 10&nbsp;million mark |work=Business-Standard |access-date=15 November 2015 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/india/news/tourist-inflow-to-kerala-crosses-10-million-mark/474524/ |date=16 May 2012 |last1=Joseph |first1=George}}</ref>
{{Panorama
|image = File:Panoramic view of varkala beach cliff.jpg
|height = 150
|alt = A panoramic view of [[Varkala]] Beach [[Cliff]]
|caption = A panoramic view of [[Varkala]] Beach [[Cliff]]
}}
 
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.<ref name="HinduTourism"/> Kerala is known for its [[ecotourism]] initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.<ref name="Devrep47">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=47 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the [[economy of Kerala|state's economy]], growing at the rate of 13.3%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics&nbsp;– 2005 (Provisional) |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the {{INR}} 190&nbsp;billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/travel/kerala-records-6-rise-in-tourist-arrivals-despite-floods-and-nipah-virus-scare/articleshow/67995390.cms?from=mdr|title=Kerala records 6% rise in tourist arrivals despite floods and Nipah virus scare|date=14 February 2019|work=The Economic Times|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref> Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 36,528.01 crore from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 2,874.33 crore from the previous year. Over 16.7&nbsp;million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76&nbsp;million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2&nbsp;million people.<ref name="bizstd"/>
{{Panorama
|image = File:View from Mangalam Dam Reservoir.jpg
|height = 200
|alt = A panoramic view of [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges from [[Mangalam Dam]] Reservoir
|caption = A panoramic view of [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges from [[Mangalam Dam]] Reservoir
}}
The state's only drive-in beach, [[Muzhappilangad Beach|Muzhappilangad]] in Kannur, which stretches across five kilometres of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/autos/story/20160617-the-worlds-best-beaches-for-driving |title=The best beaches for driving |first=David K. |last=Gibson |work=BBC Autos}}</ref> in the world in 2016. [[Idukki Dam]], the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at [[Idukki]]. The major beaches are at [[Kovalam]], [[Varkala]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Cherai]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Ponnani]], [[Kadalundi]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Chaliyam]], [[Payyambalam]], Kappad, [[Muzhappilangad Beach|Muzhappilangad]] and [[Bekal]]. Popular [[hill station]]s are at [[Ponmudi]], [[Wayanad]], [[Wagamon]], [[Munnar]], [[Peermade]], [[Ramakkalmedu]], [[Arimbra Hills, Malappuram|Arimbra]], [[Paithalmala]] of [[Idukki|Kannur]] district, [[Kodikuthimala]], and [[Nelliampathi]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Tapan K Panda |title=Tourism Marketing |publisher=ICFAI Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8131404690 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4A0j6ZlJQfkC |pages=173–77 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna.<ref name="FPJ">{{cite news |title=Kerala: Spellbound by this natural beauty |newspaper=The Free Press Journal |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/travel/kerala-spellbound-by-this-natural-beauty/636904 |date=2 August 2015 |access-date=27 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: [[Periyar Tiger Reserve]], [[Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Thattekad Bird Sanctuary]], [[Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary]], [[Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Muthanga|Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Eravikulam National Park]], and [[Silent Valley National Park]] are the most popular among them.<ref>{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-8183241298 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC |pages=151–65 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, [[Kumarakom]], [[Ponnani]], [[Nileshwaram]], and [[Punnamada]] (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), [[Pathiramanal]] a small island in [[Muhamma]]. [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]] and the [[Mattancherry Palace]] are two nearby heritage sites.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/padmanabhapuram-palace/244 |title=Padmanabhapuram Palace |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/mattancherry-palace-kochi/178 |title=Mattancherry Palace |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref> [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in the state capital of Thiruvananthapuram holds the record as the wealthiest place of worship in the world, with assets of at least {{INRConvert|1.2|t|0|year=2011}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple faces financial crunch amid lockdown|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/sree-padmanabhaswamy-temple-faces-financial-crunch-amid-lockdown-1.4807753|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Mathrubhumi|language=en}}</ref>
{{clear}}
 
==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Outline of Kerala]]
 
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
 
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title = Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 |publisher = Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited |year = 2018 |location = [[Kozhikode]] |editor-last = Chandran |editor-first = V. P. |id ={{ASIN|8182676444|country=in}} |language = Malayalam }}
{{refend}}
 
==Further reading==
{{Further|History of Kerala#Further reading}}
* Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071757/https://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-8125057222 Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition]''. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.
* Chathukulam, Jos, and Joseph Tharamangalam. "The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy". ''World Development'' 137 (2020): 105207. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7510531/ online]
* Devika, J. "The ‘Kudumbashree woman’ and the Kerala model woman: Women and politics in contemporary Kerala". ''Indian Journal of Gender Studies'' 23#3 (2016): 393–414 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0971521516656077 link].
* Jeffrey, Robin. "Legacies of matriliny: The place of women and the 'Kerala model{{'"}}. ''Pacific Affairs'' (2004): 647–64. [https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/19062/2/01_Jeffrey_Legacies_of_Matriliny%3A__the_2005.pdf online]
* Jeffrey, Robin. "Testing concepts about print, newspapers, and politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009". ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 68.2 (2009): 465–89. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210201105811/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bb69/0ec821cbf616d266feb7bf9146808c7d6246.pdf online]
* Jeffrey, Robin. ''Politics, women and well-being: How Kerala became "a model"''. (Springer, 2016).
* Ramanathaiyer, Sundar, and Stewart MacPherson. ''Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality?'' (2nd ed. Routledge, 2018).


== External links ==
== See also ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Kerala|Kerala}}
*[[Malayalam]]


; Government
== References  ==
* [https://www.kerala.gov.in/ The Official Site of the Government of Kerala]
{{reflist}}
* [https://www.keralatourism.org/ The Official Site of Kerala Tourism]


; General information
{{commonscat}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/India/Kerala|Kerala}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|2018151}}


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{{Topics related to Kerala}}
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[[Category:Kerala| ]]<!-- Please leave the empty space as standard. -->
[[Category:Kerala| ]]
[[Category:South India|.]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1956]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]

Revision as of 11:48, 28 October 2022

Kerala
കേരളം
State of India
Government Logo
Government Logo
Motto: 
Location of Kerala in the Republic of India
Location of Kerala in the Republic of India
Map of Kerala
Map of Kerala
Country India
RegionSouth India
Government
 • LegislatureUnicameral (* seats)
Area
 • Total38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi)
Population
 (2011)
 • Total33,387,677
Time zoneUTC+05:30 (IST)
Official languagesMalayalam
^*

Kerala is a state in the Republic of India. It is in the south-west of the country. The west coast of the state is on the Arabian Sea. Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are to the east.

The capital city of the state is Thiruvananthapuram, even though the city of Kochi is more densely populated. The area of Kerala is 15,005 mi2 (38,863 km2), which is bigger than Bhutan but smaller than Switzerland. In traditional Indian geography, it is part of South India.

There are 14 districts in Kerala. They are Alappuzha, Ernakulam, Idukki, Kannur, Kasaragod, Kollam, Kottayam, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad, Pathanamthitta, Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur, and Wayanad.

Language

People in Kerala speak Malayalam. More than 90% of the people can read the language.[1] A mix of English and Malayalam is called Manglish. Manglish is used by people in Kerala, who can speak it very easily and fluently.

Culture

Kerala is known for traditional arts and people enjoy traditional, percussion-filled music. They also enjoy tribal ceremonies, martial arts, and sports such as soccer, cricket, and badminton. Kerala is popular for Kalaripayattu, a martial arts form and Kathakali, a Hindu performance art. Most of the people have access to the internet, TVs, newspapers, and books. The average amount of reading per week is about seven hours. The literacy rate is approximately 99.7%.[2]

Provincial symbols of Kerala

  • Provincial bird of Kerala
    Provincial bird of Kerala
  • Provincial animal of Kerala
    Provincial animal of Kerala
  • Provincial tree of Kerala
    Provincial tree of Kerala
  • Provincial flower of Kerala
    Provincial flower of Kerala

Festivals[3]

The most famous festivals held by Keralites are Onam, the harvest festival and Vishu, the Malayalam Calendar New Year. In addition to these, temples as well as churches hold festivals in several days of the year. A common tradition in all these festivals is the hosting of the holy flag, which is brought down on the last day of the festival. Some temple festivals are called poorams, and the most famous one among these is 'Thrissur Pooram'. The main attractions of poorams are firecrackers, traditional dance forms like 'Theyyam, Kathakali, Chakyar Koothu etc.'. Festivals are locally known as utsavams .

Tourism

Kerala is one of the biggest tourist attractions in India, both for Indians as well as foreigners. It has beaches, hill stations and extensive backwaters. Kerala is also known for its diverse nature.

Agriculture

See also

References

  1. ↑ Jan 25, TNN | Updated; 2018; Ist, 13:58. "Kerala literacy: Kerala's literacy rate up by 3%, says Aksharalaksham survey | Thiruvananthapuram News - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2019-09-21. {{cite web}}: |first1= has generic name (help); |last2= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  2. ↑ "Kerala: Human Development Fact Sheet". United Nations Development Programme. 2001: 1. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ↑ "10 Most Famous Festivals Of Kerala". Waytoindia.com. 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2019-09-21.


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