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{{Distinguish|text=the [[Vedda language]]}}
{{Distinguish|text=the [[Vedda language]]}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Vedic Sanskrit
| name             = Vedic Sanskrit
|nativename=
| nativename       =  
|region=[[Indian subcontinent]] and eastern [[Iranian plateau]]
| region           = Northwestern [[Indian subcontinent]] and eastern [[Iranian plateau]]
|states=[[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]
| states           = [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[India]] and [[Nepal]]
|era={{circa|1500}} - 600 BCE
| era             = {{circa|1500}} - 600 BCE
|familycolor=Indo-European
| familycolor     = Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam2             = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam3             = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
|iso3=–<!-- vsn has been proposed but has not yet been approved -->
| iso3             = –<!-- vsn has been proposed but has not yet been approved -->
|iso3comment=({{code|vsn}} is proposed)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2011-041|title=Change Request Documentation: 2011-041|publisher=[[SIL International]]}}</ref>{{update after|2012|6}}
| isoexception    = dialect
|linglist=vsn
| iso3comment     = ({{code|vsn}} is proposed)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2011-041|title=Change Request Documentation: 2011-041|publisher=[[SIL International]]}}</ref>{{update after|2012|6}}
|linglist2=qnk
| linglist         = vsn
|lingname2=Rigvedic
| linglist2       = qnk
|notice=IPA  
| lingname2       = Rigvedic
| notice           = IPA
| ietf            = sa-vaidika
}}
}}


'''Vedic Sanskrit''' was an ancient language of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] subgroup of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family. It is attested in the [[Vedas]] and related literature<ref>Burrow, p. 43.</ref> compiled over the period of the mid-[[2nd millennium BCE|2nd]] to mid-1st millennium BCE.<ref name="Mair2006p160">{{cite book|author=Michael Witzel|author-link=Michael Witzel|chapter=Early Loanwords in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations|editor=Victor H. Mair|title=Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA160|year=2006|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-2884-4|page=160}}</ref> It was [[oral tradition|orally preserved]], predating the advent of writing by several centuries.<ref>Macdonnell, §1.2.</ref><ref>Reich, p. 122.</ref>
'''Vedic Sanskrit''' was an ancient language of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] subgroup of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family. It is attested in the [[Vedas]] and related literature<ref>Burrow, p. 43.</ref> compiled over the period of the mid-[[2nd millennium BCE|2nd]] to mid-1st millennium BCE.<ref name="Mair2006p160">{{cite book|author=Michael Witzel|author-link=Michael Witzel|chapter=Early Loanwords in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations|editor=Victor H. Mair|title=Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA160|year=2006|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-2884-4|page=160}}</ref> It was [[oral tradition|orally preserved]], predating the advent of writing by several centuries.<ref>Macdonell (1916), §1.2.</ref><ref>Reich, p. 122.</ref>


Extensive ancient literature in the Vedic Sanskrit language has survived into the modern era, and this has been a major source of information for reconstructing [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] and [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] history.<ref name="Baldi1983p51"/><ref name=beckwith366/>
Extensive ancient literature in the Vedic Sanskrit language has survived into the modern era, and this has been a major source of information for reconstructing [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] and [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] history.<ref name="Baldi1983p51"/><ref name=beckwith366/>
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The separation of Proto-Indo-Iranian language into Proto-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan is estimated, on linguistic grounds, to have occurred around or before 1800 BCE.<ref name="Baldi1983p51"/><ref>{{Cite book| last =Mallory | first =J.P. | author-link =J.P. Mallory | year =1989 | title =In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth | place =London | publisher =Thames & Hudson | page=38f}}</ref>  
The separation of Proto-Indo-Iranian language into Proto-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan is estimated, on linguistic grounds, to have occurred around or before 1800 BCE.<ref name="Baldi1983p51"/><ref>{{Cite book| last =Mallory | first =J.P. | author-link =J.P. Mallory | year =1989 | title =In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth | place =London | publisher =Thames & Hudson | page=38f}}</ref>  
The date of composition of the oldest hymns of the [[Rigveda]] is vague at best, generally estimated to roughly 1500 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|author1=J. P. Mallory|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|page=306}}</ref> Both [[Asko Parpola]] (1988) and [[J. P. Mallory]] (1998) place the locus of the division of Indo-Aryan from Iranian in the Bronze Age culture of the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC). Parpola (1999) elaborates the model and has "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans intrude the BMAC around 1700 BCE. He assumes early Indo-Aryan presence in the [[Indus Valley Civilization#Collapse and Late Harappan|Late Harappan]] horizon from about 1900 BCE, and "Proto-Rigvedic" (Proto-Dardic) intrusion to the Punjab as corresponding to the [[Gandhara grave culture]] from about 1700 BCE. According to this model, Rigvedic within the larger Indo-Aryan group is the direct ancestor of the [[Dardic languages]].<ref>Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.</ref>
The date of composition of the oldest hymns of the [[Rigveda]] is vague at best, generally estimated to roughly 1500 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|author1=J. P. Mallory|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|page=306}}</ref> Both [[Asko Parpola]] (1988) and [[J. P. Mallory]] (1998) place the locus of the division of Indo-Aryan from Iranian in the Bronze Age culture of the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC). Parpola (1999) elaborates the model and has "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans intrude the BMAC around 1700 BCE. He assumes early Indo-Aryan presence in the [[Indus Valley Civilization#Collapse and Late Harappan|Late Harappan]] horizon from about 1900 BCE, and "Proto-Rigvedic" (Proto-Dardic) intrusion to Punjab as corresponding to the [[Gandhara grave culture]] from about 1700 BCE. According to this model, Rigvedic within the larger Indo-Aryan group is the direct ancestor of the [[Dardic languages]].<ref>Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.</ref>


The early Vedic Sanskrit language was far less homogeneous compared to the language defined by Pāṇini, i.e., Classic Sanskrit. The language in the early [[Upanishads]] of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit.<ref name="Gombrich2006p24">{{cite book|author=Richard Gombrich|title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-90352-8|pages=24–25}}</ref> The formalization of the late form of Vedic Sanskrit language into the [[Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]] form is credited to [[Pāṇini]]'s ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', along with [[Patanjali]]'s ''Mahabhasya'' and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patanjali's work.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gérard Huet|author2=Amba Kulkarni|author3=Peter Scharf|title=Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C |year=2009|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-00154-3|pages=v–vi}}</ref><ref>Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat.  ''L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes'', vol.II pp.86–90, [[École française d'Extrême-Orient]], 1953, reprinted 2000.  {{ISBN|2-85539-903-3}}.</ref>
The early Vedic Sanskrit language was far less homogeneous compared to the language defined by Pāṇini, i.e., Classic Sanskrit. The language in the early [[Upanishads]] of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit.<ref name="Gombrich2006p24">{{cite book|author=Richard Gombrich|title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-90352-8|pages=24–25}}</ref> The formalization of the late form of Vedic Sanskrit language into the [[Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]] form is credited to [[Pāṇini]]'s ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', along with [[Patanjali]]'s ''Mahabhasya'' and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patanjali's work.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gérard Huet|author2=Amba Kulkarni|author3=Peter Scharf|title=Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C |year=2009|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-00154-3|pages=v–vi}}</ref><ref>Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat.  ''L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes'', vol.II pp.86–90, [[École française d'Extrême-Orient]], 1953, reprinted 2000.  {{ISBN|2-85539-903-3}}.</ref>
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====Saṃhitā====  
====Saṃhitā====  
An important linguistic change is the disappearance of the [[injunctive mood|injunctive]], subjunctive, optative, imperative (the [[aorist]]). New innovations in Vedic Sanskrit appear such as the development of periphrastic aorist forms. This must have occurred before the time of [[Pāṇini]] because Panini makes a list of those from northwestern region of India who knew these older rules of Vedic Sanskrit.{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24/>
An important linguistic change is the disappearance of the [[injunctive mood|injunctive]], subjunctive, optative, imperative (the [[aorist]]). New innovations in Vedic Sanskrit appear such as the development of periphrastic aorist forms. This must have occurred before the time of [[Pāṇini]] because Panini makes a list of those from the northwestern region of India who knew these older rules of Vedic Sanskrit.{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24/>


====Brāhmaṇa prose====  
====Brāhmaṇa prose====  
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* Vedic had a [[retroflex lateral approximant]]  ([ɭ]){{efn-lr|{{lang|sa|ळ}}}} as well as its breathy-voiced counterpart ([ɭʱ]),{{efn-lr|{{lang|sa|ळ्ह}}}} which are not found in classical Sanskrit, with the corresponding plosives ''ḍ''(/ɖ/)and ''ḍh''(/ɖʱ/) instead;<ref>Macdonell, 1916, §15.2d.</ref> it was also metrically a cluster, suggesting [[Proto-Indo-Aryan]] pronunciations of *{{IPA|[ʐɖ]}} and *{{IPA|[ʐɖʱ]}} (see [[Mitanni-Aryan]]) before the loss of voiced sibilants, which occurred after the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian.<ref>Macdonnell, §15.</ref>
* Vedic had a [[retroflex lateral approximant]]  ([ɭ]){{efn-lr|{{lang|sa|ळ}}}} as well as its breathy-voiced counterpart ([ɭʱ]),{{efn-lr|{{lang|sa|ळ्ह}}}} which are not found in classical Sanskrit, with the corresponding plosives ''ḍ''(/ɖ/)and ''ḍh''(/ɖʱ/) instead;<ref>Macdonell, 1916, §15.2d.</ref> it was also metrically a cluster, suggesting [[Proto-Indo-Aryan]] pronunciations of *{{IPA|[ʐɖ]}} and *{{IPA|[ʐɖʱ]}} (see [[Mitanni-Aryan]]) before the loss of voiced sibilants, which occurred after the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian.<ref>Macdonnell, §15.</ref>
<!-- this needs authoritative sources: The pronunciations of syllabic {{IPA|[r̩]}} ({{lang|sa|ऋ}}) and {{IPA|[l̩]}} ({{lang|sa|ऌ}}) and their long counterparts ṛ and ḷ no longer retained their pure pronunciations, but had started to be pronounced as short and long {{IPA|[ri]}} ({{lang|sa|रि}}) and {{IPA|[li]}} ({{lang|sa|ल्रि}}) during the decline of Sanskrit.{{Dubious|date=May 2020}}--><!--See [[Help_talk:IPA/Sanskrit#Pronunciation_of_Syllabic_r_in_sanskrit.]]--><!-- It partly varies by region like in southern India, including Maharashtra, people will pronounce ऋ as ru (रु)and ऌ as lru (ल्रु), this is pronounced according to Taittiriya Pratishakya of the Taittiriya Shakha or branch of the ''[[Yajurveda]]''. Virtually no region pronounces as would in vedic Sanskrit generally. Only while reciting Vedas is it normally heard. But if the Pratishakhya, i.e. the pronunciation manual,  mandates it otherwise, the latter is followed.-->
<!-- this needs authoritative sources: The pronunciations of syllabic {{IPA|[r̩]}} ({{lang|sa|ऋ}}) and {{IPA|[l̩]}} ({{lang|sa|ऌ}}) and their long counterparts ṛ and ḷ no longer retained their pure pronunciations, but had started to be pronounced as short and long {{IPA|[ri]}} ({{lang|sa|रि}}) and {{IPA|[li]}} ({{lang|sa|ल्रि}}) during the decline of Sanskrit.{{Dubious|date=May 2020}}--><!--See [[Help_talk:IPA/Sanskrit#Pronunciation_of_Syllabic_r_in_sanskrit.]]--><!-- It partly varies by region like in southern India, including Maharashtra, people will pronounce ऋ as ru (रु)and ऌ as lru (ल्रु), this is pronounced according to Taittiriya Pratishakya of the Taittiriya Shakha or branch of the ''[[Yajurveda]]''. Virtually no region pronounces as would in vedic Sanskrit generally. Only while reciting Vedas is it normally heard. But if the Pratishakhya, i.e. the pronunciation manual,  mandates it otherwise, the latter is followed.-->
* The vowels ''e'' and ''o'' were actually realized in Vedic as [[diphthong]]s ''ai'' and ''au'', but they became pure [[monophthong]]s in later Sanskrit, such as ''{{IAST|daivá-}}'' > ''{{IAST|devá-}}''and ''{{IAST|áika-}}''>''{{IAST|ekā-}}''. However, the dipthongal behaviour still resurfaces in sandhi.<ref name=Mac4b>Macdonnell, §4.b.</ref>
* The vowels ''e'' and ''o'' were actually realized in Vedic as [[diphthong]]s ''ai'' and ''au'', but they became pure [[monophthong]]s in later Sanskrit, such as ''{{IAST|daivá-}}'' > ''{{IAST|devá-}}''and ''{{IAST|áika-}}''>''{{IAST|ekā-}}''. However, the diphthongal behaviour still resurfaces in sandhi.<ref name=Mac4b>Macdonnell, §4.b.</ref>
* The vowels ''ai''  and ''au'' were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long [[diphthong]]s ''āi'' and ''āu'', but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|dyā́us}}'' > ''{{IAST|dyáus}}''.<ref name=Mac4b/>
* The vowels ''ai''  and ''au'' were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long [[diphthong]]s ''āi'' and ''āu'', but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|dyā́us}}'' > ''{{IAST|dyáus}}''.<ref name=Mac4b/>
* The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (''dantamūlīya'', [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]), but they became pure [[dental consonant|dentals]] later, whereas most other systems including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.<ref name=Deshpande138>Deshpande, p. 138.</ref>  
* The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (''dantamūlīya'', [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]), but they became pure [[dental consonant|dentals]] later, whereas most other systems including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.<ref name=Deshpande138>Deshpande, p. 138.</ref>  
* The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about {{IPAblink|r}} but generally claim that it was also a ''dantamūlīya''. According to Pāṇini it is a [[retroflex consonant]].<ref name=Deshpande138/><ref>Whitney, §52.</ref>
* The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about {{IPAblink|r}} but generally claim that it was also a ''dantamūlīya''. According to Pāṇini it is a [[retroflex consonant]].<ref>Whitney, §52.</ref><ref name=Deshpande138/>
* The ''pluti'' ([[mora (linguistics)|trimoraic]]) vowels were on the verge of becoming [[phoneme|phonemicized]] during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.
* The ''pluti'' ([[mora (linguistics)|trimoraic]]) vowels were on the verge of becoming [[phoneme|phonemicized]] during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.
* Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] without merger during [[sandhi]], which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old [[laryngeal consonant|laryngeal]] still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] ''*h₂we'''h₁'''·nt-'' → ''va·ata-''.{{efn-ua|''vā́ta-'', wind}}<ref>Clackson, pp. 58-59.</ref>
* Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] without merger during [[sandhi]], which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old [[laryngeal consonant|laryngeal]] still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂we'''h₁'''·nt-}} → ''va·ata-''.{{efn-ua|''vā́ta-'', wind}}<ref>Clackson, pp. 58-59.</ref>


===Accent===
===Accent===
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Vedic had a [[pitch accent]]<ref>Burrow, §3.24.</ref> which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Pāṇini's time, as we can infer by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end.{{efn|Today, the pitch accent can be heard only in the traditional Vedic chantings.}}
Vedic had a [[pitch accent]]<ref>Burrow, §3.24.</ref> which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Pāṇini's time, as we can infer by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end.{{efn|Today, the pitch accent can be heard only in the traditional Vedic chantings.}}


Since a small number of words in the late pronunciation of Vedic carry the so-called "independent ''[[svarita]]''" on a short vowel, one can argue that ''late'' Vedic was ''marginally'' a [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal language]]. Note however that in the metrically-restored versions of the ''[[Rig Veda]] ''almost all of the syllables carrying an [[independent svarita|independent ''svarita'']] must revert to a sequence of two syllables, the first of which carries an ''[[udatta|udātta]]'' and the second a so-called dependent ''[[svarita]]''. Early Vedic was thus definitely not a tone language like [[Chinese language|Chinese]] but a pitch accent language like [[Japanese language|Japanese]], which was inherited from the [[Proto-Indo-European accent]].
Since a small number of words in the late pronunciation of Vedic carry the so-called "independent ''[[svarita]]''" on a short vowel, one can argue that ''late'' Vedic was ''marginally'' a [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal language]]. Note however that in the metrically-restored versions of the ''[[Rig Veda]] ''almost all of the syllables carrying an [[independent svarita|independent ''svarita'']] must revert to a sequence of two syllables, the first of which carries an ''[[udatta|udātta]]'' and the second a so-called dependent ''[[svarita]]''. Early Vedic was thus definitely not a tonal language like [[Chinese language|Chinese]] but a pitch accent language like [[Japanese language|Japanese]], which was inherited from the [[Proto-Indo-European accent]].


Pitch accent was not restricted to Vedic: early Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini]] gives both accent rules for the spoken language of his (post-Vedic) time as well as the differences of Vedic accent. We have, however, no extant post-Vedic text with accents.
Pitch accent was not restricted to Vedic: early Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini]] gives both accent rules for the spoken language of his (post-Vedic) time as well as the differences of Vedic accent. We have, however, no extant post-Vedic text with accents.


===Pluti===
=== Pluti ===
[[File:O3m AryaSamaj.PNG|right|thumb|150px|The syllable [[Om|Aum]] ({{Script|Deva|ओ३म्}}) rendered with pluti.]]
{| class="wikitable floatright"
'''Pluti''' is the term for the phenomenon of [[overlong vowel]]s in [[Sanskrit]]; the overlong vowels are themselves called '''pluta'''. Pluta vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" (indicating a length of three [[mora (linguistics)|morae]]), {{IAST|ā3, ī3, ū3, ṛ&#x304;3, ḷ&#x304;3}}, also {{IAST|e3 (ā3i), o3 (ā3u)}}.
|+ Pluta
|-
| {{IAST|a3}} ({{Script|Deva|अ३}}) || {{IAST|ā3}} ({{Script|Deva|आ३}})
|-
| {{IAST|i3}} ({{Script|Deva|इ३}}) || {{IAST|ī}} ({{Script|Deva|ई३}})
|-
| {{IAST|u3}} ({{Script|Deva|उ३}}) || {{IAST|ū}} ({{Script|Deva|ऊ३}})
|-
| {{IAST|a3i (e3)}} ({{Script|Deva|ए३}}) || {{grey|{{IAST|ā3i}} ({{Script|Deva|ऐ३}})}}
|-
| {{IAST|a3u (o3)}} ({{Script|Deva|ओ३}}) || {{grey|{{IAST|ā3u}} ({{Script|Deva|औ३}})}}
|-
| {{grey|{{IAST|ṛ3}} ({{Script|Deva|ऋ३}})}} || {{grey|{{IAST|ṛ&#x304;}} ({{Script|Deva|ॠ३}})}}
|-
| {{grey|{{IAST|ḷ3}} ({{Script|Deva|ऌ३}})}} || {{grey|{{IAST|ḷ&#x304;}} ({{Script|Deva|ॡ३}})}}
|}
{{Redirect|Pluti|other uses of "pluta"|Pluta (disambiguation){{!}}Pluta}}


Pluta vowels are recorded a total of 3 times in the [[Rigveda]] and 15 times in the [[Atharvaveda]], typically in cases of questioning and particularly where two options are being compared. For example:
'''''Pluti''''', or ''prolation'', is the term for the phenomenon of protracted or [[overlong vowel]]s in [[Sanskrit]]; the overlong or ''prolated'' vowels are themselves called '''''pluta'''''.{{sfnp|Kobayashi|2006|p=13}} Pluta vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" ({{Script|Deva|३}}) indicating a length of three [[mora (linguistics)|morae]] ({{transl|sa|trimātra}}).{{sfnp|Whitney|1950|pp=27-28}}{{sfnp|Scharf|Hymann|2011|p=154}}


* RV 10.129.5d {{IAST|adháḥ svid āsî3d upári svid āsī3t}} "Was it above? Was it below?"
A diphthong is prolated by prolongation of its first vowel.{{sfnp|Whitney|1950|pp=27-28}} [[Pāṇini]]an grammarians recognise the phonetic occurrence of diphthongs measuring more than three morae in duration, but classify them all as prolated (i.e. trimoraic) to preserve a strict tripartite division of vocalic length between {{transl|da|hrasva}} (short, 1 mora), {{transl|sa|dīrgha}} (long, 2 morae) and {{transl|sa|pluta}} (prolated, 3+ morae).{{sfnp|Whitney|1950|pp=27-28}}{{sfnp|Scharf|Hymann|2011|p=72}}
* AV 9.6.18 {{IAST|idáṃ bhûyā3 idâ3miti}} "Is this larger? Or this?"


The pluti attained the peak of their popularity in the [[Brahmana]] period of late Vedic Sanskrit (roughly 8th century BC), with some 40 instances in the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] alone.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitney |first1=William Dwight |title=Sanskrit grammar : including both the classical language and the older dialects of Veda and Brahmana |date=1924 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0620-4 |edition=5th}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Strunk |first1=Klaus |title=Typische Merkmale von Fragesätzen und die altindische "Pluti" |date=1983 |location=München |isbn=3769615271}}</ref>
[[File:O3m AryaSamaj.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|The syllable ''[[Om|Aum]]'' ({{Script|Deva|ओ३म्}}) rendered with ''pluta'']]
Pluta vowels are recorded a total of 3 times in the [[Rigveda]] and 15 times in the [[Atharvaveda]], typically in cases of questioning and particularly where two options are being compared.{{sfnp|Kobayashi|2006|p=13}}{{sfnp|Whitney|1950|pp=27-28}} For example:{{sfnp|Whitney|1950|pp=27-28}}
* {{IAST|adháḥ svid āsî3d upári svid āsī3t}}
: "Was it above? Was it below?"
: Rigveda 10.129.5d
 
* {{IAST|idáṃ bhûyā3 idâ3miti}}
: "Is this larger? Or this?"
: Atharvaveda 9.6.18
 
The {{transl|sa|pluti}} attained the peak of their popularity in the [[Brahmana]] period of late Vedic Sanskrit (roughly 8th century BC), with some 40 instances in the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] alone.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strunk |first1=Klaus |title=Typische Merkmale von Fragesätzen und die altindische "Pluti" |date=1983 |location=München |isbn=3769615271}}</ref>


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
Line 103: Line 130:
==See also==
==See also==
*[[Vedic Sanskrit grammar]]
*[[Vedic Sanskrit grammar]]
*[[Vedic meter]]
*[[Vedic metre]]
*[[Vedic period]]
*[[Vedic period]]
*''[[A Vedic Word Concordance]]''
*''[[A Vedic Word Concordance]]''
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{{reflist|20em}}
{{reflist|20em}}


==Bibliography==
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book|last1=Delbrück|first1=Berthold|author-link1=Berthold Delbrück|last2=Windisch|first2=Ernst Wilhelm Oskar|title=Syntaktische Forschungen: III. Die Altindische Wortfolge aus dem Çatapathabrâhmaṇa, Dargestellt von B. Delbrück|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoaWr78cxKQC|year=1878|isbn=978-0-543-94034-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brereton |first1=Joel |last2=Jamison |first2=Stephanie |title=The Rigveda, A Guide |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford |isbn=9780190633363}}
* {{cite book |last1=Burrow |first1=T. |title=The Sanskrit language |date=2001 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=9788120817678 |edition=1st Indian}}
* {{cite book |last1=Clackson |first1=James |title=Indo-European Linguistics |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-65313-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Delbrück|first1=Berthold|author-link1=Berthold Delbrück|last2=Windisch|first2=Ernst Wilhelm Oskar|title=Syntaktische Forschungen: III. Die Altindische Wortfolge aus dem Çatapathabrâhmaṇa, Dargestellt von B. Delbrück|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoaWr78cxKQC|year=1878|isbn=978-0-543-94034-6|language=de}}
* {{cite book |last1=Deshpande |first1=Madhav M. |title=Sanskrit and Prakrit |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-1136-4 |edition=1st}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Masato |title={{IAST|Pāṇini}}'s Phonological Rules and Vedic: {{IAST|Aṣṭādhyāyī}} 8.2* |journal=Journal of Indological Studies |volume=18 |year=2006
|url=http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Lindner |first=Bruno |title=Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den Saṃhitâs |url=https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog/page/n8 1] |year=1878 |publisher=Costenoble |language=de}}
* {{cite book|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Grammar|year=1910 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023050325}}
* {{cite book|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=A Vedic Grammar for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKI3TQvbsDcC|year=1916|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1052-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=A Vedic Grammar for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKI3TQvbsDcC|year=1916|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1052-5}}
* [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]], ''Vedic Grammar'' (1910)
* {{citation|author=Michael Witzel|author-link=Michael Witzel |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/dialects.pdf |title=Tracing the Vedic dialects, in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes |editor=Colette Caillat |editor-link=Colette Caillat |location=Paris |publisher=de Boccard |year=1989 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Lindner|first=Bruno|title=Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den Saṃhitâs|url=https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog/page/n8 1]|year=1878|publisher=Costenoble}}
* {{cite book |last1=Reich |first1=David |title=Who we are and how we got here: ancient DNA and the new science of the human past |date=2019 |location=New York |publisher=First Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-101-87346-5}}
* {{citation|author=Michael Witzel|author-link=Michael Witzel| url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/dialects.pdf |title=Tracing the Vedic dialects, in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes| editor= Colette Caillat| editor-link= Colette Caillat| publisher= Paris: de Boccard |year=1989}}
* {{cite book |last=Renou |first=Louis |title=Grammaire de la langue védique |series=Les Langues du Monde |year=1952 |location=Lyon |publisher=IAC |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2174 |language=fr}}
* Renou L., ''Grammaire de la langue védique'', Paris (1952)
* {{cite book |last1=Scharf |first1=Peter M. |last2=Hymann |first2=Malcolm D. |title=Linguistic Issues in Encoding Sanskrit |date=2011 |location=Providence |publisher=The Sanskrit Library |isbn=9788120835399 |edition=1st |url=https://sanskritlibrary.org/Sanskrit/pub/lies_sl.pdf}}
* [[William Dwight Whitney|Whitney, William Dwight]], ''Sanskrit Grammar''. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]
* {{cite book |last1=Whitney |first1=William Dwight |title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1950 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney)}}
* Burrow, T - ''The Sanskrit Language'' - {{ISBN|81-208-1767-2}}
* [[David Reich (geneticist)|Reich, David]] - ''Who we are and how we got here'' - 1st End - (2019) - {{ISBN|978-1-101-87346-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Jamison & Brereton |first1=Stephanie & Joel |title=The Rigveda, A guide |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford |isbn=9780190633363}}
*{{cite book |last1=Clackson |first1=James |title=Indo-European Linguistics |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-65313-8}}
*{{cite book |last1=Deshpande |first1=Madhav M |title=Sanskrit and Prakrit |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-1136-4 |edition=1993}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{external links|date=January 2022}}
* [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1CD0.pdf Unicode signs for Vedic Sanskrit]
* [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1CD0.pdf Unicode signs for Vedic Sanskrit]
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm?/texte/texte2.htm#ved index of Vedic texts] (TITUS)
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm?/texte/texte2.htm#ved index of Vedic texts] (TITUS)

Revision as of 08:06, 7 May 2022


Not to be confused with the Vedda language.
Vedic Sanskrit
Native toPakistan, Afghanistan, India and Nepal
RegionNorthwestern Indian subcontinent and eastern Iranian plateau
Erac. 1500 - 600 BCE
Language codes
ISO 639-3– (vsn is proposed)[1][needs update]
vsn
 qnk Rigvedic
IETFsa-vaidika
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It is attested in the Vedas and related literature[2] compiled over the period of the mid-2nd to mid-1st millennium BCE.[3] It was orally preserved, predating the advent of writing by several centuries.[4][5]

Extensive ancient literature in the Vedic Sanskrit language has survived into the modern era, and this has been a major source of information for reconstructing Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Indo-Iranian history.[6][7]

In the pre-historic era, Proto-Indo-Iranian split into Proto-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan and the two languages evolved independently of each other.[6][7]

History

Prehistoric derivation

Further information: Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit

The separation of Proto-Indo-Iranian language into Proto-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan is estimated, on linguistic grounds, to have occurred around or before 1800 BCE.[6][8] The date of composition of the oldest hymns of the Rigveda is vague at best, generally estimated to roughly 1500 BCE.[9] Both Asko Parpola (1988) and J. P. Mallory (1998) place the locus of the division of Indo-Aryan from Iranian in the Bronze Age culture of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). Parpola (1999) elaborates the model and has "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans intrude the BMAC around 1700 BCE. He assumes early Indo-Aryan presence in the Late Harappan horizon from about 1900 BCE, and "Proto-Rigvedic" (Proto-Dardic) intrusion to Punjab as corresponding to the Gandhara grave culture from about 1700 BCE. According to this model, Rigvedic within the larger Indo-Aryan group is the direct ancestor of the Dardic languages.[10]

The early Vedic Sanskrit language was far less homogeneous compared to the language defined by Pāṇini, i.e., Classic Sanskrit. The language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit.[11] The formalization of the late form of Vedic Sanskrit language into the Classical Sanskrit form is credited to Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī, along with Patanjali's Mahabhasya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patanjali's work.[12][13]

Chronology

Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the Vedic language:[14][15][16]

  1. Ṛg-vedic
  2. Mantra
  3. Saṃhitā prose
  4. Brāhmaṇa prose
  5. Sūtras

The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās[upper-alpha 1] comprising the four Vedas:[upper-alpha 2] ṛk, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.[19]

Ṛg-vedic

Many words in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Ṛg·veda have cognates or direct correspondences with the ancient Avestan language, but these do not appear in post-Rigvedic Indian texts. The text of the Ṛg·veda must have been essentially complete by around the 12th century BCE. The pre-1200 BCE layers mark a gradual change in Vedic Sanskrit, but there is disappearance of these archaic correspondences and linguistics in the post-Rigvedic period.[14][15]

Mantra language

This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Ṛg·veda Khilani, the Samaveda Saṃhitā, and the mantras of the Yajurveda. These texts are largely derived from the Ṛg·veda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. For example, the more ancient injunctive verb system is no longer in use.[14][15]

Saṃhitā

An important linguistic change is the disappearance of the injunctive, subjunctive, optative, imperative (the aorist). New innovations in Vedic Sanskrit appear such as the development of periphrastic aorist forms. This must have occurred before the time of Pāṇini because Panini makes a list of those from the northwestern region of India who knew these older rules of Vedic Sanskrit.[14][15]

Brāhmaṇa prose

In this layer of Vedic literature, the archaic Vedic Sanskrit verb system has been abandoned, and a prototype of pre-Panini Vedic Sanskrit structure emerges. The Yajñagāthās texts provide a probable link between Vedic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit and languages of the Epics. Complex meters such as Anuṣṭubh and rules of Sanskrit prosody had been or were being innovated by this time, but parts of the Brāhmaṇa layers show the language is still close to Vedic Sanskrit.[20][15]

Sūtra language

This is the last stratum of Vedic literature, comprising the bulk of the Śrautasūtras and Gṛhyasūtras and some Upaniṣads such as the Kaṭha Upaniṣad and Maitrāyaṇiya Upaniṣad.[15] These texts elucidate the state of the language which formed the basis of Pāṇini's codification into Classical Sanskrit.[21]

Phonology

Vedic differs from Classical Sanskrit to an extent comparable to the difference between Homeric Greek and Classical Greek.

The following differences may be observed in the phonology:

  • Vedic had a voiceless bilabial fricative ([ɸ], called upadhmānīyaTemplate:Efn-lr) and a voiceless velar fricative ([x], called jihvāmūlīyaTemplate:Efn-lr)—which used to occur as allophones of visarga ḥ appeared before voiceless labial and velar consonants respectively. Both of them were lost in Classical Sanskrit to give way to the simple visarga. Upadhmānīya occurs before p and ph, jihvāmūlīya before k and kh.[22]
  • Vedic had a retroflex lateral approximant ([ɭ])Template:Efn-lr as well as its breathy-voiced counterpart ([ɭʱ]),Template:Efn-lr which are not found in classical Sanskrit, with the corresponding plosives ḍ(/ɖ/)and ḍh(/ɖʱ/) instead;[23] it was also metrically a cluster, suggesting Proto-Indo-Aryan pronunciations of *[ʐɖ] and *[ʐɖʱ] (see Mitanni-Aryan) before the loss of voiced sibilants, which occurred after the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian.[24]
  • The vowels e and o were actually realized in Vedic as diphthongs ai and au, but they became pure monophthongs in later Sanskrit, such as daivá- > devá-and áika->ekā-. However, the diphthongal behaviour still resurfaces in sandhi.[25]
  • The vowels ai and au were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long diphthongs āi and āu, but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: dyā́us > dyáus.[25]
  • The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (dantamūlīya, alveolar), but they became pure dentals later, whereas most other systems including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.[26]
  • The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about [r] but generally claim that it was also a dantamūlīya. According to Pāṇini it is a retroflex consonant.[27][26]
  • The pluti (trimoraic) vowels were on the verge of becoming phonemicized during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.
  • Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in hiatus without merger during sandhi, which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old laryngeal still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: PIE *h₂weh₁·nt- → va·ata-.[upper-alpha 3][28]

Accent

Main article: Vedic accent

Vedic had a pitch accent[29] which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Pāṇini's time, as we can infer by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end.[lower-alpha 1]

Since a small number of words in the late pronunciation of Vedic carry the so-called "independent svarita" on a short vowel, one can argue that late Vedic was marginally a tonal language. Note however that in the metrically-restored versions of the Rig Veda almost all of the syllables carrying an independent svarita must revert to a sequence of two syllables, the first of which carries an udātta and the second a so-called dependent svarita. Early Vedic was thus definitely not a tonal language like Chinese but a pitch accent language like Japanese, which was inherited from the Proto-Indo-European accent.

Pitch accent was not restricted to Vedic: early Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini gives both accent rules for the spoken language of his (post-Vedic) time as well as the differences of Vedic accent. We have, however, no extant post-Vedic text with accents.

Pluti

Pluta
a3 (अ३) ā3 (आ३)
i3 (इ३) ī (ई३)
u3 (उ३) ū (ऊ३)
a3i (e3) (ए३) ā3i (ऐ३)
a3u (o3) (ओ३) ā3u (औ३)
ṛ3 (ऋ३) ṝ (ॠ३)
ḷ3 (ऌ३) ḹ (ॡ३)
"Pluti" redirects here. For other uses of "pluta", see Pluta.

Pluti, or prolation, is the term for the phenomenon of protracted or overlong vowels in Sanskrit; the overlong or prolated vowels are themselves called pluta.[30] Pluta vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" (३) indicating a length of three morae (trimātra).[31][32]

A diphthong is prolated by prolongation of its first vowel.[31] Pāṇinian grammarians recognise the phonetic occurrence of diphthongs measuring more than three morae in duration, but classify them all as prolated (i.e. trimoraic) to preserve a strict tripartite division of vocalic length between hrasva (short, 1 mora), dīrgha (long, 2 morae) and pluta (prolated, 3+ morae).[31][33]

The syllable Aum (ओ३म्) rendered with pluta

Pluta vowels are recorded a total of 3 times in the Rigveda and 15 times in the Atharvaveda, typically in cases of questioning and particularly where two options are being compared.[30][31] For example:[31]

  • adháḥ svid āsî3d upári svid āsī3t
"Was it above? Was it below?"
Rigveda 10.129.5d
  • idáṃ bhûyā3 idâ3miti
"Is this larger? Or this?"
Atharvaveda 9.6.18

The pluti attained the peak of their popularity in the Brahmana period of late Vedic Sanskrit (roughly 8th century BC), with some 40 instances in the Shatapatha Brahmana alone.[34]

Grammar

Main article: Vedic Sanskrit grammar

Literature

Main article: Sanskrit literature § Vedic literature

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Today, the pitch accent can be heard only in the traditional Vedic chantings.

Glossary

  1. ↑ 'compiled', 'put together'[17]
  2. ↑ from vid-, 'to know', cognate with Eng. 'wit'[18]
  3. ↑ vā́ta-, wind


Brahmic notes

Brahmic transliteration

References

  1. ↑ "Change Request Documentation: 2011-041". SIL International.
  2. ↑ Burrow, p. 43.
  3. ↑ Michael Witzel (2006). "Early Loanwords in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations". In Victor H. Mair (ed.). Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World. University of Hawaii Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4.
  4. ↑ Macdonell (1916), §1.2.
  5. ↑ Reich, p. 122.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Philip Baldi (1983). An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-0-8093-1091-3.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Christopher I. Beckwith (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. pp. 363–368. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
  8. ↑ Mallory, J.P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 38f.
  9. ↑ J. P. Mallory; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 306. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
  10. ↑ Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.
  11. ↑ Richard Gombrich (2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-134-90352-8.
  12. ↑ Gérard Huet; Amba Kulkarni; Peter Scharf (2009). Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers. Springer. pp. v–vi. ISBN 978-3-642-00154-3.
  13. ↑ Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat. L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes, vol.II pp.86–90, École française d'Extrême-Orient, 1953, reprinted 2000. ISBN 2-85539-903-3.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Michael Witzel 1989, pp. 115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Klaus G. Witz (1998). The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 24 with note 73. ISBN 978-81-208-1573-5.
  16. ↑ Burrow, pp. 43.
  17. ↑ MWW, p. 1123.
  18. ↑ MWW, p.963.
  19. ↑ J&B, pp. 1-2.
  20. ↑ Michael Witzel 1989, pp. 121-127 (see pp. 29-31 in the archived-url).
  21. ↑ Burrow, pp44.
  22. ↑ Macdonnell, §43.
  23. ↑ Macdonell, 1916, §15.2d.
  24. ↑ Macdonnell, §15.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Macdonnell, §4.b.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Deshpande, p. 138.
  27. ↑ Whitney, §52.
  28. ↑ Clackson, pp. 58-59.
  29. ↑ Burrow, §3.24.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Kobayashi (2006), p. 13.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Whitney (1950), pp. 27-28.
  32. ↑ Scharf & Hymann (2011), p. 154.
  33. ↑ Scharf & Hymann (2011), p. 72.
  34. ↑ Strunk, Klaus (1983). Typische Merkmale von Fragesätzen und die altindische "Pluti". München. ISBN 3769615271.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Bibliography

External links

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