Ayyankali: Difference between revisions

What links here Related changes Page information Get shortened URL
Created by AYIRAN
Last edited February 19, 2026
← Older edit
VisualWikitext
CleanupBot (talk | contribs)
Bots
17,809 edits
m clean up, typos fixed: 1915-16 → 1915–16
basic cleanup content to improve readability and cleaned formatting
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{short description|indian social reformer}}
{{Short description|Indian social reformer (1866–1941)}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox philosopher
{{Infobox philosopher
|name       = Ayyankali
| honorific_prefix = [[Mahatma]]
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1863|08|28|df=yes}}
| name             = Ayyankali
|image       = Ayyankali Statue.jpg
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|1863|08|28|df=yes}}
|birth_place = [[Venganoor]], [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]]<br>(present day [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], India)
| image           = Ayyankali_c._1901-1908_(cropped).png
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1941|06|18|1863|08|28|df=yes}}
| birth_place     = [[Venganoor]], [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]]<br>(present day [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], India)
|death_place = [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]<br>(present day [[Tamil Nadu]], India)
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|1941|06|18|1863|08|28|df=yes}}
|spouse     = Chellamma
| death_place     = [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]], [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]], [[British Raj|British India]]<br>(present day [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], India)
|}}
| spouse           = {{Marriage|Chellamma|1888}}{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=65|ps=}}
| children        = 7
|caption=Ayyankali {{circa|1901|1908}}}}
'''Ayyankali''' (28 August 1863 – 18 June 1941) was an Indian social reformer, [[Teacher|educator]], [[economist]], [[Legislator|lawmaker]], and revolutionary leader. He worked for the advancement of oppressed people in the [[princely state]] of [[Travancore]]. His struggles resulted in many changes that improved the socio-political structure of [[Kerala]]. His determined and relentless efforts transformed the lives of [[Dalit]]s. He is known as the King of [[Pulayar|Pulaya]].


'''Ayyankali''' (28 August 1863 – 18 June 1941), referred to by followers as '''Mahatma,''' was a social reformer who worked for the advancement of deprived [[untouchability|untouchable]] people in the [[princely state]] of [[Travancore]]. His efforts influenced many changes that improved the social well-being of those people, who are today often referred to as [[Dalit]]s.{{sfnp|Mohan|2013|p=249|ps=}}
==Background==


{{Renaissance of Kerala}}
Ayyankali was born on 28 August 1863 in [[Venganoor]], Thiruvananthapuram, [[Travancore]]. He was the first of eight children born to Ayyan and Mala, who were members of the [[Pulayar]] community. The family led a marginally better life compared to other Pulayars as they were given {{convert|5|acre|ha}} of land by the landlord with whom Ayyan was an "Adiyalan" (slave) spending all his time serving the Janmi or Zamindar (feudal landlord).{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=64-65|ps=}}
Members of the Pulayar community generally worked as bonded labor for the Janmis during this time and did not have the right to own land or even enter temples to pray.{{sfnp|Oommen|2001|ps=}}


==Background==
The region in which Ayyankali lived, which now forms part of the state of [[Kerala]], was [[Caste system in Kerala|particularly affected by social divisions]] during his lifetime and was described as a "mad house" of [[Caste system in India|castes]].{{sfnp|Nossiter|1982|pp=25-27|ps=}} The Pulayars were regarded as the slaves of the agrarian society in the kingdom{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=86|ps=}} and they suffered greatly from oppressive discrimination, particularly from the landowning castes including the [[Nair]] caste.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=65-66|ps=}}
Ayyankali was born on 28 August 1863 in [[Venganoor]], Thiruvananthapuram, [[Travancore]]. He was the first of eight children born to Ayyan and Mala, who were members of the [[Pulayar]] community of untouchable people. Although the family were relatively well-off compared to other Pulayars, having been given {{convert|5|acre|ha}} of land by a grateful landlord, the children were encouraged to adopt the customary occupation of agriculture.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=64-65|ps=}} Members of the Pulayar community generally were rural slaves at this time.{{sfnp|Oommen|2001|ps=}}


The region in which Ayyankali lived, which now forms a part of the state of [[Kerala]], was [[Caste system in Kerala|particularly affected by social divisions]] during his lifetime and was described by [[Swami Vivekananda]] as a "mad house" of [[Caste system in India|castes]].{{sfnp|Nossiter|1982|pp=25-27|ps=}} The Pulayars were regarded as the lowest group of people in the kingdom{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=86|ps=}} and they suffered badly from oppressive discrimination, in particular from members of the powerful [[Nair]] caste.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=65-66|ps=}} [[Robin Jeffrey]], a professor specialising in the modern history and politics of India, quotes the wife of a Christian missionary, who wrote in 1860 of the complex social code that {{quote|...&nbsp;a Nair can approach but not touch a Namboodiri Brahmin: a Chovan [Ezhava] must remain thirty-six paces off, and a Pulayan slave ninety-six steps distant. A Chovan must remain twelve steps away from a Nair, and a Pulayan sixty-six steps off, and a Parayan some distance farther still. A Syrian Christian may touch a Nair (though this is not allowed in some parts of the country) but the latter may not eat with each other. Pulayans and Parayars, who are the lowest of all, can approach but not touch, much less may they eat with each other.{{sfnp|Jeffrey|1976|pp=9-10|ps=}}}}
Suffering from this social injustice caused Ayyankali to join his Pulayar friends who gathered at the end of their workday to sing and dance to [[folk music]] that protested the situation.


Suffering from this social injustice caused Ayyankali to join with like-minded Pulayan friends. These young people gathered at the end of their workday to sing and dance to [[folk music]] that protested the situation. Some joined him in forming a group that challenged and threatened members of the upper castes whenever an opportunity arose, sometimes attacking them physically. His popularity earned him the names of ''Urpillai'' and ''Moothapullai''.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=65-66|ps=}}
Some joined him in forming a group that challenged the members of the oppressor castes sometimes leading to physical fights. His popularity earned him the names of ''Urpillai'' and ''Moothapullai'' translated roughly as 'Leader of the Land' or 'Elder Leader'.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=65-66|ps=}}


Ayyankali married Chellamma in 1888. The couple had seven children.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=65|ps=}}
Ayyankali married Chellamma in 1888. The couple had seven children.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=65|ps=}}


==Campaigning==
==Campaigning==
===Freedom of movement===
===Freedom of movement===
In 1893, Ayyankali, dressed to provoke in clothing traditionally associated with the Nairs,{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=67|ps=}} defied the social conventions that applied to lower castes and untouchables by riding on a road in a [[bullock cart]] that he had bought. Both the act of purchase and that of travelling on a road that was traditionally the preserve of the upper castes amounted to a significant challenge. In a similar act of defiance, he entered the marketplace at [[Nedumangad]]. These protests, which have been described by Nisar and Kanadasamy as "laying claim to the public space", strengthened resolve among others from the oppressed communities of Travancore, leading to further protest acts elsewhere, such as in [[Kazhakkoottam]].{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=66-68|ps=}} The outcome of continued protest marches, which sometimes turned violent and became known as [[Chaliyar riots]],{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=67|ps=}} was that by 1900 the Pulayars had gained the right to use most roads in the state, although they were still barred from those that led to Hindu temples.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=97|ps=}}
In 1893, Ayyankali, dressed in clothing traditionally associated with upper-caste people,{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=67|ps=}} and defied the social conventions that applied to oppressed people by riding on a road in a [[bullock cart]] he had bought. Both the act of purchase and that of travelling on a road that was traditionally the domain of the upper castes were daring acts. In a similar act of defiance, he entered the marketplace at [[Nedumangad]]. These protests, which have been described by Nisar and Kanadasamy as "laying claim to the public space", strengthened the resolve of others from oppressed communities of Travancore to shake off the shackles of social oppression, leading to further acts of protest elsewhere, such as in [[Kazhakkoottam]].{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|pp=66-68|ps=}} The outcome of the continued protest marches, which sometimes turned violent, became known as [[Chaliyar riots]].{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=67|ps=}} By 1900, the Pulayars had gained the right to use most roads in the state, although they were still barred from roads that led to Hindu temples.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=97|ps=}}


Later, in 1904, Ayyankali was inspired on hearing a speech given by the reformist [[Ayyavu Swamikal]]. This Hindu [[sanyasi]] had been preaching the need to break down caste divisions because he thought that doing so would limit the number of people who were converting from Hinduism to [[Christianity in India|Christianity]].{{efn|The number of conversions to Christianity had burgeoned after 1860, when the influence of Christian missionaries as a route to achieve social change became apparent to the oppressed populace.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|p=104|ps=}}}} A branch of Swamikal's Brahma Nishta Matam organisation was established in that year by Ayyankali and some friends in Venganoor. Ayyankali also drew inspiration from the activities of [[Narayana Guru]], a contemporary social reformer from the [[Ezhava]] caste, although the two men differed in their philosophy and the means of turning it into reality.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=69|ps=}} Narayana Guru had attempted to forge an alliance between the Ezhavas and untouchable communities such as the Pulayars but there had been violent opposition to the idea from his brethren and the Pulayars remained voiceless until the emergence of Ayyankali.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=97|ps=}}{{efn|The Ezhava and Pulayar communities did ally occasionally on later occasions, one of which was the [[Vaikom Satyagraha|campaign to gain access to the temple at Vaikom]].{{sfnp|Thachil|2014|p=190|ps=}}}}
Later, in 1904, Ayyankali was inspired by the speech of the reformist [[Ayyavu Swamikal]]. He had been preaching the need to break caste divisions because he thought that doing so would limit the number of people who were converting from Hinduism to [[Christianity in India|Christianity]].{{efn|The number of conversions to Christianity had burgeoned after 1860, when the influence of Christian missionaries as a route to achieving social change became apparent to the oppressed population.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|p=104|ps=}}}} A branch of Swamikal's Brahma Nishta Matam, an organisation, was established in that year by Ayyankali and some friends in Venganoor. Ayyankali also drew inspiration from the activities of [[Narayana Guru]], a contemporary social reformer from the [[Ezhava]] caste, although the two men differed in their philosophies and the means of turning it into reality.{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=69|ps=}} The Ezhava and Pulayar communities did occasionally ally with each other, one of which was the [[Vaikom Satyagraha|campaign to gain access to the Hindu temple in Vaikom]].{{sfnp|Thachil|2014|p=190|ps=}}


===Education===
===Education===
[[File:Ayyankali statue in kollam.jpg|thumb|Statue of Ayyankali in [[Kollam]]]]
[[File:Ayyankali statue in kollam.jpg|thumb|Statue of Ayyankali in [[Kollam]]]]
Ayyankali also sought to improve access to education. Some Pulayars had access from around the mid-nineteenth century, mostly through the activities of the [[Colonial Missionary Society]] and [[London Missionary Society]].{{efn|The London Missionary Society established the Pulaya Charity School in Thiruvananthapuram in 1861, and similar schools were developed across the region.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}}}} Conversion to Christianity was a prerequisite for attendance at such schools, and there were cases where Pulayars offered to contribute to the cost of supplying teachers for them.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}} However, Ayyankali, who was illiterate,{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=263|ps=}} believed that education should be available to all children and this meant that government schools should allow access to untouchables.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}}
Ayyankali also sought to improve access to education for the oppressed classes. A few Pulayars had gained access to schools set up by the [[Colonial Missionary Society]] and the [[London Missionary Society]] from around the mid-nineteenth century.{{efn|The London Missionary Society established the Pulaya Charity School in Thiruvananthapuram in 1861, and similar schools were built across the region.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}}}} Conversion to Christianity was a prerequisite for attendance at such schools, and there were cases where Pulayars offered to contribute to the cost of supplying teachers for them.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}} However, Ayyankali, who was illiterate,{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=263|ps=}} believed that education should be available to all children and this meant that government schools should allow access to untouchables.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}}


The government was already attempting to modernise its approach to social welfare. Several public schools had been opened to untouchable communities after 1895 but the right to primary education was limited in scope.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}} State funding of education became effective in 1904{{sfnp|Houtart|Lemercinier|1978|ps=}} but even after the government ordered schools to admit these untouchable people in 1907, local officials found ways to refuse it.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}} In that year, helped by the experience gained from organising the Brahma Nishta Mattam,{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=68|ps=}} Ayyankali founded the [[Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham]] (SJPS) (Association for the Protection of the Poor) which campaigned for access to schools and raised funds to set up Pulayar-operated schools in the interim.{{sfnp|Thachil|2014|p=190|ps=}} This attracted support from both Hindus and Christians.{{sfnp|Mohan|2013|p=231|ps=}}{{efn|Sources vary regarding whether Ayyankali or Krishnathi Asan later founded the All-[[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] Pulaya Maha Sabha (Pulaya Great Assembly) in 1913.{{sfnp|Thachil|2014|p=190|ps=}}{{sfnp|Houtart|Lemercinier|1978|ps=}}}}
The government was already attempting to modernize its approach to social welfare. Several public schools were opened for "untouchable" communities after 1895 but the right to primary education was limited in scope.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}} State funding of education became effective in 1904{{sfnp|Houtart|Lemercinier|1978|ps=}} but even after the government ordered schools to admit children "untouchable" castes in 1907, local officials found ways to refuse it.{{sfnp|Padmanabhan|2010|pp=104-106|ps=}} In that year, helped by the experience gained from organizing the Brahma Nishta Mattam,{{sfnp|Nisar|Kandasamy|2007|p=68|ps=}} Ayyankali founded the [[Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham]] (SJPS) (Association for the Protection of the Poor) which campaigned for access to schools and raised funds to set up Pulayar-operated schools in the interim.{{sfnp|Thachil|2014|p=190|ps=}} This attracted support from both Hindus and Christians.{{sfnp|Mohan|2013|p=231|ps=}}{{efn|Sources vary regarding whether Ayyankali or Krishnathi Asan later founded the All-[[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] Pulaya Maha Sabha (Pulaya Great Assembly) in 1913.{{sfnp|Thachil|2014|p=190|ps=}}{{sfnp|Houtart|Lemercinier|1978|ps=}}}}


An attempt by Ayyankali to enrol a Pulayar girl in a government school led to violent acts perpetrated by upper castes against the community and eventually to the burning-down of the school building in the village of [[Ooruttambalam]]. His response was to organise what may have been the first [[strike action]] by agricultural workers in the region, who withdrew their labour from the fields that were owned by the upper castes until the government acceded to a complete removal of restrictions on education.{{sfnp|Ramachandran|2000|pp=103-106|ps=}}{{efn|The date of this strike is disputed. Some sources say it occurred in 1915 but others say 1907-08.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=97|ps=}}}}
An attempt by Ayyankali to enroll a Pulayar girl in a government school led to violent acts perpetrated by upper castes against the community and eventually to the burning down of the school building in the village of [[Ooruttambalam]]. His response was an organized strike of agricultural labor, a first [[strike action]] by oppressed agricultural laborers of the region. They withdrew from the paddy fields owned by the upper castes until the government acceded to their demand for removing restrictions based on caste to education.{{sfnp|Ramachandran|2000|pp=103-106|ps=}}{{efn|The date of this strike is disputed. Some sources say it occurred in 1915 but others say 1907-08.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|p=97|ps=}}}}


Ayyankali was also central to the success of the Pulayan challenge against the traditional stricture that prohibited female members of the community from clothing their upper body when in public. Caste Hindus had insisted that the custom was necessary to distinguish the lowly status of untouchable people but during the 19th century their belief had come under increasing attack from various untouchable groups and from Christian missionaries. The [[Channar revolt]], through which the [[Nadar (caste)|Nadar]] community were able to overturn the practice in so far as it affected themselves, had happened not long before Ayyankali's birth but the Pulayars remained affected by the discriminatory code until 1915–16.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|pp=85-86|ps=}}
Ayyankali was also central to the success of the Pulaya challenge against the traditional strictures that prohibited females of the community from covering their upper body in the public. The upper caste Hindus had insisted the custom was necessary to distinguish the untouchable people{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}. During the 19th century, this belief came under increasing attack from various untouchable groups and Christian missionaries. The [[Channar revolt]] helped the [[Nadar (caste)|Nadar]] people to not follow the practice before Ayyankali's birth. However, this revolt did not do anything for the Pulaya self-dignity to cover themselves until 1915–16.{{sfnp|Mendelsohn|Vicziany|1998|pp=85-86|ps=}}


===Representation===
===Representation===
Ayyankali later became a member of the assembly of Travancore, known as the [[Sree Moolam Popular Assembly]] (SMPA) or Praja Sabha.{{sfnp|Houtart|Lemercinier|1978|ps=}}
Ayyankali later became a member of the assembly of Travancore, known as the [[Sree Moolam Popular Assembly]] (SMPA) or Praja Sabha.{{sfnp|Houtart|Lemercinier|1978|ps=}}


==Contribution and influence in society==
==Public acceptance, honors and veneration==
The historian P. Sanal Mohan has described Ayyankali as "the most important Dalit leader of modern Kerala".{{sfnp|Mohan|2013|p=249|ps=}}He is also known as the Kerala [[Spartacus ]]. The anniversary of Ayyankali's birth has been celebrated by his descendants and by special interest groups.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/09/02/stories/0402404y.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125090414/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/09/02/stories/0402404y.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=25 January 2013 |title=Tributes paid to Ayyankali |date=2 September 2001 |work=The Hindu |access-date=2014-12-03}}</ref>
In 2002, Ayyanakali was commemorated on an [[India Post|Indian]] postage stamp.


== See Also(Social reformers of Kerala) ==
The historian P. Sanal Mohan has described Ayyankali as "the most important leader of modern Kerala".{{sfnp|Mohan|2013|p=249|ps=}} He is also known as the [[Kerala]] [[Spartacus]]. The anniversary of Ayyankali's birth has been celebrated by his descendants and by special interest groups.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/09/02/stories/0402404y.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125090414/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/09/02/stories/0402404y.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=25 January 2013 |title=Tributes paid to Ayyankali |date=2 September 2001 |work=The Hindu |access-date=2014-12-03}}</ref>


== See also ==
* [[Narayana Guru|Sree Narayana Guru]]
* [[Chattampi Swamikal]]
* [[Chattampi Swamikal]]
* [[Narayana Guru|Sree Narayana Guru]]
* [[Padmanabhan Palpu|Dr. Palpu]]
* [[Padmanabhan Palpu|Dr. Palpu]]
* [[Kumaran Asan|Kumaranasan]]
* [[Kumaran Asan|Kumaranasan]]
Line 61: Line 64:
* [[Ayya Vaikundar]]
* [[Ayya Vaikundar]]
* [[Pandit Karuppan]]
* [[Pandit Karuppan]]
* [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara]]


==References==
==References==
'''Notes'''
=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}
{{notelist}}
'''Citations'''
 
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
'''Bibliography'''
 
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |title=Socio-Religious Movements in Kerala: A Reaction to the Capitalist Mode of Production: Part One |first1=Francois |last1=Houtart |first2=Genevieve |last2=Lemercinier |journal=Social Scientist |volume=6 |issue=11 |date=June 1978  |doi=10.2307/3516609 |jstor=3516609 }}
*{{citation |title=Socio-Religious Movements in Kerala: A Reaction to the Capitalist Mode of Production: Part One |first1=Francois |last1=Houtart |first2=Genevieve |last2=Lemercinier |journal=Social Scientist |volume=6 |issue=11 |date=June 1978  |pages=3–34 |doi=10.2307/3516609 |jstor=3516609 }}
*{{citation |title=The Decline of Nayar Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847–1908 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |year=1976 |publisher=Sussex University Press |isbn=0-85621-054-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/declineofnayardo0000jeff }}
*{{citation |title=The Decline of Nayar Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847–1908 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |year=1976 |publisher=Sussex University Press |isbn=0-85621-054-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/declineofnayardo0000jeff }}
*{{citation |title=The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India |first1=Oliver |last1=Mendelsohn |first2=Marika |last2=Vicziany |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-52155-671-2}}
*{{citation |title=The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India |first1=Oliver |last1=Mendelsohn |first2=Marika |last2=Vicziany |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-52155-671-2}}
Line 75: Line 81:
*{{citation |title=Ayyankali&nbsp;— Dalit Leader of Organic Protest |first1=M. |last1=Nisar |first2=Meena |last2=Kandasamy |author-link2=Meena Kandasamy |publisher=Other Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8-19038-876-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jAIR983RvW4C}}
*{{citation |title=Ayyankali&nbsp;— Dalit Leader of Organic Protest |first1=M. |last1=Nisar |first2=Meena |last2=Kandasamy |author-link2=Meena Kandasamy |publisher=Other Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8-19038-876-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jAIR983RvW4C}}
*{{citation |title=Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1982 |chapter=Kerala's identity: unity and diversity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |author-link=Thomas Nossiter}}
*{{citation |title=Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1982 |chapter=Kerala's identity: unity and diversity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |author-link=Thomas Nossiter}}
*{{citation |title=Civil Society: Religion, Caste and Language in India |first=T. K. |last=Oommen |journal=Sociological Bulletin |volume=50 |issue=2 |date=September 2001  |pages=219–235 |jstor=23619840 }}
*{{citation |title=Civil Society: Religion, Caste and Language in India |first=T. K. |last=Oommen |journal=Sociological Bulletin |volume=50 |issue=2 |date=September 2001  |pages=219–235 |doi=10.1177/0038022920010204 |jstor=23619840 |s2cid=152165092 }}
*{{citation |chapter=Learning to Learn: Dalit Education in Kerala |first=Roshni |last=Padmanabhan |title=Development, Democracy and the State: Critiquing the Kerala Model of Development |editor-first=K. Ravi |editor-last=Raman |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-13515-006-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGiMAgAAQBAJ}}
*{{citation |chapter=Learning to Learn: Dalit Education in Kerala |first=Roshni |last=Padmanabhan |title=Development, Democracy and the State: Critiquing the Kerala Model of Development |editor-first=K. Ravi |editor-last=Raman |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-13515-006-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGiMAgAAQBAJ}}
*{{citation |chapter=Kerala's Development Achievement and their Replicability |first=V. K. |last=Ramachandran |title=Kerala: the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability |editor-first=Govinda |editor-last=Parayil |publisher=Zed Books |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85649-727-5}}
*{{citation |chapter=Kerala's Development Achievement and their Replicability |first=V. K. |last=Ramachandran |title=Kerala: the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability |editor-first=Govinda |editor-last=Parayil |publisher=Zed Books |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85649-727-5}}
Line 81: Line 87:
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


* KM Seethi,”Mahatma Ayyankali: Trailblazer of Dalit Emanicipation", EurasiaReview, https://www.eurasiareview.com/29112021-mahatma-ayyankali-trailblazer-of-dalit-emancipation/
==External links==
{{commons category|Ayyankali}}
{{commons category|Ayyankali}}


Line 88: Line 97:


{{DEFAULTSORT:Ayyankali}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ayyankali}}
[[Category:Indian caste leaders]]
[[Category:Indian anti-caste leaders]]
[[Category:1863 births]]
[[Category:1863 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
Line 95: Line 104:
[[Category:Members of the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly]]
[[Category:Members of the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly]]
[[Category:Indian social reformers]]
[[Category:Indian social reformers]]
[[Category:People of the Kingdom of Travancore]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Travancore]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian scholars]]

Latest revision as of 21:53, 19 February 2026


Mahatma

Ayyankali
Ayyankali c. 1901 – c. 1908
Born(1863-08-28)28 August 1863
Venganoor, Kingdom of Travancore
(present day Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India)
Died18 June 1941(1941-06-18) (aged 77)
Trivandrum, Kingdom of Travancore, British India
(present day Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India)
Spouse(s)
Chellamma
(
m. 1888)
[1]

Ayyankali (28 August 1863 – 18 June 1941) was an Indian social reformer, educator, economist, lawmaker, and revolutionary leader. He worked for the advancement of oppressed people in the princely state of Travancore. His struggles resulted in many changes that improved the socio-political structure of Kerala. His determined and relentless efforts transformed the lives of Dalits. He is known as the King of Pulaya.

Background[edit | edit source]

Ayyankali was born on 28 August 1863 in Venganoor, Thiruvananthapuram, Travancore. He was the first of eight children born to Ayyan and Mala, who were members of the Pulayar community. The family led a marginally better life compared to other Pulayars as they were given 5 acres (2.0 ha) of land by the landlord with whom Ayyan was an "Adiyalan" (slave) spending all his time serving the Janmi or Zamindar (feudal landlord).[2] Members of the Pulayar community generally worked as bonded labor for the Janmis during this time and did not have the right to own land or even enter temples to pray.[3]

The region in which Ayyankali lived, which now forms part of the state of Kerala, was particularly affected by social divisions during his lifetime and was described as a "mad house" of castes.[4] The Pulayars were regarded as the slaves of the agrarian society in the kingdom[5] and they suffered greatly from oppressive discrimination, particularly from the landowning castes including the Nair caste.[6]

Suffering from this social injustice caused Ayyankali to join his Pulayar friends who gathered at the end of their workday to sing and dance to folk music that protested the situation.

Some joined him in forming a group that challenged the members of the oppressor castes sometimes leading to physical fights. His popularity earned him the names of Urpillai and Moothapullai translated roughly as 'Leader of the Land' or 'Elder Leader'.[6]

Ayyankali married Chellamma in 1888. The couple had seven children.[1]

Campaigning[edit | edit source]

Freedom of movement[edit | edit source]

In 1893, Ayyankali, dressed in clothing traditionally associated with upper-caste people,[7] and defied the social conventions that applied to oppressed people by riding on a road in a bullock cart he had bought. Both the act of purchase and that of travelling on a road that was traditionally the domain of the upper castes were daring acts. In a similar act of defiance, he entered the marketplace at Nedumangad. These protests, which have been described by Nisar and Kanadasamy as "laying claim to the public space", strengthened the resolve of others from oppressed communities of Travancore to shake off the shackles of social oppression, leading to further acts of protest elsewhere, such as in Kazhakkoottam.[8] The outcome of the continued protest marches, which sometimes turned violent, became known as Chaliyar riots.[7] By 1900, the Pulayars had gained the right to use most roads in the state, although they were still barred from roads that led to Hindu temples.[9]

Later, in 1904, Ayyankali was inspired by the speech of the reformist Ayyavu Swamikal. He had been preaching the need to break caste divisions because he thought that doing so would limit the number of people who were converting from Hinduism to Christianity.[lower-alpha 1] A branch of Swamikal's Brahma Nishta Matam, an organisation, was established in that year by Ayyankali and some friends in Venganoor. Ayyankali also drew inspiration from the activities of Narayana Guru, a contemporary social reformer from the Ezhava caste, although the two men differed in their philosophies and the means of turning it into reality.[11] The Ezhava and Pulayar communities did occasionally ally with each other, one of which was the campaign to gain access to the Hindu temple in Vaikom.[12]

Education[edit | edit source]

Statue of Ayyankali in Kollam

Ayyankali also sought to improve access to education for the oppressed classes. A few Pulayars had gained access to schools set up by the Colonial Missionary Society and the London Missionary Society from around the mid-nineteenth century.[lower-alpha 2] Conversion to Christianity was a prerequisite for attendance at such schools, and there were cases where Pulayars offered to contribute to the cost of supplying teachers for them.[13] However, Ayyankali, who was illiterate,[14] believed that education should be available to all children and this meant that government schools should allow access to untouchables.[13]

The government was already attempting to modernize its approach to social welfare. Several public schools were opened for "untouchable" communities after 1895 but the right to primary education was limited in scope.[13] State funding of education became effective in 1904[15] but even after the government ordered schools to admit children "untouchable" castes in 1907, local officials found ways to refuse it.[13] In that year, helped by the experience gained from organizing the Brahma Nishta Mattam,[16] Ayyankali founded the Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham (SJPS) (Association for the Protection of the Poor) which campaigned for access to schools and raised funds to set up Pulayar-operated schools in the interim.[12] This attracted support from both Hindus and Christians.[17][lower-alpha 3]

An attempt by Ayyankali to enroll a Pulayar girl in a government school led to violent acts perpetrated by upper castes against the community and eventually to the burning down of the school building in the village of Ooruttambalam. His response was an organized strike of agricultural labor, a first strike action by oppressed agricultural laborers of the region. They withdrew from the paddy fields owned by the upper castes until the government acceded to their demand for removing restrictions based on caste to education.[18][lower-alpha 4]

Ayyankali was also central to the success of the Pulaya challenge against the traditional strictures that prohibited females of the community from covering their upper body in the public. The upper caste Hindus had insisted the custom was necessary to distinguish the untouchable people[citation needed]. During the 19th century, this belief came under increasing attack from various untouchable groups and Christian missionaries. The Channar revolt helped the Nadar people to not follow the practice before Ayyankali's birth. However, this revolt did not do anything for the Pulaya self-dignity to cover themselves until 1915–16.[19]

Representation[edit | edit source]

Ayyankali later became a member of the assembly of Travancore, known as the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly (SMPA) or Praja Sabha.[15]

Public acceptance, honors and veneration[edit | edit source]

In 2002, Ayyanakali was commemorated on an Indian postage stamp.

The historian P. Sanal Mohan has described Ayyankali as "the most important leader of modern Kerala".[20] He is also known as the Kerala Spartacus. The anniversary of Ayyankali's birth has been celebrated by his descendants and by special interest groups.[21]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ The number of conversions to Christianity had burgeoned after 1860, when the influence of Christian missionaries as a route to achieving social change became apparent to the oppressed population.[10]
  2. ↑ The London Missionary Society established the Pulaya Charity School in Thiruvananthapuram in 1861, and similar schools were built across the region.[13]
  3. ↑ Sources vary regarding whether Ayyankali or Krishnathi Asan later founded the All-Cochin Pulaya Maha Sabha (Pulaya Great Assembly) in 1913.[12][15]
  4. ↑ The date of this strike is disputed. Some sources say it occurred in 1915 but others say 1907-08.[9]

Citations[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), p. 65
  2. ↑ Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), pp. 64-65
  3. ↑ Oommen (2001)
  4. ↑ Nossiter (1982), pp. 25-27
  5. ↑ Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998), p. 86
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), pp. 65-66
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), p. 67
  8. ↑ Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), pp. 66-68
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998), p. 97
  10. ↑ Padmanabhan (2010), p. 104
  11. ↑ Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), p. 69
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Thachil (2014), p. 190
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Padmanabhan (2010), pp. 104-106
  14. ↑ Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998), p. 263
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Houtart & Lemercinier (1978)
  16. ↑ Nisar & Kandasamy (2007), p. 68
  17. ↑ Mohan (2013), p. 231
  18. ↑ Ramachandran (2000), pp. 103-106
  19. ↑ Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998), pp. 85-86
  20. ↑ Mohan (2013), p. 249
  21. ↑ "Tributes paid to Ayyankali". The Hindu. 2 September 2001. Retrieved 3 December 2014.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

External links[edit | edit source]

Retrieved from "https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ayyankali&oldid=454165"
Discover more